Misplaced Pages

#614385

55-435: A language council , also known as a language regulator or a language academy , is an organisation that performs language planning or regulation. Some language councils are national and tied to a specific state, while councils without association to any country where the language is dominant also exist. Some language academies may be presciptivist . The exact functions varies from organisation to organisation and may include

110-614: A subscript version of a katakana symbol that begins with the desired consonant. An example of an original script includes the development of the Armenian script in 405 AD by St. Mesrop Mashtots . Though the script was modeled after the Greek alphabet , it distinguished Armenian from the Greek and Syriac alphabets of the neighboring peoples. Likewise, in the early 19th century, Sequoyah (Cherokee) designed an orthography for Cherokee in

165-572: A Hokkaido government survey on the lives of Ainu people. Participants were believed to be descendants of Ainu people or those who joined Ainu families by marriage or adoption. In response to survey questions about fluency in the Ainu language, 0.7% of participants answered that they "would be able to have a conversation" in Ainu, 3.4% answered that they "would be able to converse a little", 44.6% answered they "could barely converse at all", and 48.1% answered that they "would not be able to converse at all". In

220-432: A change in government planning, but again reinstated in 1996. Even with national intercultural bilingual education programs, teachers at local schools and members of the community often prefer using Spanish, destabilizing support for bilingual education. This underscores the importance of community support as a goal for the education sector as mentioned earlier. Some believe that due to Spanish's higher national prestige, it

275-444: A diverse literacy program gives students diverse perspectives on life, which could only enhance their educational experience. Before 1975, Peru had bilingual education programs, but Quechua was not taught as a subject in primary and secondary schools. After the 1975 education reform, Quechua and Spanish both had standing in bilingual programs, but only in restricted speech communities. These experimental programs were then canceled due to

330-401: A few. For example, if a government chooses to raise the status level of a certain language or change its level of prestige, it can establish a law which requires teachers to teach only in this language or that textbooks are written using only this language's script. This, in turn, would support the elevation of the language's status or could increase its prestige. In this way, acquisition planning

385-431: A language adequately but with no standard spoken form. If one dialect is chosen, it comes to be perceived as supra-dialectal and the 'best' form of the language. Choosing the standard language has important social consequences, as it benefits the speakers whose spoken and written dialect conforms closest to the chosen standard. The chosen standard is generally spoken by the most powerful social group within society, and it

440-400: A language that determine its status. Their respective frameworks differ slightly, but they emphasize four common attributes: William Stewart outlines ten functional domains in language planning: Robert Cooper outlines two additional functional domains (mass media and work) and distinguishes three sub-types of official functions: Corpus planning refers to the prescriptive intervention in

495-437: A language. The use of writing in a speech community can have lasting sociocultural effects, which include easier transmission of material through generations, communication with greater numbers of people, and a standard against which varieties of spoken language are often compared. Linguist Charles A. Ferguson made two key observations about the results of adopting a writing system. First, the use of writing adds another form of

550-510: A new one. The Ainu of Japan chose to adopt the Japanese language 's katakana syllabary as the writing system for the Ainu language . Katakana is designed for a language with a basic CV syllable structure , but Ainu contains many CVC syllables which cannot easily be adapted to this syllabary. Therefore, Ainu uses a modified katakana system, in which syllable-final codas are consonants by

605-541: A provincial language since 1979. Today, Quechua also serves a limited international function throughout South America in Argentina , Bolivia , Brazil , Chile , Colombia , and Ecuador ; communities of Quechua speakers outside Peru enable communication in Quechua across borders. Still, because of Quechua's low status, Spanish is almost always used as the lingua franca instead. Recently, Quechua has also gained ground in

SECTION 10

#1732765556615

660-508: A subsequent survey of 472 respondents in 2023, these figures had shifted to 0.8%, 8.9%, 19.3%, and 69.3% respectively. The Japanese government made a decision to recognize Ainu as an indigenous language in June 2008. The Japanese government approved and passed a bill officially recognising the indigeneity of the Ainu people in 2019. On 12 July 2020, the Japanese government opened

715-479: A syllable in the stem. This will typically fall on the first syllable if that is long (has a final consonant or a diphthong), and will otherwise fall on the second syllable, though there are exceptions to this generalization. Typologically , Ainu is similar in word order (and some aspects of phonology) to Japanese . Ainu has a canonical word order of subject, object, verb , and uses postpositions rather than prepositions . Nouns can cluster to modify one another;

770-591: A three-vowel system was more faithful to the phonology of Quechua. After years of debate and disagreement, in 1985 Quechua linguists proposed the Pan-Quechua alphabet as an accurate representation of the language, and this was adopted in intercultural bilingual education programs and textbooks. However, the Peruvian Academy and the SIL both refused to adopt it and continued to propose new alphabets, leaving

825-549: A unified alphabet reflects the process of standardization. Unlike other cases of standardization, in Quechua this has been applied only to the written language, not to the spoken language, and no attempt was made to change the spoken language of native speakers, which varied by regions. Rather, standardization was needed to produce a uniform writing system to provide education to Quechua speakers in their native language. Language planners in Peru have proposed several varieties to serve as

880-439: Is a corruption of it. Written language is viewed as more conservative, while the spoken form is more susceptible to language change. Isolated relic areas of the spoken language may be less innovative than the written form, or the written language may have been based on a divergent variety of the spoken language. In establishing a writing system for a language, corpus planners have the option of using an existing system or designing

935-622: Is a member of the Ainu language family , itself considered a language family isolate with no academic consensus of origin. It is classified as Critically Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger . Until the 20th century, the Ainu languages – Hokkaido Ainu and the now-extinct Kuril Ainu and Sakhalin Ainu – were spoken throughout Hokkaido, the southern half of the island of Sakhalin and by small numbers of people in

990-421: Is a type of language planning in which a national, state or local government system aims to influence aspects of language, such as language status, distribution and literacy through education. Acquisition planning can also be used by non-governmental organizations, but it is more commonly associated with government planning. Acquisition planning is often integrated into a broader language planning process in which

1045-578: Is an endangered language with few native speakers. Although there are estimated to be at least 30,000 Ainu people in Japan, there is a low rate of self-identification as Ainu among people with Ainu ethnic roots. Knowledge of the language was already endangered by the 1960s and has continued to decline since. In 2011 , just 304 people within Japan were reported to understand the Ainu language to some extent. As of 2016 , Ethnologue listed Ainu as "nearly extinct" (class 8b). In 2017, 671 people participated in

1100-403: Is essential. Therefore, it is important that government goals be organized and planned carefully. There is also growing concern over the treatment of multilingualism in education, especially in many countries which were once colonized. Choosing the language of instruction which would be most beneficial to effective communication on the local and state level requires thoughtful planning, and it

1155-468: Is imposed upon other groups as the form to emulate, making the standard norm necessary for socioeconomic mobility. In practice, standardization generally entails increasing the uniformity of the norm, as well as the codification of the norm. By contrast, English has become standardized without any planning. The process began when William Caxton introduced the printing press in England in 1476. This

SECTION 20

#1732765556615

1210-404: Is in fact mandatory for incorporating oblique nouns. Like incorporation, applicatives have grown less common in the modern language. Ainu has a closed class of plural verbs , and some of these are suppletive . Ainu has a system of verbal affixes (shown below) which mark agreement for person and case. The specific cases that are marked differ by person, with nominative–accusative marking for

1265-415: Is more socially and economically beneficial to learn and speak Spanish. It is debatable whether these education programs will benefit education or raise the status of Quechua. Ainu language Ainu ( アイヌ イタㇰ , aynu itak ), or more precisely Hokkaido Ainu ( Japanese : 北海道アイヌ語 ), is a language spoken by a few elderly members of the Ainu people on the northern Japanese island of Hokkaido . It

1320-426: Is not consistently encouraged in schools. Peru's education system is instead based on Spanish, the nation's official language. Despite its low prestige, Quechua is still spoken by millions of indigenous Peruvians, a great deal of whom are bilingual in Quechua and Spanish. There is a desire to preserve the uniqueness of Quechua as a language with its own attributes and representations of culture. Some argue that promoting

1375-610: Is often used to promote language revitalization , which can change a language's status or reverse a language shift , or to promote linguistic purism. In a case where a government revises a corpus, new dictionaries and educational materials will need to be revised in schools in order to maintain effective language acquisition. The education ministry or education sector of government is typically in charge of making national language acquisition choices based on state and local evaluation reports. The duties of education sectors vary by country; Robert B. Kaplan and Richard B. Baldauf describe

1430-532: Is one of the most threatened elements of Ainu culture ". Announcements on some bus routes in Hokkaido can since be heard in Ainu, efforts are being undertaken to archive Ainu speech recordings by the Agency for Cultural Affairs , and there is a popular educational YouTube channel which teaches conversational Ainu. While these measures have been praised for taking steps to protect the Ainu language and culture,

1485-423: Is surrounded by debate. Some states prefer to teach only in the official language, but some aim to foster linguistic and thus social diversity by encouraging teaching in several (native) languages . The use of a single language of instruction supports national unity and homogeneity whereas the incorporation of different languages may help students to learn better by offering alternative perspectives. In addition to

1540-555: Is the allocation or reallocation of a language or dialect to functional domains within a society, thus affecting the status, or standing, of a language. Language status is distinct from, though intertwined with, language prestige and language function. Language status is the given position (or standing) of a language against other languages. A language garners status according to the fulfillment of four attributes, described in 1968 by two different authors, Heinz Kloss and William Stewart . Both Kloss and Stewart stipulated four qualities of

1595-430: Is the expansion of the lexicon , which allows the language to discuss topics in modern semantic domains . Language planners generally develop new lists and glossaries to describe new technical terms, but it is also necessary to ensure that the new terms are consistently used by the appropriate sectors within society. While some languages, such as Japanese and Hungarian , have experienced rapid lexical expansion to meet

1650-511: The Kuril Islands . Due to the colonization policy employed by the Japanese government, the number of Hokkaido Ainu speakers decreased through the 20th century, and it is now moribund . A very low number of elderly people still speak the language fluently, though attempts are being made to revive it. The term "Ainu" comes from the endonym of the Ainu people , aynu ( アイヌ ), meaning "people" or "human". According to UNESCO , Ainu

1705-611: The National Ainu Museum in Shiraoi , Hokkaido . It forms one of three institutions named Upopoy (which means 'singing in a large group' in the Ainu language) alongside the National Ainu Park and a memorial site on high ground on the east side of Lake Poroto (ポロト湖) where Ainu services are held. Its director, Masahiro Nomoto, says that "One of our main objectives is to preserve and revive the language, as this

Language council - Misplaced Pages Continue

1760-654: The supradialectal spoken norm. Some saw Qusqu-Qullaw as the natural choice for a standard since it is recognized as the form which is most similar to that spoken by the Incas. Others favor Ayacucho Quechua since it is more conservative, whereas Qusqu-Qullaw has been influenced by contact with the Aymara language . Rodolfo Cerrón Palomino proposed a literary standard, Southern Quechua that combines features of both dialects. This norm has been accepted by many institutions in Peru. Lexical modernization has also been critical to

1815-471: The 16th century with Spanish colonization . When the Spanish first arrived in Peru, Quechua served as a language of wider communication, a lingua franca, between Spaniards and Peruvian natives. As the years passed, Spaniards asserted the superiority of the Spanish language; as a result, Spanish gained prestige, taking over as a language of wider communication and the dominant language of Peru. In 1975, under

1870-467: The Southeast of the present-day United States. It uses some Latin characters but also introduces new ones. The process of standardization often involves one variety of a language taking precedence over other social and regional dialects of a language. Another approach, where dialects are mutually intelligible, is to introduce a poly-phonemic written form that is intended to represent all dialects of

1925-405: The academic world, both as a school subject and a topic of literary interest. The three main types of corpus planning are all evident in the development of Quechua languages in Peru since the colonial era. Graphization has been in process since the arrival of the Spanish in the region, when the Spanish imperialists attempted to describe the exotic sounds of the language to Europeans. When Quechua

1980-466: The acquisition of Irish in schools, thus "de-Anglicizing" Ireland. Immediately after The Irish Free State gained independence in 1922, the League declared that Irish must be the language of instruction for at least one hour in primary schools in the state. Irish-speaking teachers were recruited, and preparatory colleges were established to train new teachers. The program implementation was mostly left to

2035-682: The demands of modernization, other languages, such as Hindi and Arabic , have failed to do so. Such expansion is aided by the use of new terms in textbooks and professional publications. Issues of linguistic purism often play a significant role in lexical expansion, but technical vocabulary can be effective within a language, regardless of whether it comes from the language's own process of word formation or from extensive borrowing from another language. While Hungarian has almost exclusively used language-internal processes to coin new words, Japanese has borrowed extensively from English to derive new words as part of its modernization. Acquisition planning

2090-417: The development of Quechua. Language planners have attempted to coin new Quechua words by combining Quechua morphemes to give new meanings. Generally, loanwords are considered only when the words cannot be developed through existing Quechua structures. If loanwords are adopted, linguists may adjust them to match typical Quechua phonology. Since Quechua is no longer an official language of Peru, Quechua literacy

2145-460: The dissemination of this dialect as the cultural norm for the English language. Modernization occurs when a language needs to expand its resources to meet functions. Modernization often occurs when a language undergoes a shift in status, such as when a country gains independence from a colonial power or when there is a change in the language education policy . The main force in modernization

2200-663: The education sector, there are non-governmental sectors or organizations that have a significant effect on language acquisition, such as the Académie française of France or the Real Academia Española of Spain. These organizations often write their own dictionaries and grammar books, thus affecting the materials which students are exposed to in schools. Although these organizations do not hold official power, they influence government planning decisions, such as with educational materials, affecting acquisition. Before

2255-403: The end of syllables. /h/ is heard as [ ɸ ] when occurring before /u/ . /n/ is heard as [ ŋ ] when before /k/ , as well as in final position. A glottal stop [ ʔ ] is often inserted at the beginning of words, before an accented vowel, but is non-phonemic. The Ainu language also has a pitch accent system. Generally, words containing affixes have a high pitch on

Language council - Misplaced Pages Continue

2310-492: The establishment or promotion of an official or national language or orthography , research and documentation . This article about a linguistics organization is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Language planning Four overarching language ideologies are proposed to explain motivations and decisions. Eleven language planning goals have been recognized (Nahir 2003): Language planning has been divided into three types: Status planning

2365-656: The forms of a language, whereby planning decisions are made to engineer changes in the structure of the language. Corpus planning activities often arise as the result of beliefs about the adequacy of the form of a language to serve desired functions. Unlike status planning, which is mostly undertaken by administrators and politicians, corpus planning is generally the work of individuals with greater linguistic expertise. There are three traditionally recognized types of corpus planning: graphization, standardization, and modernization. Graphization refers to development, selection and modification of scripts and orthographic conventions for

2420-629: The head comes at the end. Verbs, which are inherently either transitive or intransitive, accept various derivational affixes . Ainu does not have grammatical gender . Plurals are indicated by a suffix. Classical Ainu, the language of the yukar , is polysynthetic , with incorporation of nouns and adverbs; this is greatly reduced in the modern colloquial language. Applicatives may be used in Ainu to place nouns in dative , instrumental , comitative , locative , allative , or ablative roles. Besides freestanding nouns, these roles may be assigned to incorporated nouns, and such use of applicatives

2475-524: The individual schools, which did not consistently carry it out. Additionally, educating a generation is a long process, for which the League was not prepared. There was no consensus as to how the Irish language should be reinstituted; the League and schools did not develop a system assessment plan to monitor progress. Thus the movement lost strength, and the number of native Irish speakers has been in steady decline. Peru 's history of language planning begins in

2530-476: The issue unsettled. For more information, see Quechua writing system and Quechuan and Aymaran spelling shift . Another disagreement was about how to reflect the phonological differences apparent in different dialects of Quechua. For example, some distinct dialects utilize aspirated and glottalized versions of the voiceless uvular stop /q/ , while others do not and some language planners found it important to reflect these dialectal differences. The search for

2585-409: The language to the community's repertory. Although written language is often viewed as secondary to spoken language, the vocabulary , grammatical structures and phonological structures of a language often adopt characteristics in the written form that are distinct from the spoken form. Second, the use of writing often leads to a folk belief that the written language is the 'real' language, and speech

2640-508: The leadership of President Juan Velasco Alvarado , the revolutionary government of Peru declared Quechua an official language of the Peruvian state, "coequal with Spanish." Four years later, the law was reversed. Peru's 1979 constitution declares Spanish the only official language of the state; Quechua and Aymara are relegated to "official use zones," equivalent to Stewart's provincial function described above. Quechua has officially remained

2695-785: The museum and related government efforts have been criticised for failing to acknowledge the history of Japanese discrimination against the Ainu people, and for the government's refusal to apologise for past misdeeds against the Ainu. Ainu syllables are (C)V(C); they have an obligatory vowel, and an optional syllable onset and coda consisting of one consonant. There are few consonant clusters . There are five vowels in Ainu: Obstruents /p t ts~tʃ k/ may be voiced [b d dz~dʒ ɡ] between vowels and after nasals. /t͡s/ can be heard as [ t͡ʃ ] in free variation among speakers. Both /ti/ and /tsi/ are realized as [t͡ʃi] , and /s/ becomes [ ʃ ] before /i/ and at

2750-466: The partition of Ireland , a movement began which aimed at the restoration of Irish , as the nation's primary language, based on a widespread sentiment for Irish nationalism and cultural identity. During and after colonisation, Irish had competed with English and Scots ; the movement to restore the language gained momentum after the Irish War of Independence . The Gaelic League was founded to promote

2805-605: The sectors' six principal goals: Although acquisition planning can be useful to governments, there are problems which must be considered. Even with a solid evaluation and assessment system, the effects of planning methods can never be certain; governments must consider the effects on other aspects of state planning, such as economic and political planning. Some proposed acquisition changes could also be too drastic or instituted too suddenly without proper planning and organization. Acquisition planning can also be financially draining, so adequate planning and awareness of financial resources

SECTION 50

#1732765556615

2860-422: The statuses of languages are evaluated, corpuses are revised and the changes are finally introduced to society on a national, state or local level through education systems, ranging from primary schools to universities. This process of change can entail an alteration in student textbook formatting, a change in methods of teaching an official language, or the development of a bilingual language program, only to name

2915-572: The vowel system. Representatives from the Peruvian Academy of the Quechua language and the Summer Institute of Linguistics wanted to represent allophones of the vowels /i/ and /u/ with separate letters <e> and <o>, which creates an apparent five-vowel system. They argued that this makes the language easier to learn for people who are already familiar with written Spanish. However, other Quechua linguists argued that

2970-488: Was followed by the adoption of the south-east Midlands dialect, spoken in London , as the print language. Because of the dialect's use for administrative, government, business, and literary purposes, it became entrenched as the prestigious variety of English. After the development of grammars and dictionaries in the 18th century, the rise of print capitalism , industrialization , urbanization , and mass education led to

3025-482: Was made an official language in Peru in 1975, the introduction of the language into the education and government domains made it essential to have a standard written language. The task of adopting a writing system proved to be a point of contention among Quechua linguists. Although most agreed to use the Latin alphabet , linguists disagreed about how to represent the phonological system of Quechua, particularly in regards to

#614385