Non-state allies:
124-637: Pathet Lao and North Vietnamese victory Second Third Air operations The Laotian Civil War was waged between the Communist Pathet Lao and the Royal Lao Government from 23 May 1959 to 2 December 1975. The Kingdom of Laos was a covert theater during the Vietnam War with both sides receiving heavy external support in a proxy war between the global Cold War superpowers. The fighting also involved
248-479: A future offensive ". That future offensive was launched during the lunar new year Tết holiday of 1968, and to prepare for it, 200,000 PAVN troops, including seven infantry regiments and 20 independent battalions, made the trip south. Throughout the war, ground operations by conventional units were somewhat limited to brief incursions into border sanctuaries. One notable operation was Dewey Canyon which took place from 22 January to 18 March 1969 in I Corps. During
372-587: A "tri-coalition" government was finally seated in Vientiane . The North Vietnamese Army, in collaboration with the Pathet Lao, invaded Laos in 1958 and 1959 , occupying the east of the country to use for its Ho Chi Minh Trail supply corridor and as a staging area for offensives into South Vietnam. There were two major theatres of the war, one for control over the Laotian Panhandle and the other
496-629: A Laotian counterpart of the Viet Minh later Viet Cong . During the civil war, it was effectively organised, equipped and even led by the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN). They fought against the anti-communist forces in the Vietnam War . Eventually, the term became the generic name for Laotian communists. Under orders from Mao Zedong , the People's Liberation Army provided 115,000 guns, 920,000 grenades and 170 million bullets, and trained more than 700 of its military officers. The political movement of
620-629: A SAM that far south during the conflict. PAVN responded to U.S. nighttime bombing by building the 1,000 kilometer-long Road K ("Green Road") from north of Lum Bum to lower Laos. During "Commando Hunt IV" (30 April–9 October 1971), U.S., South Vietnamese and Laotian forces began to feel the North Vietnamese reaction to General Lon Nol 's coup in Cambodia and the subsequent closure of the port of Sihanoukville to its supply shipments. As early as 1969 PAVN had begun its largest logistical effort of
744-514: A U.S. cross-border recon effort. On 18 October 1965, the first mission was launched "across the fence" into Laos by the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam Studies and Observations Group (MACV-SOG). This was the beginning of an ever-expanding reconnaissance effort by MACV-SOG that would continue until the operation was disbanded in 1972. Another weapon in the U.S. arsenal was unleashed upon the trail on 10 December 1965, when
868-588: A Vietnamese wife while in Vietnam, and he solicited Viet Minh aid in founding a guerrilla force. In August 1950, Souphanouvong had joined the Viet Minh in their headquarters north of Hanoi, Vietnam, and become the head of the Pathet Lao, along with its political arm dubbed Neo Lao Hak Sat (Lao Patriotic Front). This was an attempt to give a false front of authority to the Lao communist movement by claiming to represent
992-558: A Vietnamese woman while in Vietnam, and solicited Viet Minh aid in founding a guerrilla force. In August 1950, Souphanouvong joined the Viet Minh in their headquarters north of Hanoi , and became the head of the Pathet Lao, along with its political arm dubbed "Neo Lao Issara" (Free Lao Front). The Pathet Lao founded resistance government with members: Souphanouvong (Prime Minister, Minister of Foreign Affairs), Kaysone Phomvihane (Minister of Defence), Nouhak Phoumsavanh (Minister of Finance), Phoumi Vongvichit (Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of
1116-471: A certain extent at least, our nighttime supply operations". The history claimed that allied aircraft destroyed some 4,000 trucks during the 1970–71 dry season, of which the C-130s alone destroyed 2,432 trucks. A Spectre countermeasure was unveiled on 29 March 1972, when a Spectre was shot down on a night mission by a surface-to-air SA-7 missile near Tchepone. This was the first U.S. aircraft shot down by
1240-666: A constitution declaring Laos an independent nation within the French Union . This began the building of a new government over the next few years, including the establishment of a national army, the Armée Nationale Laotienne, which was the first iteration of the Royal Lao Army. The nascent army was plagued by lack of Lao leadership, and its weaponry was a hodgepodge. Thus the new Armée Nationale Laotienne consisted of light infantry battalions officered by
1364-807: A drop outside Luang Prabang. This was coupled with a thrust to the north by the French forces, from Vientiane to Luang Prabang, that chased Phetsarath Ratanavongsa and the Lao Issara ministers out of Laos. The king reinstated the French rule by repudiating his actions that had been pressured from him by the Japanese, Chinese, and Lao Issara. By September 1946, the Lao Issara had been defeated and had fled to exile in Bangkok. One of its splinter groups, led by Thao O Anourack , fled to Hanoi. There he allied himself with two men trusted by Ho Chi Minh ; Nouhak Phoumsavanh
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#17327729424171488-607: A functional economy. French commandos parachuted into Laos beginning in 1945 to organize guerrilla forces. By November, they had formed the guerrillas into four light infantry battalions of the newly founded French Union Army. The officers and sergeants of the new Lao battalions were French. In October 1945, a Lao nationalist movement called Lao Issara (Free Laos) was founded as a new government for Laos. Among Lao Issara's prominent members were three European-educated princes; brothers Phetsarath Ratanavongsa and Souvanna Phouma , and their half brother, Souphanouvong . The former became
1612-583: A fuse fired from a flare pistol. Fifty-six tests were conducted by October; 85% were judged to be successful. President Johnson then gave authorization for the program, which lasted until July 1972. Testing on the second operation, "Project Commando Lava", began on 17 May: scientists from Dow Chemical had created a chemical concoction that, when mixed with rainwater, destabilized the soil and created mud. The program drew enthusiasm from its military and civilian participants, who claimed that they were there to "make mud, not war." In some areas it worked, depending on
1736-591: A government at Viengxay in Houaphanh province , northeast Laos. The communists began to make incursions into central Laos with the support of the Viet Minh, and a civil war erupted; the Pathet Lao quickly occupied substantial sections of the country. The 1954 Geneva Conference agreements required the withdrawal of foreign forces, and allowed the Pathet Lao to establish itself as a regime in Laos's two northern provinces. The Viet Minh and North Vietnamese, in spite of
1860-709: A guerrilla force of about thirty thousand Laotian hill tribesmen, mostly local Hmong (Meo) tribesmen along with the Mien and Khmu , led by Royal Lao Army General Vang Pao , a Hmong military leader. This army, supported by the CIA proprietary airline Air America , Thailand, the Royal Lao Air Force , and a covert air operation directed by the United States ambassador to Laos, fought the People's Army of Vietnam,
1984-431: A mutual policy of each ignoring the other, at least in the public eye. This did not prevent the North Vietnamese from violating Lao neutrality by protecting and expanding their supply conduit, and by supporting their Pathet Lao allies in their war against the central government. U.S. intervention came in the form of building and supporting a CIA -backed clandestine army in its fight with the communists and constant bombing of
2108-399: A regimental logistical headquarters and was responsible for securing a particular section of the network. While separate units were tasked with security, engineering, and communications functions, a "Binh Tram" provided the logistical necessities. Usually located one day's march from one another, communication-liaison units were responsible for providing food, housing, medical care and guides to
2232-534: A right-wing government to power in Laos, increasing dependence on U.S. military and economic aid and an increasingly antagonistic attitude toward North Vietnam. PAVN forces, alongside the Pathet Lao, invaded Laos on 28 July 1959, with fighting all along the border with North Vietnam against the Royal Lao Army (RLA). In September 1959, Hanoi established the 559th Transportation Group , headquartered at Na Kai, Houaphan province in northeast Laos close to
2356-578: A separate destiny. Phetsarath Rattanavongsa chose to remain in Bangkok. His stay was temporary. He would once again become the viceroy of Laos. Souvanna Phouma chose to return to Laos via an amnesty, believing that the Lao would soon free themselves. In 1951 he became Prime Minister for the first time and held that office until 1954. Souphanouvong, who had spent seven years in Nha Trang during his sixteen years in Vietnam , met Ho Chi Minh and acquired
2480-687: A united non-partisan effort. Two of its most important founders were members of the Indochinese Communist Party, which advocated overthrow of the monarchy as well as expulsion of the French. This got Laos involved in the First Indochina War, but it started off mainly against the French. On 23 December 1950, the Pentalateral Mutual Defense Assistance Pact was signed by the United States, France, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos; it
2604-494: The 20th Tactical Air Support Squadron and Nail FACs from the 23rd Tactical Air Support Squadron , also directed strikes. Other air strikes were planned ahead. Overall coordination of the air campaign was directed by an Airborne Command and Control Center , such as those deployed in Operation Igloo White . The existence of the conflict in Laos was sometimes reported in the U.S., and described in press reports as
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#17327729424172728-553: The French Union . However, this government did not include representatives from the Lao Issara anti-colonial armed nationalist movement. The following years were marked by a rivalry between the neutralists under Prince Souvanna Phouma , the right wing under Prince Boun Oum of Champassak , and the left-wing Lao Patriotic Front under Prince Souphanouvong and half-Vietnamese future Prime Minister Kaysone Phomvihane . Several attempts were made to establish coalition governments, and
2852-467: The Joint Chiefs of Staff . The area fell under the auspices of " Operation Tiger Hound ". Political considerations complicated aerial operations. But the seasonal monsoons that hindered communist supply operations in Laos also hampered the interdiction effort. These efforts were hindered by morning fog and overcast, and by the smoke and haze produced by the slash-and-burn agriculture practiced by
2976-699: The Khmer Issarak in Cambodia and the Viet Minh in Vietnam. Originally the Lao Issara , an anti-French, non-communist nationalist movement formed on 12 October 1945, it was renamed the "Pathet Lao" in 1950 when it was adopted by Lao forces under Souphanouvong, who joined the Viet Minh's revolt against colonial French authorities in Indochina during the First Indochina War . Souphanouvong, who had spent seven years in Nha Trang during his sixteen years in Vietnam, met Ho Chi Minh , married
3100-613: The Lao People's Liberation Army , was a communist political movement and organization in Laos , formed in the mid-20th century. The group ultimately gained control over the entire country of Laos in 1975, after the Laotian Civil War . The Pathet Lao were always closely associated and dependent on Vietnamese communists and North Vietnam since their foundation, with the group being established after advice from Hanoi to create
3224-558: The National Liberation Front (Viet Cong). North Vietnam also had a sizable military effort in northern Laos, while sponsoring and maintaining an indigenous communist rebellion, the Pathet Lao, to put pressure on the Royal Lao Government. The U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), in an attempt to disrupt these operations in northern Laos without direct military involvement, responded by training
3348-698: The North Vietnamese , South Vietnamese , American and Thai armies, both directly and through irregular proxies. The war is known as the Secret War among the American CIA Special Activities Center , and Hmong and Mien veterans of the conflict. The Franco–Lao Treaty of Amity and Association (signed 22 October 1953) transferred remaining French powers to the Royal Lao Government (except control of military affairs), establishing Laos as an independent member of
3472-662: The Viet Cong insurgency in South Vietnam which became known as the Ho Chi Minh Trail . In September 1959, North Vietnam formed Group 959 in Laos with the aim of securing the supply route to South Vietnam and building the Pathet Lao into a stronger counterforce against the Lao Royal government. Group 959 openly supplied, trained and militarily supported the Pathet Lao. The typical strategy during this era
3596-642: The 1960s and 1970s the Pathet Lao battled the Royal Lao government during the Laotian Civil War , gaining control of the north and east of Laos. The Pathet Lao gained power throughout the country by early 1975. In December, the US-backed government fell and the Lao People's Revolutionary Party formed a new government. The organization can trace its roots from the Second World War , similar to
3720-524: The 470th, 471st, 472nd, 473rd, and the 571st. The group consisted of four truck transportation regiments, two petroleum pipeline regiments, three anti-aircraft artillery (AAA) regiments, eight engineer regiments, and the 968th Infantry Division. By the end of 1970 the 559th was running 27 "Binh Trams", which transported 40,000 tonnes of supplies with a 3.4% loss rate during the year. Colonel Quang and Major Phuoc would eventually build 5,000 km of pipeline and ship over 270,000 tonnes of petrol. Sections of
3844-405: The CIA's "Secret War in Laos" because details were largely unavailable due to official government denials that the war existed. The denials were seen as necessary considering that the North Vietnamese government and the U.S. had both signed agreements specifying the neutrality of Laos. U.S. involvement was considered necessary because North Vietnam had effectively gained control over a large part of
Laotian Civil War - Misplaced Pages Continue
3968-565: The First Indochina War the Việt Minh maintained north–south communications and logistics by expanding on this system of trails and paths, and called the routes the "Trans-West Supply Line" (running in south Vietnam, Cambodia, and Thailand) and the "Trans-Indochina Link" (running in north Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand). In May 1958 PAVN and Pathet Lao forces seized the transportation hub at Tchepone , on Laotian Route 9. Laotian elections in May brought
4092-708: The French Union Army, as part of its attempt to protect Laos from the PAVN, recaptured the Dien Bien Phu valley. In January 1954, the PAVN launched two assaults on Laos. One thrust crossed the top of the panhandle to the Mekong River town of Thakhek . The other was again aimed at Luang Prabang. Both were thwarted in a month. These were diversions to the famous Battle of Dien Bien Phu , which took place from March through May 1954 within ten kilometers of
4216-481: The French Union troops at Savannakhet, to no avail; the attackers mustered paratroopers, artillery, armored cars, and Spitfire fighter-bombers. The Lao Issara troops suffered 700 killed. They fled, leaving behind 250 bodies and 150 prisoners. On 24 April, the French dropped a paratroop battalion on the outskirts of Vientiane, and took the city without resistance. On 9 May, they repeated their airborne tactics with
4340-479: The French. There was one paratroop battalion included. The French began training Lao officers and non-commissioned officers even as they continued to lead and train the new army. In opposition, the Viet Minh raised a subsidiary revolutionary movement, the Pathet Lao, starting with an initial guerrilla band of 25 in January 1949. In October 1949, the exiled Lao Issara dissolved and the three royal brothers each chose
4464-606: The Ho Chi Minh Trail, with support for the Pathet Lao revolution as a secondary role. In 1968 of the estimated 40,000 PAVN troops in Laos, 25,000 were engaged in supporting the Trail, 700 as advisers to the Pathet Lao and the remainder in mobile units supporting Pathet Lao operations. Publicly the North Vietnamese maintained that they did not have any troops in Laos and were respecting the Geneva Agreement, while
4588-637: The Interior), Souk Vongsak, Sithon Kommadam, and Phaydang Lobliayao. This was an attempt to give a false front of authority to the Lao communist movement by claiming to represent a united non-partisan effort. Two of its most important founders were members of the Indochinese Communist Party , which advocated an overthrow of the monarchy as well as the expulsion of the French. In 1953, Pathet Lao fighters accompanied an invasion of Laos from Vietnam led by Viet Minh forces; they established
4712-617: The Kingdom of Laos, thus beginning the civil war and technically the Second Indochina War while the First Indochina War was still ongoing. They were opposed by 10,000 Lao troops and 3,000 French regulars. The North Vietnamese invaders succeeded in conquering the border provinces of Phongsali and Xam Neua , which were adjacent to northern Vietnam and on the northeastern verge of the Plain of Jars. They then moved aside to allow
4836-597: The Lao border, on the lines of communication into the Plain of Jars. The ruggedness of the karst mountains of northern Laos channels movement into a few canyons; small watercraft could move from Điện Biên Phủ down to the Nam Ou , and thence directly downriver to Luang Prabang, or they cross into the PDJ via Ban Ban. Pathet Lao Non-state opponents: The Pathet Lao ( Lao : ປະເທດລາວ , romanized : Pa thēt Lāo , lit. 'Lao Nation' ), officially
4960-602: The Laotian border along Route 9 and headed for the PAVN logistical center at Tchepone. " Operation Lam Son 719 ", the long-sought assault on the Ho Chi Minh Trail itself and the ultimate test of the U.S. policy of Vietnamization , had begun. Unfortunately for the South Vietnamese, U.S. ground troops were prohibited by law from participation in the incursion, and the U.S. was restricted to providing air support, artillery fire, and helicopter aviation units. At first
5084-681: The National Liberation Front (NLF), and their Pathet Lao allies to a seesaw stalemate, greatly aiding U.S. interests in the war in Vietnam. The status of the war in the north throughout the year generally depended on the weather. As the dry season started, in November or December, so did North Vietnamese military operations, as fresh troops and supplies flowed down out of North Vietnam on newly passable routes, either down from Dien Bien Phu , across Phong Saly Province on all-weather highways, or on Route 7 through Ban Ban, Laos on
Laotian Civil War - Misplaced Pages Continue
5208-632: The North Vietnamese created Transportation Group 759, which was equipped with 20 steel-hulled vessels to carry out such infiltration. After the initiation of U.S. naval interdiction efforts in coastal waters, known as Operation Market Time , the trail had to do double duty. Materiel sent from the north was stored in caches in the border regions that were soon retitled "Base Areas" (BA), which, in turn, became sanctuaries for VC and PAVN forces seeking respite and resupply after conducting operations in South Vietnam. There were five large base areas in
5332-673: The North Vietnamese handed the Americans a list of prisoners of war in Laos which included only nine Americans: seven servicemen and two civilians. U.S. agencies believe that as many as 41 Americans may have been held prisoner by the Pathet Lao. Charles Shelton who was captured on 29 April 1965 was listed as a prisoner by the DOD until September 1994. As of 26 July 2019 the DOD's Defense POW/MIA Accounting Agency listed 286 Americans as missing in Laos, of which 263 were classified as further pursuit, 12 deferred and 11 non-recoverable. Shortly after
5456-536: The North Vietnamese out of Laos, but regardless of any agreements or concessions, Hanoi had no intention of withdrawing from the country or abandoning its Laotian communist allies. North Vietnam established the Ho Chi Minh trail as a paved highway in southeast Laos paralleling the Vietnamese border. The trail was designed to transport North Vietnamese troops and supplies to South Vietnam , as well as to aid
5580-518: The North Vietnamese with 1,000 km (600 mi) of passable roads within the corridor, at least 300 km (200 mi) of which were good enough for year-round use. In 1967 Senior Colonel (later General) Đồng Sỹ Nguyên assumed command of the 559th Group. In comparison to the above DIA estimate, by the end of the year the North Vietnamese had completed 2,959 km of vehicle capable roads, including 275 kilometers of main roads, 576 kilometers of bypasses, and 450 entry roads and storage areas. It
5704-530: The PAVN for the supply of weapons and munitions and were generally outgunned by the RLA. In May 1968, the PAVN launched a multi-division invasion of Laos. The Pathet Lao effectively served as an auxiliary force to the PAVN. In June 1969 the PAVN/Pathet Lao launched Campaign Toan Thang , their first wet season offensive. Even though US air bombardments contributed to the majority of PAVN/Pathet casualties,
5828-694: The Paris Peace Accords ended U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, the Pathet Lao and the government of Laos signed a cease-fire agreement, the Vientiane Treaty , on 21 February 1973. On 4 April 1974 the Provisional Government of National Union (PGNU) was formed in Laos. In December 1974, the Pathet Lao killed Charles Dean and Neil Sharman , backpackers who were captured near Vientiane. The peace envisaged by
5952-432: The Pathet Lao abandoned the coalition and resumed fighting. By the mid-1960s, the country had fallen into proxy warfare between pro-US and pro-North Vietnamese irregular military groups. The PAVN/Pathet Lao battled the RLA, US irregular forces (including Air America and other contract employees and Hmong commandos ) and Thai volunteer forces in Laos winning effective control in the north and east. The government itself
6076-403: The Pathet Lao and sent to labor camps, where most of them died in the late 1970s and 1980s, including King Savang Vatthana , Queen Khamphoui and Crown Prince Vong Savang . The 1954 Geneva Conference established Laotian neutrality. The People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN), however, continued to operate in both northern and southeastern Laos. There were repeated attempts from 1954 onward to force
6200-488: The Pathet Lao force with its mismatched scrounged equipment to occupy the captured ground, and Souphanouvong moved the Pathet Lao headquarters into Xam Neua on 19 April. The other strike, moving from Điện Biên Phủ and aimed downriver at Luang Prabang , was thwarted by oncoming monsoons and resistance by the French. The Vietnamese invasion was stalled, but only because the French had airlifted in battalions of Foreign Legionnaires and Moroccan Tirailleurs . In December,
6324-449: The Pathet Lao had mustered sufficient trained troops to join the Viet Minh in military operations. By October 1951, the Armée Nationale Laotienne had raised two more battalions of infantry and began training a battalion of paratroops. The ANL ended the year with a strength of 5,091. By the end of 1952, the Royal Lao Army had grown to include a battalion of troops commanded by Laotian officers, as well as 17 other companies. In April 1953,
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#17327729424176448-429: The Pathet Lao signed an agreement with Vietnam that allowed Vietnam to station part of its army in the country and to send political and economic advisors into Laos. Vietnam afterward forced Laos to cut any remaining economic ties to its other neighbours, including Thailand and Cambodia. After the Pathet Lao took over the country in 1975, the conflict continued in isolated pockets. In 1977, a communist newspaper promised
6572-454: The Pathet Lao was called first the "Lao People's Party" (1955–1972) and later the " Lao People's Revolutionary Party " (1972–present). Key Pathet Lao leaders include Prince Souphanouvong , Kaysone Phomvihane , Phoumi Vongvichit , Nouhak Phoumsavanh and Khamtay Siphandone . The political wing of the Pathet Lao, called the " Lao Patriotic Front " ( Lao : Neo Lao Hak Xat ) served in multiple coalition governments, starting in 1956. Through
6696-556: The Plain of Jars and shelling Long Tieng , the base of Vang Pao 's RLA aligned army before withdrawing. On 28 October 1972 the PAVN/Pathet Lao launched Campaign 972 scoring a series of victories over the war-weary RLA forces. With the signing of the Paris Peace Accords on 27 January 1973 all U.S. prisoners were to be released under Operation Homecoming . The United States Department of Defense (DOD) listed 311 Americans as missing in Laos, however on 1 February 1973
6820-557: The RLA were unable to match the numerical strength of the PAVN/Pathet Lao forces, and the RLA took heavy losses. In September 1969 the RLA attacked PAVN/Pathet Lao positions on the Plain of Jars and along the Ho Chi Minh Trail. While initially successful, the RLA forces were eventually pushed back by the PAVN/Pathet Lao Campaign 139 . On 2 February 1971 the PAVN/Pathet Lao launched Campaign 74B temporarily capturing
6944-655: The U.S. command in Saigon estimated that communist supply requirements for their southern forces amounted to 234 tons of all supplies per day and that 195 tons were moving through Laos. U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) analysts concluded that during the 1965 Laotian dry season the enemy was moving 30 trucks per day (90 tonnes) over the trail, far above the Saigon estimate. U.S. officials had only estimates of its enemy's capabilities; intelligence collection agencies often conflicted with each other. Thanks to improvements to
7068-491: The United States and its allies were violating it; the United States asserted the exact opposite. The Pathet Lao supreme headquarters or center was located in the Viengxay caves near Xam Neua manned by approximately 500 personnel. NLHS membership was estimated as being 11,000 in 1965 and 14,000 in 1978. In October 1965 the armed forces were renamed the Lao People's Liberation Army (LPLA). The LPLA's estimated strength
7192-610: The Vientiane Treaty lasted only two years. The Pathet Lao refused to disarm and the PAVN did not leave the country. In late February 1975, the Pathet Lao, with PAVN assistance, began attacking government strongholds on the Plain of Jars. With the fall of the Cambodian government to the Khmer Rouge on 17 April and the fall of the South Vietnamese government to the PAVN on 30 April 1975 the non-communist elements of
7316-490: The Viet Minh's People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) invaded the northeastern part of what was still the French Protectorate of Laos with 40,000 troops commanded by General Võ Nguyên Giáp ; including 2,000 Pathet Lao soldiers led by Souphanouvong. The objective of the two-pronged invasion was the capture of the royal capital of Luang Prabang and of the Plain of Jars. On 9 November the Pathet Lao began its conflict with
7440-444: The Vietnam War, since the PAVN abandoned its old hit-and-run tactics and launched a conventional counterattack. The PAVN first launched massed infantry attacks supported by armor and heavy artillery to crush ARVN positions on the flanks of the main advance. Coordinated anti-aircraft fire made tactical air support and resupply difficult and costly, with 108 helicopters shot down and 618 others damaged. PAVN forces began to squeeze in on
7564-435: The Vietnamese communists would recede toward Vietnam. The war in the southeastern panhandle against the Ho Chi Minh Trail was primarily a massive air interdiction program by the USAF and United States Navy because political constraints kept the trail safe from ground assault from South Vietnam. Raven FACs also directed air strikes in the southeast. Other Forward Air Controllers from South Vietnam, such as Covey FACs from
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#17327729424177688-449: The agreement, never really withdrew from the border areas of Laos and the Pathet Lao continued to operate almost as a branch organization of the Viet Minh. Two months after the conference, the North Vietnamese formed Group 100 with headquarters at Na Mèo . The unit effectively controlled and directed the Pathet Lao movement. It was formed into an official party, the Lao Patriotic Front (Neo Lao Hak Sat (NLHS)), in 1956. Its stated goal
7812-401: The approaches to the A Shau Valley in South Vietnam. The plastic pipeline, equipped with numerous small pumping stations, managed to transfer diesel fuel, gasoline, and kerosene all through the same pipe. Due to the efforts of the PAVN 592nd Pipelaying Regiment, the number of pipelines entering Laos increased to six that year. The 559th Group, still under the command of General Đồng Sỹ Nguyên,
7936-420: The arrival of the morning waves of U.S. fighter bombers. By the last phase of "Commando Hunt" (October 1970 – April 1972), the average daily number of U.S. aircraft flying interdiction missions included 182 attack fighters, 13 fixed-wing gunships, and 21 B-52s. The North Vietnamese also responded to the American aerial threat by the increased use of heavy concentrations of anti-aircraft artillery. By 1968 this
8060-435: The border. It was under the command of Colonel (later General) Võ Bẩm and established to improve and maintain a transportation system to supply the VC insurgency against the South Vietnamese government. Initially, the North Vietnamese effort concentrated on infiltration across and immediately below the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) that separated the two Vietnams. The 559th Group "flipped" its line of communications to
8184-413: The chief means of moving supplies and troops. As early as December 1961, the 3rd Truck Transportation Group of PAVN's General Rear Services Department had become the first motor transport unit fielded by North Vietnamese to work the trail and the use of motor transport escalated. Two types of units served under the 559th Group: "Binh Trams" (BT) and commo-liaison units. A "Binh Tram" was the equivalent of
8308-415: The country. Despite these denials, however, the civil war was the largest U.S. covert operation prior to the Soviet–Afghan War , with areas of Laos controlled by North Vietnam subjected to years of intense U.S. aerial bombardment, representing the heaviest bombing campaign in history. Overshadowing it all was the struggle of the Cold War , with the United States' policy of the containment of communism and
8432-446: The dry season of 1967 to August 1968. An example is Binh Tram 31: They took responsibility from the Mu Gia Pass to Lum Bum (Route 128) and all the roads from Route 12 to Kontum , Route 129 from Ca Vat to Na Phi Lang. Within this BT there were: 25th and 27th Engineer Battalions; 101st and 53rd Truck Transport Battalions; 14th AAA Battalion; two infantry companies; 8th Guide Battalion (soldiers to take troops and trucks from one station to
8556-443: The end of 1968, bombing missions over southern Laos had climbed 300 percent, from 4,700 sorties in October to 12,800 in November. This round-the-clock aerial effort was directed by "Operation Igloo White", run out of Nakhon Phanom , Thailand. It was composed of three parts: strings of air-dropped acoustic and seismic sensors collected intelligence on the trail; computers at the Intelligence Collection Center (ICS) in Thailand collated
8680-403: The entire conflict. The Laotian towns of Attapeu and Salavan , at the foot of the Bolaven Plateau were seized by the PAVN during 1970, opening the length of the Kong River system into Cambodia. Hanoi also created the 470th Transportation Group to manage the flow of men and supplies to the new battlefields in Cambodia. This new "Liberation Route" turned west from the trail at Muong May, at
8804-438: The first B-52 Stratofortress bomber strike was conducted in Laos. A common historical perspective supports the efficacy of the campaigns (despite their failure to halt or slow infiltration), as they did restrict enemy materiel and manpower in Laos and Cambodia. This viewpoint pervaded some official U.S. government histories of the conflict. John Schlight said of the PAVN's logistical apparatus, "This sustained effort, requiring
8928-431: The full-time activities of tens of thousands of soldiers, who might otherwise have been fighting in South Vietnam, seems proof positive that the bombing of the Ho Chi Minh Trail had disrupted the North Vietnamese war effort." Despite U.S. anti-infiltration efforts, the estimated number of PAVN infiltrators for 1966 was between 58,000 and 90,000 troops, including five full enemy regiments. A June 1966 DIA estimate credited
9052-681: The indigenous population. During 1968 the USAF undertook two experimental operations that it hoped would worsen the monsoons. "Project Popeye" was an attempt to indefinitely extend the rainy season over southeastern Laos by cloud seeding . Testing on the project began in September above the Kong River watershed that ran through the Steel Tiger and Tiger Hound areas. Clouds were seeded by air with silver iodide smoke and then activated by launching
9176-468: The information and predicted convoy paths and speeds; and an airborne relay and control aircraft which received the signals from the sensors and routed aircraft to targets as directed by the ICS. This effort was supported by MACV-SOG recon teams, who, besides carrying out recon, wiretap, and bomb damage assessment missions for "Commando Hunt", also hand-placed sensors for "Igloo White". Personnel interdiction
9300-663: The last commo-liaison station in Laos or Cambodia was reached and the vehicles were unloaded. The supplies were then cached, loaded onto watercraft, or man-portered into South Vietnam. Due to the increased effectiveness of "Commando Hunt", North Vietnamese transportation units usually took to the roads only at dusk with traffic peaking in the early morning hours. As U.S. aircraft came on station, traffic would subside until just before dawn, when fixed-wing gunships and night bombers returned to their bases. The trucks then began rolling again, reaching another peak in traffic around 06:00 as drivers hurried to get into truck parks before sunrise and
9424-469: The main line of the ARVN advance. Although an airborne assault managed to seize Tchepone, it was a useless victory, as the South Vietnamese could only hold the town for a short period before being withdrawn due to attacks on the main column. The only way the invasion force managed to extricate itself from Laos was through the massive application of U.S. air support. By 25 March 1971, the last ARVN troops recrossed
9548-450: The makeup of the soil. The chemicals were dropped by C-130A aircraft, but the overall effect on North Vietnamese interdiction was minimal and the experiment was cancelled. In December 1965 the USAF began its first Operation Ranch Hand defoliation missions against the trail in Laos using both Agent Blue and Agent Orange defoliants. More than 210 missions took place, spraying approximately 1.8 million litres of defoliants. Unlike Laos,
9672-413: The national government decided that allowing the Pathet Lao to enter power would be better than to have them take it by force. Long Tieng was evacuated in mid-May. On 23 August 1975, Pathet Lao forces quietly entered the capital Vientiane. On 2 December 1975, the Pathet Lao firmly took over the government, abolishing the monarchy and establishing the Lao People's Democratic Republic . Shortly thereafter,
9796-621: The need to extend the pipeline at a much faster rate. The responsibility to build the pipeline fell to Lieutenant Colonel Phan Tu Quang, who became the first Chief of the Fuel Supply Department, and Major Mai Trong Phuoc, who was the Commander of Road Work Team 18, the secret name for the workers who built the pipeline. Early in 1969, the pipeline crossed the Lao frontier through the Mu Gia Pass and, by 1970, it reached
9920-476: The new government. Chinese troops, including the Chinese Nationalist 93rd Division, occupied cities as far south as Luang Prabang. The French-sponsored guerrillas controlled the southern provinces of Savannakhet and Khammouan . Prince Boun Oum , who sympathized with the French, occupied the rest of the southern panhandle. For these, and other reasons, Lao Issara could not hold the country against
10044-413: The new government. The Hmong were persecuted as traitors and "lackeys" of the Americans, with the government and its Vietnamese allies carrying out human rights abuses against Hmong civilians. The incipient conflict between Vietnam and China also played a role with Hmong rebels being accused of receiving support from China. Over 40,000 people died in the conflict . The Lao royal family were arrested by
10168-427: The next way-station. By April 1965, command of the 559th Group devolved upon General Phan Trọng Tuệ, who assumed command of 24,000 men in six truck transportation battalions, two bicycle transportation battalions, a boat transportation battalion, eight engineer battalions, and 45 commo-liaison stations. The motto of the 559th became "Build roads to advance, fight the enemy to travel." There were nine Binh Trams between
10292-548: The next); three stores companies; a communications company; a medical care unit; three teams of surgeons; a quarantine unit; and a workshop to repair trucks. The system developed into an intricate maze of 5.5-metre-wide (18 ft) dirt roads (paved with gravel and corduroyed in some areas), foot and bicycle paths and truck parks. There were numerous supply bunkers, storage areas, barracks, hospitals, and command and control facilities, all concealed from aerial observation by an intricate system of natural and man-made camouflage that
10416-455: The northeast corner of the Plain of Jars . The CIA's covert operation's clandestine army would give way, harrying the PAVN and Pathet Lao as they retreated; Raven Forward Air Controllers would direct massive air strikes against the communists by USAF jets and RLAF T-28s to prevent the capture of the Laotian capitals of Vientiane and Luang Prabang . When the rainy season six months later rendered North Vietnamese supply lines impassable,
10540-420: The operation went well, with little resistance from the North Vietnamese. By early March 1971 the situation changed. Hanoi made the decision to stand and fight. It began to muster forces which would eventually number 60,000 PAVN troops as well as several thousand allied Pathet Lao troops and Lao irregulars, outnumbering the ARVN by almost three to one. The fighting in southeastern Laos was unlike any yet seen in
10664-641: The operation, the 9th Marine Regiment attempted to interdict PAVN activity in the Da Krong River and A Shau Valleys. Ground units briefly entered the border areas of Laos during fighting with elements of the PAVN 9th Regiment. In the wake of the Tet Offensive, the North Vietnamese expanded and modernized their logistical effort. The number of supply and maintenance personnel dropped, mainly due to increased use of motor and river transport and mechanized construction equipment. The CIA estimated during
10788-502: The panhandle of Laos (see map). BA 604 was the main logistical center during the war. From there, the coordination and distribution of men and supplies into South Vietnam's Military Region (MR) I and BAs further south was accomplished. Human labour, pushing heavily laden bicycles, driving oxcarts, or acting as human pack animals, moving hundreds of tonnes of supplies in this fashion was quickly supplanted by truck transport—using Soviet, Chinese, or Eastern Bloc models—which quickly became
10912-505: The party would hunt down the "American collaborators" and their families "to the last root". With the demise of the Soviet Union, control of Laos by Vietnam waned at the end of the 1980s. Today, "Pathet Lao" is often invoked as a general term signifying Lao nationalism. Ho Chi Minh trail The Ho Chi Minh Trail ( Vietnamese : Đường mòn Hồ Chí Minh ), also called Annamite Range Trail ( Vietnamese : Đường Trường Sơn )
11036-507: The people were poor because of capitalism and US imperialism. If volunteers were not forthcoming then youth would be drafted, with the draft age of 15, but in many cases conscripts were as young as 12. Training was rudimentary with a greater emphasis placed on political indoctrination than on military skills as the "fighting will" was deemed to be the most important source of military strength. Military units had political commissars down to company level. The LPLA were entirely dependent on
11160-490: The pipeline were still in use in the 1990s. Trucked supplies traveled in convoys from North Vietnam in relays, with trucks shuttling from one way station to the next. The vehicles were then unloaded and reloaded onto "fresh" trucks at each station. If a truck was disabled or destroyed, it was replaced from the assets of the next northern station and so on until it was replaced by a new one in North Vietnam. Eventually,
11284-402: The policies of the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union of spreading communism via subversion and insurgency. The end of World War II left Laos in political chaos. The French, who had been displaced from their protectorate by the Japanese, wanted to resume control of Laos, and sponsored guerrilla forces to regain control. The Japanese had proclaimed Laos independent even as they lost
11408-528: The population of Laos' six urban areas were Vietnamese, with the Vietnamese holding key positions in the civil bureaucracies and the police. Since the 1930s the Indochinese Communist Party had established wholly Vietnamese cells in Laos. Prince Phetsarath Ratanavongsa , as Viceroy and Prime Minister, established the Lao royal treasury account with the Indochinese treasury in Hanoi in an attempt to establish
11532-569: The present trail developed, Agence France-Presse (AFP) announced that a north–south trail had opened, and they named the corridor La Piste de Hồ Chí Minh , the 'Hồ Chí Minh Trail'. The trail ran mostly in Laos, and was called the Trường Sơn Strategic Supply Route (Đường Trường Sơn) by the communists , after the Vietnamese name for the Annamite Range , a major mountain range of central Vietnam. They further identified
11656-428: The rainy season. In 1961 U.S. intelligence analysts estimated that 5,843 enemy infiltrators (actually 4,000) had moved south on the trail; in 1962, 12,675 (actually 5,300); in 1963, 7,693 (actually 4,700); and in 1964, 12,424. The supply capacity of the trail reached 20 to 30 tonnes per day in 1964 and it was estimated by the U.S. that 12,000 (actually 9,000) PAVN soldiers had reached South Vietnam that year. By 1965
11780-505: The returning French colonial government and its troops. The French negotiated a Chinese withdrawal from Laos prior to their own return, removing them from the field. In January 1946, the French began the reconquest of Laos by sweeping the Bolovens Plateau. They had organized six battalions of light infantry, to which they added a minor force of French troops. On 21 March 1946, Souphanouvong and his largely Vietnamese force fought
11904-403: The signing of a military cooperation treaty with the newly established North Vietnamese communist government, which was done. The French military mission was escorted out of Laos into Thailand by a contingent of Chinese troops. However, the Lao Issara never gained more than a tenuous hold on the entirety of Laos. Roving Viet Minh detachments ruled the northeast, but the Viet Minh declined to aid
12028-587: The south end of Laos, and paralleled the Kong River into Cambodia. Eventually this new route extended past Siem Prang and reached the Mekong River near Stung Treng . During 1971 PAVN took Paksong and advanced to Pakse , at the heart of the Bolaven Plateau region of Laos. The following year, Khong Sedone fell to the North Vietnamese. The PAVN continued a campaign to clear the eastern flank of
12152-407: The southern panhandle was bombed in " Operation Steel Tiger ". By mid-year the number of sorties being flown had grown from 20 to 1,000 per month. In January 1965, the U.S. command in Saigon requested control over bombing operations in the areas of Laos adjacent to South Vietnam's five northernmost provinces, claiming that the area was part of the "extended battlefield". The request was granted by
12276-518: The time it was believed to be the main supply route, however it later transpired that the Sihanouk Trail which ran through Cambodia was handling significantly more material. It was named by the U.S. after the North Vietnamese leader Hồ Chí Minh . The origin of the name is presumed to have come from the First Indochina War , when there was a Viet Minh maritime logistics line called the "Route of Ho Chi Minh", and shortly after late 1960, as
12400-554: The titular founder of Lao Issara. Souphanouvong became commander in chief, as well as minister of foreign affairs. Souvanna Phouma became minister of public works. Independence began with an uprising of the Vietnamese residents in Savannakhet . Prince Souphanouvong took command of a band of partisans armed with weapons looted from the local militia. The band moved northward to the administrative capitol of Vientiane with its provisional revolutionary government. Souphanouvong then urged
12524-467: The trail as either West Trường Sơn (Laos) or East Trường Sơn (Vietnam). According to the U.S. National Security Agency 's official history of the war, the trail system was "one of the great achievements of military engineering of the 20th century". The trail was able to effectively supply troops fighting in the south, an unparalleled military feat, given it was the site of the single most intense air interdiction campaign in history. Parts of what became
12648-535: The trail had existed for centuries as primitive footpaths that enabled trade. The area through which the system meandered was among the most challenging in Southeast Asia: a sparsely populated region of rugged mountains 500–2,400 metres (1,500–8,000 ft) in elevation, triple-canopy jungle and dense tropical rainforests . Pre-First Indochina War, the routes were known as the "Southward March", "Eastward March", "Westward March", and "Northward March". During
12772-717: The trail in Cambodia was not systematically targeted for defoliation, although more than ten missions were mounted against the Parrot's Beak area, spraying approximately 155,000 litres of Agent Orange. On the ground, the CIA and the RLA had initially been given the responsibility of stopping, slowing, or, at the very least, observing the enemy's infiltration effort. In Laos, the agency began Operation Pincushion in 1962 to accomplish that goal. The operation evolved into Operation Hardnose , in which CIA-backed Laotian irregular reconnaissance team operations took place. In October 1965, General Westmoreland received authorization to launch
12896-581: The trail system (including opening new routes that would connect to the Sihanouk Trail in Cambodia), the quantity of supplies transported during 1965 almost equaled the combined total for the previous five years. During the year interdiction of the system had become one of the top American priorities, but operations against it were complicated by the limited forces available at the time and Laos's ostensible neutrality. The intricacies of Laotian affairs, and U.S. and North Vietnamese interference in them, led to
13020-490: The trail that it had begun in 1968. By 1968, U.S. Special Forces camps at Khe Sanh and Khâm Đức, both of which were used by MACV-SOG as forward operations bases for its reconnaissance effort, had either been abandoned or overrun. In 1970, the same fate befell another camp at Dak Seang . What had once been a 30-kilometre-wide (20 mi) supply corridor now stretched for 140 km (90 mi) from east to west. In early-February 1971, 16,000 (later 20,000) ARVN troops crossed
13144-519: The trail. They also provided support for the Lao government. On 14 December 1964, the U.S. Air Force's (USAF) " Operation Barrel Roll " carried out the first systematic bombardment of the Hồ Chí Minh Trail in Laos. On 20 March 1965, after the initiation of Operation Rolling Thunder against North Vietnam, President Lyndon B. Johnson approved a corresponding escalation against the trail system. "Barrel Roll" continued in northeastern Laos while
13268-419: The war. Though King Sisavang Vong thought Laos was too small for independence, he had proclaimed the end of the French protectorate status while simultaneously favoring the French return. He let it be known he would accept independence if it should occur. Thus there was a nascent movement for independence amid the turmoil. Underlying all this was a strong undercurrent of Vietnamese involvement. Sixty percent of
13392-466: The west side of the Trường Sơn mountains. By 1959, the 559th had 6,000 personnel in two regiments alone, the 70th and 71st, not including combat troops in security roles or North Vietnamese and Laotian civilian laborers. In the early days of the conflict the trail was used strictly for the infiltration of manpower. At the time, Hanoi could supply its southern allies much more efficiently by sea. In 1959
13516-561: The year that the 559th Group was using 20 bulldozers, 11 road graders, three rock crushers, and two steamrollers for maintenance and new road construction. As many as 43,000 North Vietnamese or Laotians were engaged in operating, improving, or extending the system. In 1969, 433,000 tonnes of ordnance fell on Laos. This was made possible by the end of "Operation Rolling Thunder" and the commencement of "Operation Commando Hunt" in November 1968. U.S. aircraft were freed for interdiction missions and as many as 500 per day were flying over Laos. By
13640-561: Was 25,000 in June 1965, 33,000 in April 1967, 48,000+ in 1970 and 35,000 in late 1972. The LPLA was divided into regular, regional/popular and militia/guerrilla forces. LPLA forces had PAVN advisers assigned to them but were not mixed with PAVN forces. Recruitment into the LPLA was based on appeals to the patriotism of young Laotians who were told that their country was rich in natural resources but
13764-424: Was Vietnamese, and Kaysone Phomvihane was Vietnamese-Lao. These three men founded the military movement that would become the Pathet Lao (Land of Laos). Thao O Anourack established the initial Pathet Lao base at Con Cuong , Vietnam. Kaysone Phomvihane organized the first detachment of the new force. By the end of 1946, at least 500 Viet Minh agents had crossed into Laos. On 11 May 1947, King Sisavang Vong granted
13888-463: Was a logistical network of roads and trails that ran from North Vietnam to South Vietnam through the kingdoms of Laos and Cambodia . The system provided support, in the form of manpower and materiel , to the Viet Cong (or "VC") and the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN), during the Vietnam War . Construction for the network began following the North Vietnamese invasion of Laos in July 1959. At
14012-539: Was a tool to transfer American military aid to the French war effort in Indochina. This year also marked the infiltration of at least 5,000 more Viet Minh into Laos. In February 1951, the Indochinese Communist Party decided to split in three to sponsor war against the French in Cambodia and Laos, along with the war in Vietnam. The new Laotian branch consisted of 2,091 members, but included only 31 Lao. Also, by 1951,
14136-434: Was abandoned by early-1969. The sensor system was not sophisticated enough to detect enemy personnel, so the effort was given up until "Operation Island Tree" in late-1971. A revelation for U.S. intelligence analysts in late 1968 was the discovery of a petroleum pipeline running southwest from the northern port of Vinh . Initially, fuel was carried by porters, but this was inefficient and time-consuming, and thus highlighted
14260-470: Was captured but the remainder fled to North Vietnam. Then in July 1959 Lao police arrested 16 Neo Lao Hak Sat members, including seven who had been elected to the National Assembly, on charges of treason. These actions brought about a resumption of fighting. In late 1959, North Vietnam had reoccupied areas of eastern Laos. The area was used as a transit route for men and supplies destined for
14384-525: Was constantly improved. By 1973, trucks could drive the entire length of the trail without emerging from the canopy except to ford streams or cross them on crude bridges built beneath the water's surface. The weather in southeastern Laos came to play a large role both in the supply effort and in U.S. and South Vietnamese efforts to interdict it. The southwest monsoon (commonly called the rainy season) from mid-May to mid-September, brought heavy precipitation (70% of 3,800 mm (150 in) per year). The sky
14508-438: Was effectively powerless. Until 1968 military operations were conducted by small units, usually of company or at most battalion size. Typically the RLA would be dominant in the wet season from May through October when the PAVN/Pathet Lao were immobilized by the rains and the PAVN/Pathet Lao would dominate during the dry season from November through April. PAVN forces in Laos were primarily focused on supporting and defending
14632-686: Was for PAVN regulars to attack first but then send in the Pathet Lao at the end of the battle to claim victory. In the early 1960s, more attempts at neutrality agreements and coalition government were attempted, principally the International Agreement on the Neutrality of Laos signed in Geneva on 23 July 1962, but as North Vietnam had no intention of withdrawing from Laos, these agreements all failed. The Pathet Lao entered into another coalition government in June 1962 but by April 1963
14756-666: Was fought around the northern Plain of Jars . From 1961 onward, the US trained Hmong tribesmen to disrupt North Vietnamese operations and in 1964, the US began bombing North Vietnamese supply routes . The North Vietnamese and Pathet Lao eventually emerged victorious in December 1975, following from North Vietnam's final victory over South Vietnam in April 1975 . After the communist takeover in Laos, up to 300,000 people fled to neighbouring Thailand , and Hmong rebels began an insurgency against
14880-467: Was learned by U.S. intelligence that the enemy was using the Kong and Bang Fai Rivers to transport food, fuel, and munitions shipments by loading materiel into half-filled steel drums and then launching them into the rivers. They were later collected downstream by nets and booms. Unknown to the U.S., the North Vietnamese had also begun to transport and store more than 81,000 tonnes of supplies "to be utilized in
15004-470: Was made the equivalent of a Military Region in 1970 and the group was given the additional name, the "Truong Son Army". It was composed of four units, one division and three equivalent units: the 968th Infantry Division; 470th Group; 565th MAG; and 571st Rear Group. The units controlled fuel pipeline battalions. In July 1971, the Truong Son Army was reorganized into five divisional headquarters:
15128-535: Was mainly composed of 37 mm and 57 mm radar-controlled weapons. The next year, 85 mm and 100 mm guns appeared, and by the end of Commando Hunt , over 1,500 guns defended the system. Of all the weapons systems used against the trail, according to the official North Vietnamese history of the conflict, the AC-130 Spectre fixed-wing gunship was the most formidable adversary. The Spectres "established control over and successfully suppressed, to
15252-522: Was to wage the communist struggle against capitalism , as well as Western colonialism and imperialism . Unstated was its subordination to the Communist Party of Vietnam . A coalition government was established in 1957 between the monarchists and communists. In May 1959 two Pathet Lao battalions which had been selected for integration into the Royal Lao Army (RLA) were surrounded by RLA troops who attempted to disarm them. Part of one battalion
15376-473: Was usually overcast with high temperatures. The northwest monsoon (the dry season), from mid-October to mid-March was relatively dry with lower temperatures. Since the road network in the trail system was generally dirt, the bulk of supply transport, and the military efforts that they supported, were conducted during the dry season. Eventually, the bulk of the trail was either asphalted or hard packed, thus allowing large quantities of supplies to be moved even during
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