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138-542: Lane Seminary , sometimes called Cincinnati Lane Seminary , and later renamed Lane Theological Seminary , was a Presbyterian theological college that operated from 1829 to 1932 in Walnut Hills, Ohio , today a neighborhood in Cincinnati . Its campus was bounded by today's Gilbert, Yale, Park, and Chapel Streets. Its board intended it to be "a great central theological institution at Cincinnati — soon to become

276-655: A synod sometimes exists. This congregation / presbytery / synod / general assembly schema is based on the historical structure of the larger Presbyterian churches, such as the Church of Scotland or the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) ; some bodies, such as the Presbyterian Church in America and the Presbyterian Church in Ireland , skip one of the steps between congregation and General Assembly, and usually

414-557: A New Orleans businessman, "made known his interest in setting up a theological seminary near Cincinnati based on the manual labor system ." He and his brother Lane pledged $ 4,000 for the new school, on condition that it be in Cincinnati and follow the manual labor model. After this, their connection with the Seminary was minimal; Ebenezer was not even happy that it carried his name. The land was donated by Kemper Seminary. "Walnut Hill

552-551: A call for the pastor or minister's service, but this call must be ratified by the local presbytery. The pastor or minister is a teaching elder, and Moderator of the Session, but is not usually a member of the congregation; instead, this person is a member of the Presbytery of which the given church is a member. Ruling elders are elected by the congregation and ordained to serve with the teaching elders, assuming responsibility for

690-680: A chaplaincy by the PCofE and the Church of Scotland in 1908 and as a congregation of the PCofE in 1929), continue as congregations of the URC and university chaplaincies of the Church of Scotland . In recent years a number of smaller denominations adopting Presbyterian forms of church government have organised in England, including the International Presbyterian Church planted by evangelical theologian Francis Schaeffer of

828-463: A comfortable subsistence for his family, and the ability still to contribute, though on a greatly diminished scale, throughout his protracted life." Their philanthropic efforts crippled and pledges not met, the Tappans were forced to close their silk-importing business, and almost their paper, but the brothers persevered. In the 1840s, they founded another lucrative business enterprise when they opened

966-624: A full-length Old English style surplice which resembles the Celtic alb, an ungirdled liturgical tunic of the old Gallican Rite ), which some, particularly those identifying with the Liturgical Renewal Movement, hold to be more ancient and representative of a more ecumenical past. Presbyterians traditionally have held the Worship position that there are only two sacraments : Some early Presbyterians, which were influenced by

1104-459: A great deal of pains to make the people in the free States believe that the slaves are happy; but I know, likewise, that I was never acquainted with a slave, however well he was treated, who did not long to be free. There is one thing about this, that people in the free States do not understand. When they ask slaves whether they wish for their liberty, they answer, 'No;' and very likely they will go so far as to say they would not leave their masters for

1242-411: A great influence at the other eastern Ohio college, Western Reserve College , leading to Beriah Green 's four published sermons, and his relocation under pressure to Gale's school, Oneida. What Garrison desired, and he convinced Green, was "immediatism": immediate, complete, and uncompensated freeing of all slaves. Over a period of several months Weld convinced nearly all of the students individually of

1380-618: A major split, the Salter's Hall controversy , occurred; with the majority siding with nontrinitarian views. Thomas Bradbury published several sermons bearing on the controversy, and in 1719, "An answer to the reproaches cast on the dissenting ministers who subscribed their belief of the Eternal Trinity." By the 18th century many English Presbyterian congregations had become Unitarian in doctrine. A number of new Presbyterian Churches were founded by Scottish immigrants to England in

1518-578: A manual labor theological school, if Beecher would come. "Such an institution would undoubtedly attract many of Weld's associates who had been disappointed in the failure to establish theological instruction at the Oneida Institute." Beecher did come, as president and as "Chair of Systematic Theology", motivated by the promise of a $ 20,000 subvention for Lane from "Tappan". Beecher, along with professor Thomas J. Biggs , future president of Cincinnati College , began as president December 26, 1832; this

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1656-478: A modern writer an invasion, was so colorful that multiple authors have described it. The earliest is from Weld himself; he is one of the "two members": Resolved, that the smoking of segars will, in no case, be allowed in any building of the Seminary, — November 30, 1832 A few months since, two members of the same institution, who had enjoyed the benefits of the manual labor system for some years, and who wished soon to enter upon their professional studies, left

1794-545: A population of 12,000,000, two thousand more churches than ministers, and only 200 ministers per year being trained. While there were local efforts to have the new seminary in Cincinnati, the Presbyterian General Assembly decided in 1827 to locate it in Allegheny, Pennsylvania , near Pittsburgh. The western synods refused to accept this, finding it too far away. In the summer of 1828 Ebenezer Lane,

1932-514: A raft. More than a score came from Oneida Institute. Even more arrived from Utica and Auburn, Finney's converts all. From Tennessee came Weld's disciple, Marius Robinson , and across the Ohio from Kentucky came James Thome, scion of a wealthy planting family. Up from Alabama journeyed two others of Weld's disciples, the sons of the Rev. Dr. Allan. From Virginia came young Hedges; and from Missouri, Andrew, of

2070-474: A revolt against modernist doctrine in his Christianity and Liberalism (1923) that critiqued theological modernism. He argued that modernism and liberal theology was a false religion, a pretender that cloaks itself in Christian language – "Liberalism". This religion is a marriage of naturalism, humanism, secularism, and sentimentalism all rolled into one. Presbyterian denominations that trace their heritage to

2208-521: A school at Newark on the Licking River in Ohio. When in the spring Waterbury talked too much temperance, the inhabitants threatened to ride him out of town on a rail. He prudently climbed aboard a raft and floated down to Cincinnati. There, he and Dresser were soon joined by two other Oneidas, Sereno W. Streeter and Edward Weed. Beecher, in his autobiography, takes a dig at Oberlin, while claiming that there were already "colored students" at Lane: "It

2346-475: A seminary fit with the desires of the Tappan philanthropists, Arthur and Lewis , to found a seminary in what was then the growing west of the new country. The charismatic Theodore D. Weld had been one of the first Oneida students, first studying and working on George Washington Gale's farm, then at Gale's Oneida Institute of Science and Industry from its opening in 1827 through 1830. When he left Oneida, he

2484-405: A slave, ran away. As he was crossing Kentucky river, a white man, who suspected him, attempted to stop him. The negro resisted. The white man procured help, and finally succeeded in securing him. He then wreaked his vengeance on him for resisting — flogging him till he was not able to walk. They then put him on a horse, and came on with him ten miles to Nicholasville. When they entered the village, it

2622-520: A steward to supervise the Seminary farm; in February the trustees made the appointment. But in the winter of 1830–31, "Lane Seminary was in a state of suspended animation. There were no teachers and apparently only two students, Amos Dresser and Horace Bushnell , who had come out from the Oneida Institute and had been given special permission by the trustees to occupy rooms in the lonesome Seminary building." Bushnell, who on his arrival in 1830 "found [at

2760-453: A striking facade clad in limestone and punctuated by large windows, alongside abstract stained-glass windows. Both of these were designed by famed architect Harold E. Wagoner . Usually a Presbyterian church will not have statues of saints, nor the ornate altar more typical of a Catholic church. Instead, there is a "communion table", usually on the same level as the congregation, and sometimes elevated similar to an altar, however surrounded by

2898-417: A student, and having declined the chair of Sacred Rhetoric and Oratory, Weld was the de facto head of Lane; "He...told the trustees what appointments to make." "Many of the students considered him the real leader of Lane", their "patron saint". "In the estimation of the class, he was president. He took the lead of the whole institution. The young men had, many of them, been under his care, and they thought he

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3036-561: A table in the chancel. By using the "empty" cross, or cross of the Westminster/Celtic cross, Presbyterians emphasize the resurrection and that Christ is not continually dying, but died once and is alive for all eternity. Quite a few Presbyterian church buildings are decorated with a cross, that has a circle around the center, or Celtic cross. This not only emphasizes the resurrection, but also acknowledges historical aspects of Presbyterianism. A baptismal font will be located either at

3174-640: A visiting minister in 1842. A board was set up in October 1828, and the Ohio General Assembly issued a charter on February 11, 1829, specifying that the manual labor system would be "the fundamental principle" of the Seminary. The Rev. George C. Beckwith was appointed to a professorship in April, accepted in August, and he arrived in Cincinnati in the following November. He "had 3 or 4 students during

3312-460: Is about liberty — liberty! It is the great thought and feeling that fills the mind full all the time." The debates were closely followed by the national press and the religious community. Presbyterian Christianity • Protestantism Presbyterianism is a Reformed (Calvinist) Protestant tradition named for its form of church government by representative assemblies of elders . Though other Reformed churches are structurally similar,

3450-776: Is also a congregation in the heart of London's financial district called London City Presbyterian Church that is affiliated with the Free Church of Scotland. The Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland also have a congregation in London, as do the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster - along with five others in England. In 1972, the Presbyterian Church of England (PCofE) united with the Congregational Church in England and Wales to form

3588-662: Is an Italian Protestant denomination. The church was founded in the 12th century, and centuries later, after the Protestant Reformation, it adhered to Calvinist theology and became the Italian branch of the Presbyterian churches. As such, the church is a member of the World Communion of Reformed Churches. Even before Presbyterianism spread with immigrants abroad from Scotland, there were divisions in

3726-463: Is based on a more subtle point: In confessional churches, theology is not solely an individual matter. While individuals are encouraged to understand Scripture, and may challenge the current institutional understanding, theology is carried out by the community as a whole. It is this community understanding of theology that is expressed in confessions. However, there has arisen a spectrum of approaches to confessionalism . The manner of subscription , or

3864-470: Is inexpedient for students, during their continuance in this institution, to form connections by marriage, and that forming such connection is a sufficient ground for dismission from the Seminary. — June 25, 1834 "[T]he institution itself is second in importance to no other in the United States." Beecher "assured us that he had more brains in this theological camp than could be found in any other in

4002-618: Is more of a faint image, with a more modern design. John Knox (1505–1572), a Scot who had spent time studying under Calvin in Geneva, returned to Scotland and urged his countrymen to reform the Church in line with Calvinist doctrines. After a period of religious convulsion and political conflict culminating in a victory for the Protestant party at the Siege of Leith the authority of

4140-577: Is not one fixed "Presbyterian" worship style. Although there are set services for the Lord's Day in keeping with first-day Sabbatarianism , one can find a service to be evangelical and even revivalist in tone (especially in some conservative denominations), or strongly liturgical, approximating the practices of Lutheranism or more of Anglicanism , or semi-formal, allowing for a balance of hymns, preaching, and congregational participation (favored by many American Presbyterians). Most Presbyterian churches follow

4278-644: Is when "Lane actually began operation.... Before that time, staff was slight and housing meager." The house the Beecher family lived in is now known as the Harriet Beecher Stowe House . The students at Lane took the initiative in the affairs of the seminary and practiced piety mixed with practicality in the Oneida manner. In March of 1833 thirty-two students, including apparently all the Oneida Institute "alumni" then present, petitioned against

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4416-702: The American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society in 1840 and the American Missionary Association in 1846. After the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 was passed, Tappan refused to comply with the new law and donated money to the Underground Railroad . The brothers' positions on the slavery issue were not universally popular. In early July 1834, Lewis Tappan's New York home was sacked by a mob, who threw his furniture into

4554-732: The Apostles' Creed ), 16th-century Reformed confessions (the Scots Confession , the Heidelberg Catechism , the Second Helvetic Confession ), and 20th century documents ( The Theological Declaration of Barmen , Confession of 1967 and A Brief Statement of Faith ). The Presbyterian Church in Canada developed the confessional document Living Faith (1984) and retains it as a subordinate standard of

4692-717: The Archbishop of Canterbury , attempted to force the Church of Scotland to use the Book of Common Prayer . What resulted was an armed insurrection, with many Scots signing the Solemn League and Covenant . The Covenanters would serve as the government of Scotland for nearly a decade, and would also send military support to the Parliamentarians during the English Civil War . Following the restoration of

4830-695: The Arminianism of the Wesleyan Methodists. They broke off from the Church of England in 1811, ordaining their own ministers. They were originally known as the Calvinist Methodist connexion and in the 1920s it became alternatively known as the Presbyterian Church of Wales. Presbyterianism ( Irish : Preispitéireachas , Ulster Scots : Prisbytairinism ) is the largest Protestant denomination in Northern Ireland and

4968-563: The Catholic Church was abolished in favour of Reformation by the legislation of the Scottish Reformation Parliament in 1560. The Church was eventually organised by Andrew Melville along Presbyterian lines to become the national Church of Scotland . King James VI and I moved the Church of Scotland towards an episcopal form of government, and in 1637, James' successor, Charles I and William Laud ,

5106-676: The Culdees practiced Christian monasticism , a key feature of Celtic Christianity in the region, with a presbyter exercising "authority within the institution, while the different monastic institutions were independent of one another." The Church in Scotland kept the Christian feast of Easter at a date different from the See of Rome and its monks used a unique style of tonsure . The Synod of Whitby in 664, however, ended these distinctions as it ruled "that Easter would be celebrated according to

5244-577: The Erie Canal was completed, Arthur and his brother Lewis moved to New York City, the new national center of business and retail trade, where they established a silk importing business. In 1827 the brothers founded the New York Journal of Commerce with Samuel Morse . Arthur and Lewis Tappan were successful businessmen, but commerce was never their foremost interest. They viewed making money as less important than saving souls. They made

5382-587: The Journal of Commerce a publication free of "immoral advertisements." Arthur Tappan's summer home in New Haven, Connecticut , was destroyed by a mob in 1831 (along with a black hotel and a black home) after his support for a surprisingly unpopular ( New Haven Excitement ) proposal of a college for African Americans in that city. (See Simeon Jocelyn .) Both men suffered in the anti-abolitionist riots of 1834 , in which mobs attacked their property. Arthur Tappan

5520-641: The Kingdom of Great Britain . In fact, most Presbyterians in England have a Scottish connection. The Presbyterian denomination was also taken to North America , mostly by Scots and Scots-Irish immigrants. Scotland's Presbyterian denominations hold to the Reformed theology of John Calvin and his immediate successors, although there is a range of theological views within contemporary Presbyterianism. Local congregations of churches that use Presbyterian polity are governed by sessions made up of representatives of

5658-591: The L'Abri Fellowship in the 1970s - now with fifteen English-speaking congregations in England, and 6 Korean-speaking congregations. There is also the Evangelical Presbyterian Church in England and Wales founded in the North of England in the late 1980s. In Wales , Presbyterianism is represented by the Presbyterian Church of Wales , which was originally composed largely of Calvinistic Methodists who accepted Calvinist theology rather than

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5796-754: The Larger and Shorter catechisms, which are approved for use in instruction. Many Presbyterian denominations, especially in North America, have adopted all of the Westminster Standards as their standard of doctrine which is subordinate to the Bible. These documents are Calvinistic in their doctrinal orientation. The Presbyterian Church in Canada retains the Westminster Confession of Faith in its original form, while admitting

5934-761: The Oneida Institute , Lane Theological Seminary , the Lane Rebels at Cumminsville, Ohio , and Oberlin Collegiate Institute . Their beliefs about observing Sabbath extended to campaigns against providing stagecoach service and mail deliveries on Sundays. In 1833, while a principal owner of the Journal of Commerce , Arthur Tappan allied with William Lloyd Garrison and co-founded the American Anti-Slavery Society . Arthur served as its first president, and there

6072-853: The Orthodox Presbyterian Church (OPC), the Bible Presbyterian Church (BPC), the Cumberland Presbyterian Church (CPC), the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in America , the Evangelical Presbyterian Church (EPC), and the Evangelical Covenant Order of Presbyterians (ECO). Arthur Tappan He was a great-grandfather of Thornton Wilder . Arthur was born in Northampton, Massachusetts , to Benjamin Tappan (1747–1831) and Sarah Homes Tappan (1748–1826),

6210-648: The Parliament of Scotland adopted the Scots Confession as the creed of the Scottish Kingdom. In December 1560, the First Book of Discipline was published, outlining important doctrinal issues but also establishing regulations for church government, including the creation of ten ecclesiastical districts with appointed superintendents which later became known as presbyteries . In time,

6348-428: The Reformed Presbyterian Church of Ireland and the Evangelical Presbyterian Church . There is a Church of Scotland (Presbyterian) in central Paris: The Scots Kirk , which is English-speaking, and is attended by many nationalities. It maintains close links with the Church of Scotland in Scotland itself, as well as with the Reformed Church of France . The Waldensian Evangelical Church (Chiesa Evangelica Valdese, CEV)

6486-407: The Reformed Presbyterian Church of Scotland , the ' Didasko Presbytery' , the International Presbyterian Church and two congregations of the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster . Combined, they have over 1500 congregations in Scotland. Within Scotland the term ' kirk ' is usually used to refer to a local Presbyterian church. Informally, the term 'The Kirk' refers to the Church of Scotland. Some of

6624-426: The Reformed Presbyterians , would practice a cappella exclusive psalmody , as well as eschew the celebration of holy days. Among the paleo-orthodox and emerging church movements in Protestant and evangelical churches, in which some Presbyterians are involved, clergy are moving away from the traditional black Geneva gown to such vestments as the alb and chasuble , but also cassock and surplice (typically

6762-549: The United Reformed Church (URC). Among the congregations the PCofE brought to the URC were Tunley (Lancashire), Aston Tirrold (Oxfordshire) and John Knox Presbyterian Church, Stepney, London (now part of Stepney Meeting House URC) – these are among the sole survivors today of the English Presbyterian churches of the 17th century. The URC also has a presence in Scotland, mostly of former Congregationalist Churches. Two former Presbyterian congregations, St Columba's, Cambridge (founded in 1879), and St Columba's, Oxford (founded as

6900-413: The antebellum United States, was the question of what to do with former slaves who had become free. Since the eighteenth century, Quakers and others had preached the sinfulness of slave ownership, and the number of freedmen (and freed women) was rising and showed every sign that it would continue to grow. The freed slaves married and had children, so the number of free people of color (Blacks born free)

7038-424: The episcopal hierarchy of the Elizabethan Church led to his deprivation of his post by Archbishop John Whitgift and his emigration abroad. Between 1645 and 1648, a series of ordinances of the Long Parliament established Presbyterianism as the polity of the Church of England . Presbyterian government was established in London and Lancashire and in a few other places in England, although Presbyterian hostility to

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7176-421: The execution of Charles I and the establishment of the republican Commonwealth of England meant that Parliament never enforced the Presbyterian system in England. The Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 brought the return of Episcopal church government in England (and in Scotland for a short time); but the Presbyterian church in England continued in Non-Conformity, outside of the established church. In 1719

7314-404: The history of Christianity , but the beginning of Presbyterianism as a distinct movement occurred during the 16th century Protestant Reformation . As the Catholic Church resisted the Reformers, several different theological movements splintered from the Church and bore different denominations. Presbyterianism was especially influenced by the French theologian John Calvin , who is credited with

7452-498: The 19th century and later. Following the 'Disruption' in 1843 many of those linked to the Church of Scotland eventually joined what became the Presbyterian Church of England in 1876. Some, such as Crown Court (Covent Garden, London), St Andrew's (Stepney, London) and Swallow Street (London), did not join the English denomination, which is why there are Church of Scotland congregations in England such as those at Crown Court , and St Columba's , Pont Street (Knightsbridge) in London. There

7590-414: The 20th century saw a greater embrace of modern architectural styles, particularly the modernist movement characterized by clean lines, geometric shapes, and open floor plans. Prominent examples include Coral Ridge Presbyterian Church in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, with expansive, light-filled sanctuary and angular design elements. Similarly, the National Presbyterian Church in Washington, D.C., features

7728-496: The 20th century, some Presbyterians played an important role in the ecumenical movement , including the World Council of Churches . Many Presbyterian denominations have found ways of working together with other Reformed denominations and Christians of other traditions, especially in the World Communion of Reformed Churches . Some Presbyterian churches have entered into unions with other churches, such as Congregationalists , Lutherans , Anglicans , and Methodists . Presbyterians in

7866-484: The Bible, yet directing particularities in the standardisation and translation of the Bible – in Presbyterian churches. Presbyterians place great importance upon education and lifelong learning, tempered with the belief that no human action can affect salvation . Continuous study of the scriptures, theological writings, and understanding and interpretation of church doctrine are embodied in several statements of faith and catechisms formally adopted by various branches of

8004-435: The British Isles usually organise their church services inspired by the principles in the Directory of Public Worship , developed by the Westminster Assembly in the 1640s. This directory documented Reformed worship practices and theology adopted and developed over the preceding century by British Puritans , initially guided by John Calvin and John Knox. It was enacted as law by the Parliament of Scotland , and became one of

8142-417: The British took many of them, too cold. The British also took to Sierra Leone slaves captured from slaving ships who were being smuggled illegally across the Atlantic to North America. A well-to-do African-American shipowner, Paul Cuffe , transported some former slaves to Sierra Leone. However, sending former slaves to a British colony as a policy was politically unacceptable. The American Colonization Society

8280-523: The Church of Scotland's form of government. However, legislation by the United Kingdom parliament allowing patronage led to splits in the Church. In 1733, a group of ministers seceded from the Church of Scotland to form the Associate Presbytery, another group seceded in 1761 to form the Relief Church and the Disruption of 1843 led to the formation of the Free Church of Scotland . Further splits took place, especially over theological issues, but most Presbyterians in Scotland were reunited by 1929 union of

8418-406: The Cincinnati-based Western Monthly Magazine ; Weld published a lengthy reply. The affair got further publicity late in 1834, when 51 of the Lane students — the vast majority — published a 28-page pamphlet, A statement of the reasons which induced the students of Lane Seminary, to dissolve their connection with that institution (Cincinnati, 1834). Part of "the negro problem", as it was seen in

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8556-420: The Institute with their packs upon their backs, and shaped their course for the Lane Seminary, at Cincinnati, Ohio, the nearest theological institution where manual labor was made a requisition, and incorporated into the system. They traveled on foot to Olean, in the state of New-York, at the head of the Allegany river, hired themselves out to work a raft, descended the river three hundred miles to its junction with

8694-414: The Mississippi'". Weld himself was seeking to continue his preparation for a career as a minister. As he put it in his report, "though I can no longer publicly advocate it as the agent of your society, I hope soon to plead its cause in the humbler sphere of personal example, while pursuing my professional studies, in a rising institution at the west, in which manual labor is a DAILY REQUISITION." "Cincinnati

8832-406: The Ohio, at Pittsburg[h], and thence five hundred miles farther to Cincinnati. Upon their arrival, they received each twenty-two dollars for their services as raftsmen. A few months after four other students of the same institution, upon the same errand, traveled the same route, in the same way. A number more expect soon to start for the same destination, and if rafts are to be found they hope to enjoy

8970-449: The Presbyterian churches are in Calvinism . Many branches of Presbyterianism are remnants of previous splits from larger groups. Some of the splits have been due to doctrinal controversy, while some have been caused by disagreement concerning the degree to which those ordained to church office should be required to agree with the Westminster Confession of Faith , which historically serves as an important confessional document – second only to

9108-400: The Roman date, not the Celtic date." Although Roman influence came to dominate the Church in Scotland, certain Celtic influences remained in the Scottish Church, such as "the singing of metrical psalms , many of them set to old Celtic Christianity Scottish traditional and folk tunes", which later became a "distinctive part of Scottish Presbyterian worship". Presbyterian history is part of

9246-425: The Scots Confession would be supplanted by the Westminster Confession of Faith , and the larger and shorter catechisms , which were formulated by the Westminster Assembly between 1643 and 1649. Presbyterians distinguish themselves from other denominations by doctrine , institutional organisation (or "church order") and worship , often using a "Book of Order" to regulate common practice and order. The origins of

9384-485: The United States came largely from Scottish , Scots-Irish immigrants , and also from New England communities that were originally Congregational but changed because of an agreed-upon Plan of Union of 1801 for frontier areas. Presbyterian tradition, particularly that of the Church of Scotland , traces its early roots to the Christian Church founded by Saint Columba , through the 6th century Hiberno-Scottish mission . Tracing their apostolic origin to Saint John ,

9522-467: The United States." In 1831, when the Rev. Lewis D. Howell , a student at Auburn Seminary at the time of Finney's revival there, was interim teacher of the Literary Department, there were fifty young men attending the seminary. Amos Dresser was the only New Yorker among them, but this was not to last long. Three Oneida students went west to teach country schools in the winter of 1831–32. George Whipple and J. L. Tracy went to Kentucky; Calvin Waterbury got

9660-414: The bargain; and this being so, it would be strange if they could not provide for themselves, when disencumbered from this load. " He said the great desire of the slaves was "liberty and education." "How strange it is that anybody should believe any human being could be a slave, and yet be contented! I do not believe there ever was a slave, who did not long for liberty. I know very well that slave-owners take

9798-498: The call to famous revivalist Charles Grandison Finney to come west; Finney declined, though he did come three years later, as professor and later president of the new Oberlin Collegiate Institute . Weld's second choice—and it was his choice, because the Tappans relied on his recommendations—was Lyman Beecher , father of Henry Ward Beecher , who would graduate from Lane, and Harriet Beecher Stowe ; Lane had been trying to recruit him since February 1831. Lane, Weld concluded, would do as

9936-459: The chancel. There may be a rail between the communion table and the chancel behind it, which may contain a more decorative altar-type table, choir loft, or choir stalls, lectern and clergy area. The altar is called the communion table, and the altar area is called the chancel by Presbyterians. In Presbyterian, and in Reformed churches, there may be an altar cross, either on the communion table or on

10074-567: The church, often referred to as " subordinate standards ". Presbyterian government is by councils (still known as courts in some countries, as boards in others) of elders. Teaching and ruling elders are ordained and convene in the lowest council known as a session or consistory responsible for the discipline, nurture, and mission of the local congregation . Teaching elders (pastors or ministers) have responsibility for teaching, worship, and performing sacraments. Pastors or ministers are called by individual congregations. A congregation issues

10212-524: The congregation ( elders ), a conciliar approach as with other levels of decision-making ( presbytery , synod , and general assembly ). There are roughly 75 million Presbyterians in the world. Presbyterianism's roots lie in the Reformation of the 16th century. John Calvin's Republic of Geneva was particularly influential. Most Reformed churches that trace their history to Scotland are either presbyterian or congregationalist in government. In

10350-587: The courts or protection by the police. In no state could their children attend the public schools. They were subject to discriminatory treatment in everyday life. The original "remedy" for this problem was to help them go "back to Africa". The British had been doing this, in Sierra Leone , moving former American slaves there who had gained their freedom by escaping to British lines during the American Revolution , and who found Nova Scotia , where

10488-544: The degree to which the official standards establish the actual doctrine of the church, is a practical matter. That is, the decisions rendered in ordination and in the courts of the church largely determine what the church means, representing the whole, by its adherence to the doctrinal standard. Some Presbyterian traditions adopt only the Westminster Confession of Faith as the doctrinal standard to which teaching elders are required to subscribe, in contrast to

10626-584: The denomination. It is confessional in format, yet like the Westminster Confession, draws attention back to original Bible text. Presbyterians in Ireland who rejected Calvinism and the Westminster Confessions formed the Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland . John Gresham Machen, the prominent Presbyterian theologian and Professor of New Testament at Princeton Seminary between 1906 and 1929, led

10764-520: The development of Reformed theology , and the work of John Knox , a Scottish Catholic Priest who studied with Calvin in Geneva and brought back Reformed teachings to Scotland. An important influence on the formation of presbyterianism in Britain also came from John a Lasco , a Polish reformer, the founder of a Stranger's Church in London, based on the Geneva models. The Presbyterian church traces its ancestry back primarily to Scotland. In August 1560,

10902-580: The disease rates among the new colonists were the highest since accurate record-keeping began. Over 50% of them died of malaria and other diseases. Particularly telling to Gerrit Smith , an abolitionist philanthropist, was that the American Colonization Society allowed the sale of alcohol (as well as guns and chewing tobacco) in the colonies that became Liberia. He commented on it in the Society's African Repository magazine. Smith

11040-515: The emancipated slave above alluded to, addressed us nearly two hours; and I wish his speech could have been heard by every opponent of immediate emancipation, to wit: first, that "it would be unsafe to the community;" second, that "the condition of the emancipated negroes would be worse than it now is; that they are incompetent to provide for themselves; that they would become paupers and vagrants, and would rather steal than work for wages." This shrewd and intelligent black, cut up these white objections by

11178-414: The embryonic Lane] no theology", slept "on a study-table, with his books for a pillow". In 1834, the manual labor department contained six printing presses, operated by 20 students, and had printed 150,000 copies of "Webster's spelling books", for a bookstore. 30 students were employed in cabinet making, and total enrollment before the mass walkout was about 100. By coincidence, the local efforts to set up

11316-533: The entrance or near the chancel area. Presbyterian architecture generally makes significant use of symbolism. One may also find decorative and ornate stained glass windows depicting scenes from the Bible. Some Presbyterian churches will also have ornate statues of Christ or graven scenes from the Last Supper located behind the chancel. St. Giles' Cathedral in Scotland has a crucifix next to an ornate elevated communion table that hangs alongside. The image of Christ

11454-768: The established Church of Scotland and the United Free Church of Scotland . There are now ten Presbyterian denominations in Scotland today. These are, listed by number of congregations within Scotland: the Church of Scotland , the Free Church of Scotland , the United Free Church of Scotland , the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland , the Free Church of Scotland (Continuing) , the Associated Presbyterian Church ,

11592-560: The famous family of Benton . From the South came another, James Bradley , a Negro who had bought his freedom from slavery with the earnings of his own hands. Most of these students were mature; only eleven were less than twenty-one years old; twelve of them had been agents for the national benevolent societies, and six were married men with families. The theological class was the largest that had ever gathered in America, and its members were deeply conscious of their importance. Resolved, that it

11730-476: The first Presbytery in Philadelphia was established. In time, the presbytery would be joined by two more to form a synod (1717) and would evolve into the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America in 1789. The nation's largest Presbyterian denomination, the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) – PC (USA) – can trace its heritage back to the original PCUSA, as can the Presbyterian Church in America (PCA),

11868-478: The first commercial credit-rating service, the Mercantile Agency , a predecessor of Dun & Bradstreet . The Tappan brothers made their mark in commerce and in abolitionism . Throughout their careers, the Tappans devoted time and money to philanthropic causes as diverse as temperance , the abolition of slavery, and their support of new colleges in what was then the west of the country: successively,

12006-477: The floor exhausted. The mistress asked her what the matter was? She made no reply. She asked again; but received no answer. "I'll see," said she, "if I can’t make you speak." So taking the tongs, she heated them red hot, and put them upon the bottoms of her feet ; then upon her legs and body; and, finally, in a rage, took hold of her throat. This had the desired effect. The poor girl faintly whispered, "Oh, misse, don't — I am most gone", and expired. James Bradley,

12144-479: The floor, tied his feet together, and put a small rail between his legs, so that he could not avoid the blows, and commenced whipping him. He told me that he gave him five hundred lashes. At any rate, he was covered with wounds from head to foot. Not a place as big as my hand but what was cut. Such things as these are perfectly common all over Virginia; at least so far as I am acquainted. Generally, planters avoid punishing their slaves before strangers. A young woman, who

12282-535: The foundational documents of Presbyterian church legislation elsewhere. Historically, the driving principle in the development of the standards of Presbyterian worship is the Regulative principle of worship , which specifies that (in worship), what is not commanded is forbidden. Over subsequent centuries, many Presbyterian churches modified these prescriptions by introducing hymnody, instrumental accompaniment, and ceremonial vestments into worship. However, there

12420-509: The full congregation. Since the 20th century, most denominations allow women to be teaching or ruling elders. Above the sessions exist presbyteries, which have area responsibilities. These are composed of teaching elders and ruling elders from each of the constituent congregations. The presbytery sends representatives to a broader regional or national assembly, generally known as the General Assembly , although an intermediate level of

12558-499: The great Andover or Princeton of the West." However, the founding and first years of Lane were difficult and contentious, culminating in a mass student exodus over the issue of slavery , or more specifically whether students were permitted to discuss the topic publicly, the first major academic freedom incident in America. There was strong pro-slavery sentiment in Cincinnati, and the trustees immediately prohibited further discussion of

12696-515: The historical period in which it was written should be understood when it is read. The Westminster Confession is "The principal subordinate standard of the Church of Scotland " but "with due regard to liberty of opinion in points which do not enter into the substance of the Faith" (V). This formulation represents many years of struggle over the extent to which the confession reflects the Word of God and

12834-458: The horse without any more fuss. The negro staggered back a few steps, fell down, and died. I do not know that any notice was ever taken of it. I have frequently seen the mistress of a family in Virginia, with whom I was well acquainted, beat the woman who performed the kitchen work, with a stick two feet and a half long, and nearly as thick as my wrist ; striking her over the head, and across

12972-577: The immediate abolition of slavery included: In response to the second question, the Reverend Samuel H. Cox , who had served as an agent for the Colonization Society, testified that his view of the Society's plan changed when he realized that no blacks, despite the claims of those who ventured to speak for them, would ever consent to be removed from their native country and transplanted to a foreign land. He reasoned, therefore, that

13110-547: The larger Presbyterian family. Some later rejoined only to separate again. In what some interpret as rueful self-reproach, some Presbyterians refer to the divided Presbyterian churches as the "Split Ps". Presbyterianism first officially arrived in Colonial America in 1644 with the establishment of Christ's First Presbyterian Church in Hempstead, New York. The Church was organized by the Rev. Richard Denton. In 1703

13248-611: The latter a great-niece of Benjamin Franklin . They were devout Calvinists . Tappan moved to Boston at the age of 15. In 1807 he established a dry goods business in Portland, Maine . After his death, Arthur was described thus by his friend and educational collaborator Theodore Dwight Weld , who called him one of humanity's "great benefactors": So simple in all his tastes and habits, so quiet and modest, yet so firm, independent, and conscientious, that nothing could swerve him from

13386-479: The lowest class in the institution," despite Beecher's regret felt it wiser not to attend a student gathering at Beecher's home. Lane Seminary is known primarily for the debates held there over 18 evenings in February 1834; John Rankin was in attendance, as was Harriet Beecher Stowe , daughter of Lane's president. They were nominally on the topic of colonization of freed slaves, on sending them to (not "back to") Africa. They were publicized nationally and influenced

13524-751: The mainline Presbyterians. These were more of the wave of Presbyterians that were influenced by the Puritans. In the late 19th century a gradual shift began to occur. Prosperous congregations built imposing churches, such as Fourth Presbyterian Church of Chicago , Brick Presbyterian Church in New York City, Shadyside Presbyterian Church in Pennsylvania, St Stephen Presbyterian in Fort Worth, Texas, and many others. While Presbyterian churches historically reflected prevailing architectural trends,

13662-627: The monarchy in 1660, Charles II , despite the initial support that he received from the Covenanters, reinstated an episcopal form of government on the church. However, with the Glorious Revolution of 1688 the Church of Scotland was unequivocally recognised as a Presbyterian institution by the monarch due to Scottish Presbyterian support for the aforementioned revolution and the Acts of Union 1707 between Scotland and England guaranteed

13800-522: The nation's thinking about slavery , creating support for abolition. A four-page report by H. B. Stanton appeared in March in both The Liberator and the New York Evangelist , and Garrison and Knapp , printers of The Liberator and most books on slavery in the U.S. in the early 1830s, issued it in pamphlet form. A seven-page response, under the title "Education and slavery", appeared in

13938-462: The nurture and leadership of the congregation. Often, especially in larger congregations, the elders delegate the practicalities of buildings, finance, and temporal ministry to the needy in the congregation to a distinct group of officers (sometimes called deacons, which are ordained in some denominations). This group may variously be known as a "Deacon Board", "Board of Deacons" "Diaconate", or "Deacons' Court". These are sometimes known as "presbyters" to

14076-452: The participation of distinguished individuals: U.S. presidents Jefferson, Monroe, and Madison; Senator Henry Clay , who presided over its first meeting; as well as most of the future white abolitionists. The problem had been solved, and in an honorable way; the former slaves would fare better in Africa, it was argued, among other blacks. The situation quickly started to unravel. First of all,

14214-433: The plan could only be enacted by a "national society of kidnappers". "The President, and the members of the faculty, with one exception [Biggs, an "implacable foe" of abolitionism], were present during parts of the discussion." Cruelties, said he, are so common, I hardly know what to relate. But one fact occurs to me just at this time, that happened in the village where I live. The circumstances are these. A colored man,

14352-420: The privilege of working their passage." A contemporary commentator points to the work on rafts as reflecting the students' experience with manual labor at Oneida. A modern retelling of the same incident: Meanwhile, young men gathered in Cincinnati "as from the hives of the north". Most of them were from western New York. H[enry] B. Stanton and a few others from Rochester floated down the Ohio from Pittsburgh on

14490-413: The puritan movement, were careful to distinguish between the "church", which referred to the members , and the "meeting house", which was the building in which the church met. (Quakers still insist upon this distinction.) Until the late 19th century, very few Presbyterians ever referred to their buildings as "churches". Presbyterians believed that meeting-houses (now called churches) are buildings to support

14628-407: The right — so careful and deliberate in forming conclusions, yet instant and indomitable in executing. Economical in spending, yet always bountiful in giving. So faithful and true, so scrupulously just in all things. Never seeking his own; of few words, each straight to the point, and that a deed , and how often a great one; so earnest in daring for the weak against the strong. In 1826, a year after

14766-592: The roots, and withered and scorched them under the sun of sarcastic argumentation, for nearly an hour, to which the assembly responded in repeated and spontaneous roars of laughter, which were heartily joined in by both Colonizationists and Abolitionists. Do not understand me as saying, that his speech was devoid of argument. No. It contained sound logic, enforced by apt illustrations. I wish the slanderers of negro intellect could have witnessed this unpremeditated effort. ..."They [the enslaved] have to take care of, and support themselves now, and their master, and his family into

14904-591: The second largest on the island of Ireland (after the Anglican Church of Ireland ), and was brought by Scottish plantation settlers to Ulster who had been strongly encouraged to emigrate by James VI of Scotland, also James I of Ireland and England . An estimated 100,000 Scottish Presbyterians moved to the northern counties of Ireland between 1607 and the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. The Presbytery of Ulster

15042-506: The serving of that harmful and expensive drink, coffee, at the boarding house. "Lane was Oneida moved west." Early in June 1833, Weld, Robert L. Stanton , and "six other young Finneyites" arrived in Cincinnati, having completed their journey by river from Rochester and Oneida. "They were promptly admitted to the seminary on the recommendation of two other 'Oneidas' [Porter and Weed] already in attendance." However, although technically enrolled as

15180-405: The small of the back, as she was bent over at her work, with as much spite as you would a snake, and for what I should consider no offence at all. There lived in this same family a young man, a slave, who was in the habit of running away. He returned one time after a week’s absence. The master took him into the barn, stripped him entirely naked, tied him up by his hands so high that he could not reach

15318-503: The step skipped is the Synod. The Church of Scotland abolished the Synod in 1993. Presbyterian governance is practiced by Presbyterian denominations and also by many other Reformed churches . Presbyterianism is historically a confessional tradition. This has two implications. The obvious one is that confessional churches express their faith in the form of "confessions of faith", which have some level of authoritative status. However this

15456-550: The street and burned it. The Tappans and the Journal of Commerce attracted bitter criticism for their campaign to free the Africans who had taken over the slave ship Amistad in 1839. James Gordon Bennett, Sr. ’s rival New York Morning Herald denounced “"the humbug doctrines of the abolitionists and the miserable fanatics who propagate them," particularly Lewis Tappan and the Journal of Commerce . Arthur Tappan died in 1865, Lewis in 1873. Both men lived long enough to see

15594-656: The struggle of conscience of those who came to believe it did not fully do so (e.g. William Robertson Smith ). Some Presbyterian churches, such as the Free Church of Scotland , have no such " conscience clause". The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) has adopted the Book of Confessions , which reflects the inclusion of other Reformed confessions in addition to the Westminster Standards. These other documents include ancient creedal statements (the Nicene Creed ,

15732-467: The superiority of the abolitionist view. To generate publicity for the abolitionist cause, Weld announced a series of "debates". Weld "had no intention of holding a debate on the pros and cons of antislavery." "There was little opposition, little conflict, and consequently little debate." In his correspondence Weld informed friends that he was trying to get the anti-slavery (immediatist) argument and evidence out to as many people as possible. Nevertheless, what

15870-423: The topic, to avoid repercussions. With the city being on the border of the South, a lot of fugitive slaves and freedmen went through Cincinnati, including James Bradley , who would participate in the pivotal Lane slavery debates in the 1830s. Their competition for jobs had led to the anti-abolitionist Cincinnati riots of 1829 and would soon produce the Cincinnati riots of 1836 . "The founding of Lane Seminary

16008-420: The traditional liturgical year and observe the traditional holidays, holy seasons, such as Advent , Christmas, Ash Wednesday , Holy Week , Easter, Pentecost , etc. They also make use of the appropriate seasonal liturgical colors , etc. Many incorporate ancient liturgical prayers and responses into the communion services and follow a daily, seasonal, and festival lectionary. Other Presbyterians, however, such as

16146-577: The values and ideals espoused in Scottish Presbyterian denominations can be reflected in this reference in a book from Norman Drummond, chaplain to the Queen in Scotland. Chart of splits and mergers of the Scottish Presbyterian churches In England, Presbyterianism was established in secret in 1592. Thomas Cartwright is thought to be the first Presbyterian in England. Cartwright's controversial lectures at Cambridge University condemning

16284-413: The winter." In July, 1830, Beckwith visited the Oneida Institute and wrote back to Cincinnati that manual labor worked well and that the farmers and mechanics of the neighborhood approved of it. He resigned in August 1830. "At that time [1830], the seminary consisted of some woods and one foundation for a building." In January, 1831, George Washington Gale , president of the Oneida Institute, recommended

16422-541: The word Presbyterian is applied to churches that trace their roots to the Church of Scotland or to English Dissenter groups that formed during the English Civil War . Presbyterian theology typically emphasizes the sovereignty of God , the authority of the Scriptures , and the necessity of grace through faith in Christ. Scotland ensured Presbyterian church government in the 1707 Acts of Union , which created

16560-420: The world. But, at the same time, they desire liberty more than anything else, and have, perhaps, all along been laying plans to get free. The truth is, if a slave shows any discontent, he is sure to be treated worse, and worked the harder for it; and every slave knows this. This is why they are careful not to show any uneasiness when white men ask them about freedom. When they are alone by themselves, all their talk

16698-406: The worship of God. The decor in some instances was austere so as not to detract from worship. Early Presbyterian meeting-houses were extremely plain. No stained glass, no elaborate furnishings, and no images were to be found in the meeting-house. The pulpit, often raised so as only to be accessible by a staircase, was the centerpiece of the building. But these were not the standard characteristics of

16836-561: Was a "colonization society", supporting the efforts of the American Colonization Society to send free blacks to Africa, to Liberia. How it came to be is not known, but it was there when the Oneida contingent and friends arrived. There had been similar groups at Western Reserve and other colleges. Weld read William Lloyd Garrison 's new abolitionist newspaper The Liberator , begun in 1831, and his Thoughts on African Colonization , which appeared in 1832. These had

16974-402: Was a god." The tempo of the seminary was sharply stepped up, its real head now being on the ground. "Weld is here & we are glad," wrote Professor Biggs on July 2. According to Beecher, "among those students was an embodiment of a greater piety and talent than he had ever known to be collected in any other institution." The self-assembling at Lane of men from very diverse places, called by

17112-467: Was a pretty little village, quite distant from Cincinnati, the first stopping-place for the stage on the Madisonville or some other northern Ohio route." "The location of Lane Seminary is in the midst of a most beautiful landscape. There is just enough, and just the right admixture of hills and dale, forest and field, to give it the effect we love in gazing upon a calm and quiet scene of beauty," wrote

17250-474: Was accomplished after years of sometimes disparate efforts on the part of a large number of people." The Presbyterian tradition was to have educated clergy, and there was no seminary serving the vast and increasingly populated lands west of the Allegheny Mountains . As early as 1825, the denomination was on record as saying such a seminary was needed. In 1829 there were only 8,000 ministers to serve

17388-455: Was announced was debates, on two points. When the merits of the proposed solutions to slavery were debated over 18 days at the Seminary in February 1834, it was one of the first major public discussions of the topic, but it was more of an anti-slavery revival than a "debate". No speaker appeared to defend either American slavery or the colonization project. The two specific questions addressed were: The debates were not transcribed, and there

17526-659: Was for temperance, and according to him, the fact that blacks in Africa were allowed to import liquor from the United States revealed the true goals of many of the white members of the American Colonization Society: to get rid of the Blacks without having them up north. Lyman Beecher, head of the Seminary, was a colonizationist, and gave a speech on that topic to the Cincinnati Colonization Society on June 4, 1834. At Lane there

17664-470: Was formed in 1642 separately from the established Anglican Church. Presbyterians, along with Catholics in Ulster and the rest of Ireland, suffered under the discriminatory Penal Laws until they were revoked in the early 19th century. Presbyterianism is represented in Ireland by the Presbyterian Church in Ireland , the Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland , the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster ,

17802-681: Was formed to help found a new, American colony of freed blacks. Although there was some talk of locating the colony in the American territories of the Midwest, or on the Pacific coast—a sort of reservation for Blacks—what was decided was to follow the English example and start an African colony. The closest available land was what became Liberia . The colonization project got off to a promising start, with various governmental and private donations and

17940-413: Was generally very badly treated, after receiving a more severe whipping than usual, ran away. In a few days she came back, and was sent into the field to work. At this time the garment next her skin was stiff like a scab, from the running of the sores made by the whipping. Towards night, she told her master that she was sick, and wished to go to the house. She went, and as soon as she reached it, laid down on

18078-414: Was hired by the new Manual Labor Society, an institution created to employ Weld, its only employee ever. Funded by the same Tappan brothers that had funded Oneida, his charge was "to find a site for a great national manual labor institution...where training for the western ministry could be provided for poor but earnest young men who had dedicated their lives to the home missionary cause in the 'vast valley of

18216-528: Was in 1835 a reward of $ 20,000 (equivalent to $ 590,710 in 2023) for his capture and delivery to New Orleans. He resigned in 1840 because of his opposition to the society's new support of women's suffrage and feminism . Their early support for Oberlin College , a center of abolitionist activity, included $ 10,000 to build Tappan Hall. Oberlin's green Tappan Square now occupies the site. Continuing their support for abolition, Arthur and his brother founded

18354-418: Was no attempt afterwards, as there would be later with Pennsylvania Hall , to collect the texts which were written out — not all were — and make a booklet of them. However, Garrison promptly published a pamphlet, and there are excerpts in newspapers and books. Each question was debated for two and a half hours a night for nine nights. Among the participants: Arguments addressing the first question in favor of

18492-405: Was noticed that he sat upon his horse like a drunken man. It was a very hot day; and whilst they were taking some refreshment, the negro sat down upon the ground, under the shade. When they ordered him to go, he made several efforts before he could get up; and when he attempted to mount the horse, his strength was entirely insufficient. One of the men struck him, and with an oath ordered him to get on

18630-427: Was one of two signatories who issued a disclaimer on behalf of the American Anti-Slavery Society , of which he was president, in the aftermath of the riots, emphasising its dedication to abolishing slavery within the existing laws of the United States. "In the great commercial crisis of 1837 he suffered immense losses; and not long after turned his attention to other and more retired occupations, by which he obtained

18768-453: Was rising even faster. Some owners freed their slaves in their wills. Philanthropic societies and individuals raised or donated funds to purchase slaves' freedom; freedmen sometimes were able to purchase the freedom of family members. In some Northern cities there were more than a handful of escaped slaves. The status of these free blacks was anything but comfortable. They were not citizens and in most states could not vote. They had no access to

18906-512: Was the logical location. Cincinnati was the focal center of population and commerce in the Ohio valley." In the pre-railroad era, Cincinnati was the most accessible city in what was then the west of the United States. Weld stopped at Cincinnati twice on his manual labor lecture and scouting tour: in February and March 1832, and in the following September. On the earlier visit, when the campus was run by F. Y. Vail, who spent more time fundraising than teaching, he delivered several lectures and supported

19044-530: Was with great difficulty, and only in the prospect of rich endowments and of securing a large class of students, that the principle of admission irrespective of color, already in practice at Lane, received from the trustees of Oberlin a cold and ambiguous sanction." What he says about Oberlin is roughly correct, but none of the black students at Oneida moved to Lane. The one black student currently known of at Lane, James Bradley , by his own description "so ignorant, that I suppose it will take me two years to get up with

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