The Lamian War , or the Hellenic War , (323–322 BC) was an unsuccessful attempt by Athens and a large coalition of Greek states to end the hegemony of Macedonia over Greece just after the death of Alexander the Great . It was the last time Athens played a significant role as an independent power.
117-797: War was simmering in Greece after Alexander the Great issued the Exiles' Decree (in 324 BC), which ordered the Greek states to return all the people they had forced into exile. This decree meant that Athens had to surrender the island of Samos , colonised by Athenian clerurchs since 365 BC, while the Aetolian League had to leave Oiniadai , taken c.330 BC. Once the death of Alexander became known in June 323 BC, most states in mainland Greece revolted and founded
234-576: A magnitude 7.0 earthquake struck offshore near the island, triggering a tsunami. The earthquake and tsunami resulted in two deaths and several injured in Samos, and 117 deaths and 1632 injured in Turkey. The earthquake also caused damage to a number of buildings in Vathy, Karlovasi, and their vicinities; these included residential buildings, public buildings (schools, halls, etc.), religious buildings (churches),
351-810: A base for the Egyptian fleet of the Ptolemies ; at other periods, it recognized the overlordship of Seleucid Syria. In 189 BC, it was transferred by the Romans to their vassal, the Attalid dynasty's Hellenistic kingdom of Pergamon , in Asia Minor . Enrolled from 133 in the Roman province of Asia Minor, Samos sided with Aristonicus (132) and Mithridates (88) against its overlord, and consequently forfeited its autonomy, which it only temporarily recovered between
468-608: A distinct province. Locally, the Ottoman authorities were represented by a voevoda , who was in charge of the fiscal administration, the kadi (judge), the island's Orthodox bishop and four notables representing the four districts of the island ( Vathy , Chora , Karlovasi and Marathokampos ). Ottoman rule was interrupted during the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774 , when the island came under Russian control in 1771–1774. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca that concluded
585-473: A hot-summer Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification : Csa ), with mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers. The highest temperature ever recorded is 43.0 °C (109.4 °F) while the lowest is −3.4 °C (25.9 °F). July is the hottest and driest month followed by August while February is the coldest month and December records the highest amount of precipitation. Samos receives about 705 millimetres (27.8 in) of rainfall annually while
702-649: A length of over 1 km (0.6 mi), Eupalinos's subterranean aqueduct is today regarded as one of the masterpieces of ancient engineering. The aqueduct is now part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site , the Pythagoreion . After Polycrates's death, Samos suffered a severe blow when the Persian Achaemenid Empire conquered and partly depopulated the island. It had regained much of its power when in 499 BC it joined
819-670: A man of letters. Therefore, Hieronumus would have only popularised a term that already existed. In 338 BC, the Macedonian king Philip II defeated a coalition of Greek states led by Thebes and Athens at the battle of Chaeronea . He then forced the Greeks into an hegemonic alliance called the League of Corinth in order to secure his back while he started a war of conquest against the Persian empire , but resentment remained high among
936-515: A number of treatises on literary and artistic subjects. Parts of eight of Duris's works survive, ranging from 33 fragments of his Histories to a single, small fragment from his On Sculpture . A full listing is: Of those later authors who knew Duris's work, few praise it. Cicero accords him qualified praise as an industrious writer. Plutarch used his work but repeatedly expresses doubt as to his trustworthiness. Dionysius of Halicarnassus speaks disparagingly of his style. Photius regards
1053-693: A number that still outnumbered the available Macedonian fleet in the Aegean Sea. Initially, Antipater could only rely on the 110 ships that had escorted the treasure Alexander sent with Harpalus. However, in 322 BC, the situation was reversed with the decisive arrival of the Macedonian admiral Cleitus the White , at the head of a large navy of 240 ships. These ships came from a navy of 1,000 vessels commissioned by Alexander before he died. Although Alexander's grandiose plans were abandoned after his death, some of
1170-576: A population of some 10,000 in the 17th century, which was still concentrated mostly in the interior. It was not until the mid-18th century that the coast began to be densely settled as well. Under Ottoman rule, Samos ( Ottoman Turkish : سيسام Sisam ) came under the administration of the Kapudan Pasha ' s Eyalet of the Archipelago , usually as part of the Sanjak of Rhodes rather than as
1287-561: A portion of the Byzantine Empire , Samos became part of the namesake theme . After the 13th century, it passed through much the same changes of government as Chios , and, like the latter island, became the property of the Genoese family Giustiniani (1346–1566; 1475 interrupted by an Ottoman period). It was also ruled by Tzachas between 1081–1091. Samos came under Ottoman rule in 1475 or c. 1479 /80, at which time
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#17327647954031404-559: A result has a negative tone towards the Greeks and their attempt to recover their freedom. Moreover, Hieronymus wrote his book after the Chremonidean War (267–261), another unsuccessful revolt of the Greeks against Macedonia, and likewise wished to avoid any reminder of the Persian Wars. This theory was first made by N. G. Ashton in 1984 and has found general acceptance since. However, in 2011, John Walsh has suggested that
1521-412: A tunnel through Mount Kastro to build an aqueduct to supply the ancient capital of Samos with fresh water, as this was of the utmost defensive importance (since being underground, it was not easily detected by an enemy who could otherwise cut off the supply). Eupalinos's tunnel is particularly notable because it is the second earliest tunnel in history to be dug from both ends in a methodical manner. With
1638-500: A very large army of 40,000 soldiers, 3,000 archers and slingers, and 5,000 cavalry, which was much bigger than the 25,000 hoplites and 3,500 horses of Antiphilus. The final battle took place at Crannon on 6 August 322 BC. Although the Thessalian cavalry had the upper hand in the horse battle, the Greek infantry was pushed back and disengaged. Casualties were limited, with 500 dead for the Greeks (including 200 Athenians) and 130 for
1755-472: A while. There was a school of sculptors and architects that included Rhoecus , the architect of the Temple of Hera (Olympia) , and the great sculptor and inventor Theodorus , who is said to have invented with Rhoecus the art of casting statues in bronze . The vases of Samos were among the most characteristic products of Ionian pottery in the 6th century. For some time (about 275–270 BC), Samos served as
1872-399: Is 43 km (27 mi) long and 13 km (8 mi) wide. It is separated from Anatolia by the approximately 1-mile-wide (1.6 km) Mycale Strait . While largely mountainous, Samos has several relatively large and fertile plains. A great portion of the island is covered with vineyards , from which Muscat wine is made. The most important plains other than the capital, Vathy , in
1989-571: Is a Greek island in the eastern Aegean Sea , south of Chios , north of Patmos and the Dodecanese archipelago, and off the coast of western Turkey , from which it is separated by the 1.6-kilometre-wide (1.0 mi) Mycale Strait . It is also a separate regional unit of the North Aegean region. In ancient times , Samos was an especially rich and powerful city-state , particularly known for its vineyards and wine production. It
2106-636: Is dated from 27 October, while that with Sicyon is from 23 December. It showed that Athens' diplomatic effort continued over several months after the beginning of the war. Sparta refused to join, mainly because of their losses during the War of Agis III, but also because the war was led by Athens, which had refused to support Agis. In addition, Sparta did not want to join an alliance that counted its traditional enemies Argos and Messenia. Several leading Spartans were also held hostages by Macedonia in Asia. Kleonai rejected
2223-649: Is home to Pythagoreion and the Heraion of Samos , a UNESCO World Heritage Site that includes the Eupalinian aqueduct , a marvel of ancient engineering. Samos is the birthplace of the Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras , after whom the Pythagorean theorem is named, the philosophers Melissus of Samos and Epicurus , and the astronomer Aristarchus of Samos , the first known individual to propose that
2340-534: Is lost; over thirty fragments are known through quotations by other authors, including Plutarch . It was continued in the Histories of Phylarchus . Other works by Duris included a life of Agathocles of Syracuse , which was a source for books 19-21 of the Historical Library of Diodorus Siculus . Duris also wrote historical annals of Samos arranged according to the lists of the priests of Hera ; and
2457-523: Is no evidence for this claim other than a conjectural emendation by Adamantios Korais of the text of the Deipnosophistae of Athenaeus . The emendation was published by J. Schweighäuser in 1802 and has been accepted by all subsequent editors of Athenaeus. The manuscript text says not that Duris studied under Theophrastus, but that his brother Lynceus and Lynceus's correspondent Hippolochus did so. The only recorded fact about Duris's public life
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#17327647954032574-414: Is that he was tyrant, or sole ruler, of Samos. How he attained this position, for how long he held it, and what events took place under his rule, are unknown. "His reign was uneventful", Hazel guesses. Duris was the author of a narrative history of events in Greece and Macedonia from the battle of Leuctra (371 BC) down to the death of Lysimachus (281 BC). This work, like all his others,
2691-570: Is the larger of the two and occupies the centre of the island, rising to 1,095 metres (3,593 ft). Mt. Kerkis, though smaller in area, is the taller of the two, and its summit is the island's highest point, at 1,434 metres (4,705 ft). The mountains are a continuation of the Mycale range on the Anatolian mainland. Samos is home to many species including the golden jackal , stone marten , wild boar , flamingos and monk seal . Samos has
2808-534: Is the main crop used for wine production. Samian wine is also exported under several other appellations. Local specialities: The island is the location of the joint UNESCO World Heritage Sites of the Heraion of Samos and the Pythagoreion which were inscribed in UNESCO's World Heritage list in 1992. Duris of Samos Duris of Samos (or Douris ) ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Δοῦρις ὁ Σάμιος ; c. 350 BC – after 281 BC)
2925-530: The Delian League , Samos held a position of special privilege and remained actively loyal to Athens until 440 BC, when a dispute with Miletus , which the Athenians had decided against them, induced them to secede. With a fleet of sixty ships, they held their own for some time against a large Athenian fleet led by Pericles himself, but after a protracted siege, they were forced to capitulate. Samos
3042-649: The Earth revolves around the Sun . Samian wine was well known in antiquity and is still produced on the island. The island was governed by the semi-autonomous Principality of Samos under Ottoman suzerainty from 1835 until it joined Greece in March 1913. Strabo derived the name from the Phoenician word 𐤔𐤌𐤌 ( smm ) ' high ' . The area of the island is 477.395 km (184.3 sq mi), and it
3159-664: The French Republic ), introduced to Samos the progressive ideas of the Age of Enlightenment and of the French Revolution , and led to the formation of two rival political parties, the progressive-radical Karmanioloi ("Carmagnoles", named after the French Revolutionary song Carmagnole ) and the reactionary Kallikantzaroi (" goblins ") who represented mostly the traditional land-holding elites. Under
3276-685: The Hellespont (now called the Dardanelles), as Athens had to bring corn supplies from the Black Sea through these narrow straights, which shores were controlled by Macedonia. At an unknown date, an Athenian army commanded by Phocion repelled an amphibious Macedonian raid led by Mikion on the town of Rhamnous in Attica. This raid had possibly been launched from Chalcis while the Athenian navy
3393-691: The Odrysian king Seuthes III was at war with Macedonia at the same time, but does not connect this revolt to the Lamian War. In the Peloponnese , Argos , Sicyon , the Acte peninsula including Epidaurus and Troezen , Phlius , Elis , and Messenia joined the Hellenic League. These cities followed Athens at a later date than the northern cities, as the treaty between Athens and Phokis
3510-469: The Peloponnese and the Ionian Islands , as well as the descendants of the original inhabitants who had fled to Chios , were attracted through the concession of certain privileges such as a seven-year tax exemption, a permanent exemption from the tithe in exchange for a lump annual payment of 45,000 piastres , and a considerable autonomy in local affairs. The island recovered gradually, reaching
3627-823: The Aetolian League. For an unknown reason, the Acarnanian city of Alyzeia sided alone with the Hellenic League. Macedonia also had garrisons in the acropoleis of Thebes ( Cadmea ) and Corinth ( Acrocorinth ). The occupation of the Acrocorinth ensured the neutrality of Corinth and also prevented the Peloponnesian states from joining their armies with that of northern states, as it blocked the Isthmus. Ioanna Kralli notes that apart Sicyon, "the Peloponnesian participants demonstrated lack of commitment" during
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3744-530: The Aetolian League. It would explain why the Aetolians suddenly left the siege of Lamia to return home. Grainger supposes it was to hold their elections, but Bosworth suggests that the Aetolians had to defend their territory attacked by the Acarnanians in late 323 BC. The two victories of Cleitus against Euetion apparently resulted in the evacuation of Oiniadai by the Aetolians, because in the next mention in
3861-663: The Allied defeat in the Battle of Leros and a fierce aerial bombardment of Vathy and Tigani, the island was abandoned by most of the ELAS members, the anti-fascist Italians and the Allied troops and taken over by Germans without a fight. The Germans then destroyed the harbours of Karlovasos and Ormos Marathokampos with explosives. On 15 September 1944, an Allied aerial bombardment destroyed the German ship "Aslan" along with three support ships in
3978-609: The Athenian fleet . At the end of the Peloponnesian War, Samos appears as one of the most loyal dependencies of Athens, serving as a base for the naval war against the Peloponnesians and as a temporary home of the Athenian democracy during the revolution of the Four Hundred at Athens (411 BC), and in the last stage of the war was rewarded with the Athenian franchise. This friendly attitude towards Athens
4095-520: The Athenian Demos to distant lands. Nevertheless, the war, in spite of its disastrous result, was a "glorious effort for the recovery of Grecian liberty, undertaken under circumstances which promised a fair chance of success." Samos Samos ( / ˈ s eɪ m ɒ s / , also US : / ˈ s æ m oʊ s , ˈ s ɑː m ɔː s / ; Greek : Σάμος , romanized : Sámos , Greek pronunciation: [ˈsa.mos] )
4212-847: The British military who provided them with material support. In spring 1943, the Cuneo Division launched an unsuccessful, two-month-long counter-insurgency operation in Karvouni. In June 1943, ELAS came into contact with the anti-fascist organisation within the Cuneo Division resulting in an unofficial two-month truce between the two sides. After the Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy on 25 July, Pietro Badoglio replaced division commander Mario Soldarelli with Lieutenant General Pierola and reinforced
4329-572: The Cadmea), near Plataea . This early success won the adhesion of most other states of central Greece. With an army of about 30,000 men, Leosthenes moved to the north and defended the Thermopylae pass , while waiting for the Macedonian response. In order to prevent the revolt from spreading to Thessaly , Antipater moved south with the Macedonian army of 13,000 hoplites and 600 cavalry, while his navy of 110 triremes followed him with supplies along
4446-583: The Euboean city of Styra , which belonged to Eretria . Euboean cities were on the Macedonian side, except Karystos, which northern border was near Styra, and was likely helped by Athens against its neighbour. The goal of the expedition was perhaps to intimidate the Euboean cities, or the price demanded by Karystos for its alliance with Athens. At the start of the war, Athens had a massive navy of more than 410 warships: 360 triremes, 50 quadriremes , and 7 quinqueremes. It could nevertheless only man about 200 ships;
4563-548: The Greek Antiphilus and Menon first wished to negotiate for the entire alliance, but Antipater only wanted to deal with each city individually. He then conquered Thessalian cities one by one, which made all the Greek states apart from Athens and the Aetolians to surrender individually. Greek states thereafter competed with each other to have the best terms possible from Antipater. Once Antipater reached Boeotia, Athens sought for peace. The Athenian delegation to Antipater
4680-461: The Greeks in Thessaly at the battle of Krannon , after which he received the surrender of every city state in central Greece. Faced with the prospect of a naval blockade and a land invasion, Athens capitulated. It had to give up its navy, host a Macedonian garrison on its soil, lose its possessions outside Attica , and even trade its democracy for an oligarchic regime. As a symbol of the event,
4797-498: The Greeks. In 335 Thebes revolted at the news that the new Macedonian king Alexander III had died, but he acted quickly and razed Thebes to the ground . Four years later, the Spartan king Agis III led another war of liberation against Macedonia, which was defeated by Antipater at the battle of Megalopolis . At the same time, a new federal state in central Greece called the Aetolian League took advantage of Agis' revolt to capture
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4914-553: The Hellenic League, recalling the alliance forged during the Persian Wars ; this time with Macedonia in the role of the foreign invader. The Greeks were initially successful under their Athenian commander in chief Leosthenes , who managed to besiege Antipater , the Macedonian general in Europe, in the city of Lamia , which gave its name to the war. At this point however, the arrival of a large Macedonian fleet commanded by Cleitus
5031-431: The Ionian Sea, but some islands in the Malian Gulf off the city of Echinus , not far from Lamia where Antipater was still besieged. In 2001, Brian Bosworth rejected Walek's view, and instead considered that Diodorus must be correct, as the Echinades islands are just off the city of Oiniadai, which was the city captured by the Aetolian League c.330 BC and one of the main causes of the war. Bosworth's theory has since shifted
5148-402: The Italians during World War II. During the course of the Greek Civil War , Samos became one of the biggest centres of DSE resistance outside of the Greek mainland. The last DSE unit surrendered in Kerkis on 26 August 1949, the defeat of the communist resistance was followed by a celebratory visit of the Greek royal family on 15 October 1949. A total of 197 Samiot DSE fighters were killed during
5265-419: The Macedonians, but the outcome was decisive enough to compel the Athenians and their allies to sue for peace. Brian Bosworth suggests that initially, the Macedonian armies commanded by Antipater and Leonnatus were mostly composed of Asian levies and mercenaries. It is only with the arrival of Craterus with his army only made of Macedonians soldiers that the Greeks lost their momentum on land. The generals of
5382-424: The Olympic victor Scaeus must have been the father, not the son, of the historian Duris; hence he is described in at least two encyclopedias as "son of Scaeus". The ancient sources, admittedly meagre, do not support this. Duris was the brother of Lynceus of Samos , author of comedies, letters and the essay Shopping for Food . Many 20th century works state that Duris was a pupil of Theophrastus at Athens. There
5499-466: The Peloponnese, Demosthenes was recalled to Athens during the winter of 323–322 BC. The Hellenic League had much less success in the Aegean Sea , as only Rhodes and Carystus (on the southern tip of Euboea ) answered favourably. The other islanders probably felt more threatened by the imperialism of Athens than that of Macedonia, and were more sympathetic to the cause of Samos, still occupied by Athens. Although Rhodes expelled its Macedonian garrison at
5616-425: The Samos garrison with 1,500 Blackshirts . Pierola then launched another counter-insurgency operation in Kerkis, which resulted in the death of 40 resistance members. Following the Italian surrender in September 1943, the Cuneo Division joined forces with ELAS in arresting local collaborationists and freeing jailed resistance fighters. Samos was briefly taken over by the Sacred Band and British forces, but following
5733-448: The Vathy camp held 6,800 migrants, ten times the number it was originally designed for. The presence of large numbers of migrants on the Greek islands has caused tensions and some civil unrest on the part of island residents and migrants being kept in camps. In 2020, the Greek government announced a new closed reception centre will be built near the village of Zervou to replace the current temporary open camps by 2021. On 30 October 2020,
5850-516: The Vathy harbour. Upon the departure of the Germans, ELAS and a 120-man unit of the Sacred Band forced the remaining 1,000 Blackshirts to surrender; ending the island's occupation on 5 October 1944. Many of the Samiot ELAS members that abandoned the island following its occupation by the Germans, enlisted in the Greek Armed Forces in the Middle East , participated in the communist-led 1944 Greek naval mutiny and were subsequently imprisoned in British prison camps. Approximately 4,500 of them returned to
5967-402: The White from the Levant turned the tide in favour of Macedonia. Even though Athens had more ships than Macedonia, it did not have enough crews to man them all and its overextended navy was defeated off the Echinades island and Amorgos . On land, the Greeks lifted the siege of Lamia with the arrival of Macedonian reinforcements from Asia. At the head of a large merged army, Antipater defeated
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#17327647954036084-410: The alliance with Athens, despite its earlier diplomatic overture during the Nemean Games nearby. Arcadian states remained neutral, likewise because of their losses during the War of Agis. Although the Arcadians were initially pro-Macedonian, it is possible that Demosthenes convinced them to withdraw from their alliance with Macedonia while he was in exile in Troezen. Rewarded for his diplomatic help in
6201-465: The area joined successively in this chronological order: Thessaly except Pelinna , Oetaea except Heraklea , Achaea Phthiotis except Phthiotic Thebes , Malis except Lamia , Doris , Locris , Phokis , Ainis , Alyzeia , Dolopia , Athamania , the island of Leukas in the Ionian Sea , some of the Molossians in Epirus . Alliances were also concluded further north with some Illyrian and Thracian tribes. N. G. L. Hammond also mentions that
6318-474: The arrangement of his work as altogether faulty. By contrast with recent predecessors such as Ephorus, Duris served as the exemplar of a new fashion for "tragic history" which gave entertainment and excitement greater importance than factual reporting. In Plutarch's "Life of Pericles" a telling example is Duris's elaborate (and, according to Plutarch, exaggerated) description of cruelty and extensive destruction at Samos when Athenian forces, led by Pericles, subdued
6435-412: The average annual temperature is 18.4 °C (65.1 °F). Humidity is lowest during the summer and highest at the end of autumn. In classical antiquity, the island was a centre of Ionian culture and luxury, renowned for its Samian wines and its red pottery (called Samian ware by the Romans). Its most famous building was the Ionic order archaic Temple of goddess Hera —the Heraion . Concerning
6552-444: The boys' boxing at the Olympian Games "while the Samians were in exile"; that is, before 324 BC. From 352 to 324 Samos was occupied by Athenian cleruchs who had expelled the native Samians. Duris therefore may well have been born at some date close to 350 BC, and, since his main historical work ended with the death of Lysimachus in 281 BC, must have died at an unknown date after that. Some modern sources assume that
6669-407: The capital was moved to Vathy, at the head of a deep bay on the North coast. This became the residence of the prince and the seat of government. Since then a new town has grown, with a harbour. The island was united with the Kingdom of Greece in March 1913, five months after the outbreak of the First Balkan War . Although other Aegean islands had been quickly captured by the Greek Navy , Samos
6786-463: The city of Oiniadai , which was repopulated with Aetolians. In 324, Alexander completed his conquests in Asia and moved to Mesopotamia , where he proclaimed the Exiles' Decree, which demanded that citizens forced into exile in any Greek city had to be allowed to return to their home. Read at the Olympic Games on 4 August 324 BC before a crowd of 20,000 exiles, the Exiles' Decree caused a lot of tension in Greece, especially in Athens, which had colonised
6903-468: The city of Oropus and the sanctuary of the Amphiareion on its northern border, which had been given by Philip from Thebes in 338 BC after the battle of Chaeronea . Antipater carefully avoided dealing with Samos, and referred the matter to Perdiccas , who de facto controlled the empire after the death of Alexander. Perdiccas nevertheless upheld Alexander's will and demanded Athens to evacuate Samos. The cleruchs of Samos had to return to Athens, among whom
7020-435: The coast. In Thessaly, he recruited about 2,000 cavalry, then advanced towards the Greek army at the Thermopylae. However, the Thessalian cavalry betrayed Antipater and destroyed his Macedonian cavalry in the process. Antipater managed to turn back with his phalanx still intact and entered in Lamia (15km north of the Thermopylae), the only city of the area that had remained faithful to Macedonia. He barricaded there and waited for
7137-429: The course of the civil war. On August 3, 1989, a Short 330 aircraft of the Olympic Airways (now Olympic Airlines ) crashed near Samos Airport ; 31 passengers and the crew died. A substantial migrant camp has been developed on the island at the site of a Greek military camp at Vathy to cope with the influx of migrants crossing the strait between the island and the Turkish mainland. It is estimated that in April 2020
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#17327647954037254-404: The earliest history of Samos, literary tradition is singularly defective. At the time of the great migrations, it received an Ionian population which traced its origin to Epidaurus in Argolis : Samos became one of the twelve members of the Ionian League . By the 7th century BC, it had become one of the leading commercial centres of Greece. This early prosperity of the Samians seems largely due to
7371-468: The famous orator Demosthenes committed suicide to avoid his capture by the Macedonians. Athens never played a leading role again in Greece after the Lamian War. While Antipater was turning his forces west to deal with the Aetolian League, the last member of the Greek alliance still fighting, he was called back to Asia by the beginning of the Wars of the Diadochi between Alexander's generals . The Aetolian League therefore escaped unscathed and appear to be
7488-443: The four districts of the island: Vathy, Chora, Marathokampos, and Karlovasi. The legislative power belonged to a chamber of 36 deputies, presided over by the Greek Orthodox Metropolitan. The seat of the government was the port of Vathý. The modern capital of the island was, until the early 20th century, at Chora, about 2 miles (3.2 km) from the sea and from the site of the ancient city. After reconsidering political conditions,
7605-426: The general revolt of the Ionian city-states against Persia; but owing to its long-standing jealousy of Miletus, it rendered indifferent service, and at the decisive battle of Lade (494 BC), part of its contingent of sixty ships was guilty of outright treachery. In 479BC, the Samians led the revolt against Persia, during the Battle of Mycale, which was part of the offensive by the Delian League (led by Cimon). In
7722-406: The height of its prosperity. Its navy not only protected it from invasion but also ruled supreme in Aegean waters. The city was beautified with public works, and its school of sculptors, metal-workers and engineers achieved high repute. In the 6th century BC, Samos was ruled by the famous tyrant Polycrates . During his reign, two working groups under the leadership of the engineer Eupalinos dug
7839-476: The island after the end of the war. The anti-communist persecutions that came in the aftermath of the Treaty of Varkiza led many former ELAS members to create self-defence militias which gradually evolved into the Samos branch of the Democratic Army of Greece (DSE). The Samiot DSE drew manpower from nearby Icaria which was a notable place of internal exile for Greek communists, it was also able to capture large quantities of weapons and ammunition abandoned by
7956-407: The island became formally incorporated into the Hellenic State under Governor Ioannis Kapodistrias , as part of the province of the Eastern Sporades , but the London Protocol of 1830 excluded Samos from the borders of the independent Greek state. The Samians refused to accept their re-subordination to the Sultan, and Logothetis declared Samos to be an independent state, governed as before under
8073-454: The island of Samos for several decades and did not want to abandon this valuable possession. The Aetolian League was also ordered to withdraw from Oiniadai; Alexander threatened to come in person to punish the Aetolians. Athens was already preparing for war when the news of Alexander's death in June 323 BC became known; war started shortly after, probably in the beginning of September. Two Athenian politicians are known to have advised against
8190-413: The island of Samos became the territory of the Principality of Samos , a semi-independent state tributary to Ottoman Turkey, paying the annual sum of £2,700. It was governed by a Christian of Greek descent though nominated by the Porte, who bore the title of "Prince." The prince was assisted in his function as chief executive by a 4-member senate. These were chosen by him out of eight candidates nominated by
8307-434: The island was occupied by the Italians in May 1941, with the 6th Infantry Division "Cuneo" being stationed on the island. During the winter of 1941–42 Samos was affected by the Great Famine which killed 2,000 Samiots and forced thousands more to flee the island for the Middle East. In December 1942, local communists founded a branch of ELAS resistance organisation, the following month the resistance came into contact with
8424-632: The island was practically abandoned due to the effects of piracy and the plague. The island remained desolate for almost a full century before the Ottoman authorities, by now in secure control of the Aegean, undertook a serious effort to repopulate the island. In 1572/3, the island was granted as a personal domain ( hass ) to Kilic Ali Pasha , the Kapudan Pasha (the Ottoman Navy 's chief admiral). Settlers, including Greeks and Arvanites from
8541-703: The island's position near trade routes, which facilitated the import of textiles from inner Asia Minor, but the Samians also developed an extensive oversea commerce. They helped to open up trade with the population that lived around the Black Sea as well as with Egypt, Cyrene (Libya), Corinth, and Chalcis. Among the colonies the Samians founded, most of them in the sixth century BC, were Bisanthe , Perinthus , and Samothrace (northern Aegean Sea ), Cydonia (Crete), Nagidos and Kelenderis (southern Anatolia ), Dicaearchia (Italy), and Oasis Polis (Egypt). The trade caused them to become bitter rivals with Miletus . Samos
8658-478: The island. At the same reform, the regional unit Samos was created out of part of the former Samos Prefecture . The municipality of East Samos consists of the following municipal units (former municipalities): The municipality of West Samos consists of the following municipal units: Samos has a sister town called Samo , which is located in Calabria , Italy . The province of Samos ( Greek : Επαρχία Σάμου )
8775-554: The leadership of Lykourgos Logothetis , in 1807 the Karmanioloi gained power in the island, introducing liberal and democratic principles and empowering the local popular assembly at the expense of the land-holding notables. Their rule lasted until 1812, when they were overthrown by the Ottoman authorities and their leaders expelled from the island. In March 1821, the Greek War of Independence broke out, and on 18 April, under
8892-506: The leadership of Logothetis and the Karmanioloi , Samos too joined the uprising. In May, a revolutionary government with its own constitution was set up to administer the island, mostly inspired by Logothetis. The Samians successfully repulsed three Ottoman attempts to recapture the island: in summer 1821, in July 1824; when Greek naval victories off Samos and at Gerontas averted the threat of an invasion, and again in summer 1826. In 1828,
9009-567: The main historian of the beginning of the Hellenistic era, who also played a historical role and met many of the generals of Alexander the Great . Plutarch , a Greek moralist who lived at the time of the Flavian emperors and Trajan , is also a good source thanks to his biographies of Demosthenes and Phocion , two leading politicians in Athens at the time. The initial name of the war
9126-547: The majority view towards his explanation of the events. The Macedonian fleet commanded by Cleitus must have passed through the Diolkos to sail that fast to Acarnania. Corinth and the Diolkos had remained firmly under Macedonian control thanks to the very strong fortress of the Acrocorinth nearby. The Macedonian navy was likely supporting a land offensive of the Acarnanians towards Oiniadai in an operation to retake this city from
9243-422: The name Lamian War was first coined by the poet Choerilus of Iasus , who composed an epic named Lamiaka about the war soon after the events. It means that Choerilus had identified the siege of Lamia as the turning point of the war. Walsh notes that such epics became fashionable during the Hellenistic era and that Choerilus might have been a member of the court of Antipater , the Macedonian regent in Europe, also
9360-476: The northeast, are those of Karlovasi , in the northwest, Pythagoreio , in the southeast, and Marathokampos in the southwest. The island's population is 33,814, which makes it the 9th most populous of the Greek islands. The Samian climate is typically Mediterranean, with mild rainy winters, and warm rainless summers. Samos's relief is dominated by two large mountains, Ampelos and Kerkis (anc. Kerketeus). The Ampelos massif (colloquially referred to as "Karvounis")
9477-539: The philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras and the fabulist Aesop . In 1955, the town of Tigani was renamed Pythagoreio in honour of the philosopher. Other notable personalities include the philosophers Melissus of Samos and Epicurus , who were of Samian birth, and the astronomer Aristarchus of Samos , whom history credits with the first recorded heliocentric model of the Solar System . The historian Herodotus , known by his Histories , resided in Samos for
9594-528: The provisions of the 1821 constitution. Finally, due to the pressure of the Great Powers , Samos was declared an autonomous, tributary principality under Ottoman suzerainty . The Samians still refused to accept this decision until an Ottoman fleet enforced it in May 1834, forcing the revolutionary leadership and a part of the population to flee to independent Greece, where they settled near Chalkis . In 1834,
9711-599: The real winner of the war, because Athens bore most of the fight, and the league remained mostly in place. The Aetolian League then became one of the most important states in Greece during the Hellenistic era . The main ancient source on the Lamian War is the Greek historian Diodorus of Sicily , who composed a very large work, the Bibliotheca historica , at the very end of the Roman Republic . The events of
9828-503: The reigns of Augustus and Vespasian . Nevertheless, Samos remained comparatively flourishing and was able to contest with Smyrna and Ephesus the title "first city of lonia"; it was chiefly noted as a health resort and for the manufacture of pottery. Since Emperor Diocletian's Tetrarchy , it became part of the Provincia Insularum, in the diocese of Asiana in the eastern empire's pretorian prefecture of Oriens . As
9945-518: The reinforcements to come from Asia. N. G. L. Hammond called Antipater's decision "brilliant": it forced the Greeks to lay a difficult siege on Lamia as they could not invade Macedonia while letting such a large Macedonian force in their back. Antipater nonetheless suffered the first Macedonian defeat on Greek soil in 30 years, ever since the Third Sacred War . At the same time, the Athenian strategos Phaidros led an expedition that destroyed
10062-421: The right moment to go to war against Macedonia. The life of Leosthenes before the Lamian War has long been debated by scholars, who describe him as having served either Alexander or Darius , then acting as either a private mercenary leader or a strategos (an elected magistrate at Athens). John Walsh also suggests that Leosthenes' achievements were exaggerated by the ancient historian Diodorus of Sicily . Athens
10179-555: The same time as the war, it might not have joined the Hellenic League. Nevertheless, very few states in Greece remained loyal to Macedonia, apart from the Euboean League , still resentful at Athens for its recent interventions in the island, and Boeotia. After the destruction of Thebes in 335 BC, its territory was shared between the other Boeotian cities, which now feared that Athens would restore it. Acarnania still supported Macedonia, because of Oiniadai, which had been taken by
10296-617: The ships had already been built in the Levant. In a short passage, Diodorus Siculus , the main source of the Lamian War, tells that Cleitus the White defeated the Athenian admiral Euetion in two battles off some islands called the Echinades . This passage has been widely discussed among modern scholars. In 1924, T. Walek set the standard view for the rest of the 20th century, that the Echinades islands cannot be those located off Acarnania in
10413-496: The sources, this city was in Acarnanian hands. This side of the conflict prevented the Aetolians from helping the other Greeks against Antipater, as they were missing from the remaining battles of the war. The defeats off the Echinades island had not been decisive, and the Athenians still had several hundreds of ships. However, in the attempt to match the number of Macedonian ships, they overextended their limited amount of rowers, and their ships were undermanned. The Athenian war effort
10530-539: The support of Alexander's mother, Olympias , who disliked Antipater. With such strong and symbolic supports, Leonnatus coveted the Macedonian throne. Leonnatus had an army of 20,000 foot soldiers and 1,500 cavalry. He arrived in Thessaly in early Spring 322 BC, but did not coordinate with Antipater. The new commander of the Greeks Antiphilus lifted the siege of Lamia to fight Leonnatus. The following battle
10647-465: The tens of thousands) returned to Greece before that could happen. They escaped through a fleet raised by an Athenian mercenary named Leosthenes , who brought them to the Greek mainland. Secretly in touch with his native city, Leosthenes kept about 8,000 of these mercenaries with him in Cape Taenarum (a mercenary market on Spartan territory) and carved an alliance with the Aetolians, waiting for
10764-411: The tower of Lykourgos Logothetis, as well as pottery collections and sculptures at some museums. Samos is a separate regional unit of the North Aegean region, and since 2019 it consists of two municipalities : East Samos and West Samos . Between the 2011 Kallikratis government reform and 2019, there was one single municipality on the island: Samos, created out of the 4 former municipalities on
10881-461: The use of the trireme . The result of this conflict was to confirm the supremacy of the Milesians in eastern waters for the time being; but in the 6th century, the insular position of Samos preserved it from those aggressions at the hands of Asiatic kings to which Miletus was henceforth exposed. About 535 BC, when the existing oligarchy was overturned by the tyrant Polycrates , Samos reached
10998-546: The war against Macedonia. Demades carried the subsequent motion in the ecclesia sentencing to death these leaders, of whom the most prominent included Demosthenes, Hypereides , and Eucrates, who were hunted by Macedonian henchmen throughout Greece. Hypereides was murdered in Kleonai on 6 October 322 BC, while Demosthenes committed suicide one week later. Anti-Macedonian leaders suffered from the same fate in other Greek cities, such as Euphron of Sicyon. The constitution of Athens
11115-432: The war are detailed in books 17–18. Modern historians have been very critical of Diodorus, for his careless treatment of chronology, inability to deal with conflicting sources, insertions of his own opinions as facts, omission of entire years of events, etc. Diodorus is nevertheless useful because his work preserves fragments of lost historians. His books dealing with the Lamian War drew extensively on Hieronymus of Cardia ,
11232-473: The war as a result. Once the war became official, Athens sent 50 talents to Leosthenes to pay his mercenaries and the allied Greeks made him "General of the Greeks". From Taenarum, he moved to Aetolia, where he received the command of 7,000 Aetolians, then to Boeotia in order to join his troops with that of Athens, which had sent 5,000 hoplites, 2,000 mercenaries, and 500 cavalry. Leosthenes defeated an army of Boeotians, Euboeans, and Macedonians (the garrison from
11349-607: The war contained clauses that enabled a great expansion of the commercial activities of the Ottoman Empire's Greek Orthodox population. Samian merchants also took advantage of this, and an urban mercantile class based on commerce and shipping began to grow. The Samian merchants' voyages across the Mediterranean, as well as the settlement of Greeks from the Ionian Islands (which in 1797 had passed from Venice to
11466-599: The war: Phocion and Demades , who represented the interests of the landed aristocracy. The latter lost his political rights because of his support of Macedonia, and especially for having sponsored the bill that gave Alexander the Great the status of a god. A friend of Antipater, Aristotle was also condemned on a spurious charge of impiety, and left Athens for Chalcis in Euboea . Before his death, Alexander had wanted to settle his Greek mercenaries in Persis , but many of them (in
11583-498: Was Duris of Samos , who wrote a history book of the period in the 270s, at a time when it was still the common name. The name shift to "Lamian War" happened with Hieronymus of Cardia , who wrote an influential book just a decade after Duris. He was a pro-Macedonian writer who wanted to avoid using the name "Hellenic War" that was too much directed against Macedonia. Hieronymus' Macedonian bias can be retrieved from Diodorus' writings, as he mostly based his account from Hieronymus, and as
11700-529: Was "perhaps in the south of the Pelasgiotid plain". This Greek victory nevertheless allowed Antipater to escape from Lamia while the Greek army had left to fight Leonnatus (whose death suited Antipater as he lost a dangerous rival). Antipater merged his army with that of Leonnatus and that of Craterus, who had just arrived from Cilicia with 10,000 hoplites (including 6,000 veterans), 1,500 cavalry, and 1,000 Persian archers and slingers. Antipater thus commanded
11817-420: Was a Greek historian and was at some period tyrant of Samos . Duris was the author of a narrative history of events in Greece and especially Macedonia from 371 BC to 281 BC, which has been lost. Other works included a life of Agathocles of Syracuse and a number of treatises on literary and artistic subjects. Duris claimed to be a descendant of Alcibiades . He had a son, Scaeus , who won
11934-669: Was able to become so prominent despite the growing power of the Persian empire because of the alliance they had with the Egyptians and their powerful fleet. The Samians are also credited with having been the first Greeks to reach the Straits of Gibraltar. The feud between Miletus and Samos broke out into open strife during the Lelantine War (7th century BC), with which a Samian innovation in Greek naval warfare may be connected,
12051-493: Was able to receive the support of many Greek states, principally in northern and central Greece. These states had likely been approached during the Nemean Games that took place in summer 323, where representatives of most city-states gathered. The Aetolian League was the most natural ally, as its members were equally concerned by the Exiles' Decree. The alliance was possibly concluded in mid-September 323 BC. Other allies from
12168-429: Was altered so that only citizens with properties worth more than 2,000 drachmas retained their political rights. The citizen body therefore decreased from 21,000 to 9,000. This amendment was likely suggested by Demades and Phocion themselves, but opposed by Xenocrates. Upon his return, the latter refused to be granted the Athenian citizenship as he did not want to become part of a regime he rejected. Finally, Athens lost
12285-577: Was away. Antipater remained besieged in Lamia for most of the winter 323–322 BC, but he did not stay inactive. The Macedonian army made sorties, during one of which Leosthenes was killed, perhaps by a slinger. Antipater waited for reinforcement from Lysimachus , the Macedonian commander in Thrace, but he was too facing a revolt from Seuthes, king of the Odrysians. He also requested help from Leonnatus , who
12402-430: Was composed of Demades and Phocion, the two leading politician who had spoken against the war with Macedonia, as well as Xenocrates of Chalcedon , the head of Plato's Academy . Antipater demanded the installation of a Macedonian garrison in the fortress of Munychia in the harbour of Piraeus , which was thus taken on 18 September 322 BC. Antipater also requested the extradition of the Athenian leaders who had pushed for
12519-595: Was in Phrygia , and Craterus in Cilicia , whom Antipater also promised the hand of two of his available daughters; likely Eurydice for Leonnatus and Phila for Craterus. Leonnatus was the first to arrive; he could cross the Hellespont after the Athenian navy was defeated there. His help was not disinterested, as he intended to marry Cleopatra , the sister of Alexander, who had offered herself in marriage to him with
12636-560: Was initially left to its existing status quo out of a desire not to upset the Italians in the nearby Dodecanese . The Greek fleet landed troops on the island in March 1913. The clashes with the Ottoman garrison were short-lived as the Ottomans withdrew to the Anatolian mainland, so that the island was securely in Greek hands by 16 March. King George II visited Samos in 1937 during the 4th of August Regime . During World War II ,
12753-430: Was irrational for Athens to attack the many times more powerful empire of Alexander. He also criticised the Athenians for their arrogance even after their defeat at Crannon. The 19th-century radical politician and historian George Grote considered the outcome of the Lamian War a calamitous tragedy, marking the extinction of an "autonomous Hellenic world". On his account, it extinguished free speech in Greece and dispersed
12870-430: Was notably the young Epicurus . The war was a catastrophe for the economy of Athens. Most building programs were stopped and the marble and metal industries died out in the city, which also suffered from famine at the beginning of the 3rd century. Ancient authors often severely judged the southern Greeks for having started the Lamian War. Although born in Athens, the 3rd century AD historian Dexippus considered that it
12987-524: Was one of the provinces of the Samos Prefecture. It had the same territory as the present regional unit. It was abolished in 2006. The Samian economy depends mainly on agriculture and the tourist industry which was growing steadily since the early 1980s and reached a peak at the end of the 1990s. The main agricultural products include grapes , honey , olives , olive oil , citrus fruit, dried figs , almonds and flowers. The Muscat grape
13104-511: Was only fought between the respective cavalries, of whom the very strong Thessalian cavalry commanded by Menon of Pharsalus (also appointed commander of the Greeks) had the upper hand and even killed Leonnatus, but the Macedonian hoplites could retreat on higher grounds. The location of the battle is not known; Yardley places it was at Melitaea , in the north of Lamia, while Hammond just mentions "the open plain of Thessaly", and Westlake suggests it
13221-561: Was punished, but Thucydides tells readers not as harshly as other states which rebelled against Athens. Most in the past had been forced to pay tribute, but Samos was only told to repay the damages that the rebellion had cost the Athenians: 1,300 talents, to pay back in instalments of 50 talents per annum. During the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), Samos took the side of Athens against Sparta , providing their port to
13338-515: Was recovered by the Athenians in 366 after a siege of eleven months, and received a strong body of military settlers, the cleruchs , which proved vital in the Social War (357-355 BC) . After the Lamian War (322 BC), when Athens was deprived of Samos, the vicissitudes of the island can no longer be followed. Perhaps the most famous persons ever connected with classical Samos were
13455-580: Was still considerable as the sailors must been about 30,000, a number not seen since the invasion of Greece by Xerxes in 480. In the late summer 322 BC, the largest battle of the Lamian war took place off the island of Amorgos in the Cyclades, located not far from Samos, as Cleitus was by now challenging the Athenian hold of this island. Undermanned and outnumbered, the Athenian navy was soundly defeated. Another Athenian defeat might have taken place near
13572-601: Was the Hellenic War, mostly labelled as such in epigraphic material of the end of the 4th century and beginning of the 3rd century. It was chosen by the Greeks in order to recall their victorious war against the Persian Empire in the first half of the 5th century, thus placing Macedonia in the role of Persia. The name of their coalition, the Hellenic League, was chosen for the same reason. In his biography of Phocion, Plutarch writes "Hellenic War", because his source
13689-474: Was the result of a series of political revolutions, which ended in the establishment of a democracy. After the downfall of Athens, Samos was besieged by Lysander and again placed under an oligarchy. In 394 BC, the withdrawal of the Spartan navy induced the island to declare its independence and re-establish a democracy, but by the peace of Antalcidas (387 BC), it fell again under Persian dominion. It
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