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80-517: Ammonia is an important intermediate product for the manufacture of nitric acid and other nitrogen compounds, needed to produce fertilizers and explosives in particular. The increasing demand for explosives during World War I exceeded the ammonia production capacities of the Oppau works of BASF , who owned the patents for the Haber process . Leuna in central Germany, out of range of French aircraft,

160-513: A base , a proton acceptor. Ammonia is moderately basic; a 1.0  M aqueous solution has a pH of 11.6, and if a strong acid is added to such a solution until the solution is neutral ( pH = 7 ), 99.4% of the ammonia molecules are protonated . Temperature and salinity also affect the proportion of ammonium [NH 4 ] . The latter has the shape of a regular tetrahedron and is isoelectronic with methane . The ammonia molecule readily undergoes nitrogen inversion at room temperature;

240-484: A vapour pressure of less than 1 bar even at 25 °C (77 °F). However, few oxyanion salts with other cations dissolve. Liquid ammonia will dissolve all of the alkali metals and other electropositive metals such as Ca , Sr , Ba , Eu and Yb (also Mg using an electrolytic process ). At low concentrations (<0.06 mol/L), deep blue solutions are formed: these contain metal cations and solvated electrons , free electrons that are surrounded by

320-584: A "vital centre", and in February 1941, the British Air Staff expected that RAF Bomber Command would, by destruction of half of a list of 17 targets, reduce Axis oil production capacity by 80%. Although the Butt Report of August 1941 identified the poor accuracy and performance of RAF bombing at the time, Air Chief Marshal Charles Portal maintained at the 1943 Casablanca Conference

400-444: A cage of ammonia molecules. These solutions are strong reducing agents. At higher concentrations, the solutions are metallic in appearance and in electrical conductivity. At low temperatures, the two types of solution can coexist as immiscible phases. The range of thermodynamic stability of liquid ammonia solutions is very narrow, as the potential for oxidation to dinitrogen, E ° ( N 2 + 6 [NH 4 ] + 6 e ⇌ 8 NH 3 ),

480-415: A cloud of ammonium chloride , which seems to appear 'out of nothing' as the salt aerosol forms where the two diffusing clouds of reagents meet between the two bottles. The salts produced by the action of ammonia on acids are known as the ammonium salts and all contain the ammonium ion ( [NH 4 ] ). Although ammonia is well known as a weak base, it can also act as an extremely weak acid. It

560-550: A colourless liquid , which boils at −33.1 °C (−27.58 °F), and freezes to colourless crystals at −77.7 °C (−107.86 °F). Little data is available at very high temperatures and pressures, but the liquid-vapor critical point occurs at 405 K and 11.35 MPa. The crystal symmetry is cubic, Pearson symbol cP16, space group P2 1 3 No.198, lattice constant 0.5125  nm . Liquid ammonia possesses strong ionising powers reflecting its high ε of 22 at −35 °C (−31 °F). Liquid ammonia has

640-406: A far lower temperature than would be possible with water alone. Substances containing ammonia, or those that are similar to it, are called ammoniacal . Ammonia is a colourless gas with a characteristically pungent smell . It is lighter than air , its density being 0.589 times that of air . It is easily liquefied due to the strong hydrogen bonding between molecules. Gaseous ammonia turns to

720-407: A fuel for thermal power production. The flammable range of ammonia in dry air is 15.15–27.35% and in 100% relative humidity air is 15.95–26.55%. For studying the kinetics of ammonia combustion, knowledge of a detailed reliable reaction mechanism is required, but this has been challenging to obtain. Ammonia is a direct or indirect precursor to most manufactured nitrogen-containing compounds . It

800-452: A laboratorial setting, gaseous ammonia can be detected by using concentrated hydrochloric acid or gaseous hydrogen chloride. A dense white fume (which is ammonium chloride vapor) arises from the reaction between ammonia and HCl(g). Ammoniacal nitrogen (NH 3 –N) is a measure commonly used for testing the quantity of ammonium ions, derived naturally from ammonia, and returned to ammonia via organic processes, in water or waste liquids. It

880-432: A pale yellowish-green flame. Ignition occurs when chlorine is passed into ammonia, forming nitrogen and hydrogen chloride ; if chlorine is present in excess, then the highly explosive nitrogen trichloride ( NCl 3 ) is also formed. The combustion of ammonia to form nitrogen and water is exothermic : The standard enthalpy change of combustion , Δ H ° c , expressed per mole of ammonia and with condensation of

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960-736: A refinery in Norway in April 1945. During the war the effort expended against POL targets varied, with relative priority moving between the other objectives within the Allied Combined Bomber Offensive such as to defeating the German V-weapon attacks, the destruction of the German air force , or to attacking transport links in preparation for the invasion of western Europe in 1944 . The British had identified

1040-466: A smaller total tonnage than the USAAF 8th and 15th Air Forces together, it delivered more tonnage in fewer attacks than the 8th AF which was also operating from bases in eastern England. The USSBS believed that Bomber Command's heavy bombs – 4,000-pound (1,800 kg) Blockbuster bombs  – were more effective than an equivalent weight of smaller bombs. Both RAF and USAAF dropped

1120-559: A total of eight electrons, or four electron pairs that are arranged tetrahedrally . Three of these electron pairs are used as bond pairs, which leaves one lone pair of electrons. The lone pair repels more strongly than bond pairs; therefore, the bond angle is not 109.5°, as expected for a regular tetrahedral arrangement, but 106.8°. This shape gives the molecule a dipole moment and makes it polar . The molecule's polarity, and especially its ability to form hydrogen bonds , makes ammonia highly miscible with water. The lone pair makes ammonia

1200-438: A useful analogy is an umbrella turning itself inside out in a strong wind. The energy barrier to this inversion is 24.7 kJ/mol, and the resonance frequency is 23.79  GHz , corresponding to microwave radiation of a wavelength of 1.260 cm. The absorption at this frequency was the first microwave spectrum to be observed and was used in the first maser . One of the most characteristic properties of ammonia

1280-465: A very high standard enthalpy change of vapourization (23.5  kJ/mol ; for comparison, water 's is 40.65 kJ/mol, methane 8.19 kJ/mol and phosphine 14.6 kJ/mol) and can be transported in pressurized or refrigerated vessels; however, at standard temperature and pressure liquid anhydrous ammonia will vaporize. Ammonia readily dissolves in water. In an aqueous solution, it can be expelled by boiling. The aqueous solution of ammonia

1360-497: Is basic , and may be described as aqueous ammonia or ammonium hydroxide . The maximum concentration of ammonia in water (a saturated solution ) has a specific gravity of 0.880 and is often known as '.880 ammonia'. Liquid ammonia is a widely studied nonaqueous ionising solvent. Its most conspicuous property is its ability to dissolve alkali metals to form highly coloured, electrically conductive solutions containing solvated electrons . Apart from these remarkable solutions, much of

1440-814: Is a protic substance and is capable of formation of amides (which contain the NH − 2 ion). For example, lithium dissolves in liquid ammonia to give a blue solution ( solvated electron ) of lithium amide : Like water, liquid ammonia undergoes molecular autoionisation to form its acid and base conjugates : Ammonia often functions as a weak base , so it has some buffering ability. Shifts in pH will cause more or fewer ammonium cations ( NH + 4 ) and amide anions ( NH − 2 ) to be present in solution . At standard pressure and temperature, Ammonia does not burn readily or sustain combustion , except under narrow fuel-to-air mixtures of 15–28% ammonia by volume in air. When mixed with oxygen , it burns with

1520-402: Is a measure used mainly for quantifying values in waste treatment and water purification systems, as well as a measure of the health of natural and man-made water reserves. It is measured in units of mg/L ( milligram per litre ). The ancient Greek historian Herodotus mentioned that there were outcrops of salt in an area of Libya that was inhabited by a people called the 'Ammonians' (now

1600-568: Is about 10 . Liquid ammonia is an ionising solvent, although less so than water, and dissolves a range of ionic compounds, including many nitrates , nitrites , cyanides , thiocyanates , metal cyclopentadienyl complexes and metal bis(trimethylsilyl)amides . Most ammonium salts are soluble and act as acids in liquid ammonia solutions. The solubility of halide salts increases from fluoride to iodide . A saturated solution of ammonium nitrate ( Divers' solution , named after Edward Divers ) contains 0.83 mol solute per mole of ammonia and has

1680-415: Is also applied directly into the soil. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many chemicals. Ammonia occurs in nature and has been detected in the interstellar medium. In many countries, it is classified as an extremely hazardous substance . Ammonia is produced biologically in a process called nitrogen fixation , but even more is generated industrially by

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1760-437: Is an irritant and irritation increases with concentration; the permissible exposure limit is 25  ppm , and lethal above 500 ppm by volume. Higher concentrations are hardly detected by conventional detectors, the type of detector is chosen according to the sensitivity required (e.g. semiconductor, catalytic, electrochemical). Holographic sensors have been proposed for detecting concentrations up to 12.5% in volume. In

1840-403: Is formed. Pentavalent ammonia is known as λ -amine, nitrogen pentahydride decomposes spontaneously into trivalent ammonia (λ -amine) and hydrogen gas at normal conditions. This substance was once investigated as a possible solid rocket fuel in 1966. Ammonia is also used to make the following compounds: Ammonia is a ligand forming metal ammine complexes . For historical reasons, ammonia

1920-508: Is found throughout the Solar System on Mars , Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus , Neptune , and Pluto , among other places: on smaller, icy bodies such as Pluto, ammonia can act as a geologically important antifreeze, as a mixture of water and ammonia can have a melting point as low as −100 °C (−148 °F; 173 K) if the ammonia concentration is high enough and thus allow such bodies to retain internal oceans and active geology at

2000-587: Is generated via the Ostwald process by oxidation of ammonia with air over a platinum catalyst at 700–850 °C (1,292–1,562 °F), ≈9 atm. Nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide are intermediate in this conversion: Nitric acid is used for the production of fertilisers , explosives , and many organonitrogen compounds. The hydrogen in ammonia is susceptible to replacement by a myriad substituents. Ammonia gas reacts with metallic sodium to give sodamide , NaNH 2 . With chlorine, monochloramine

2080-519: Is its basicity . Ammonia is considered to be a weak base. It combines with acids to form ammonium salts ; thus, with hydrochloric acid it forms ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac); with nitric acid , ammonium nitrate , etc. Perfectly dry ammonia gas will not combine with perfectly dry hydrogen chloride gas; moisture is necessary to bring about the reaction. As a demonstration experiment under air with ambient moisture, opened bottles of concentrated ammonia and hydrochloric acid solutions produce

2160-440: Is named ammine in the nomenclature of coordination compounds . One notable ammine complex is cisplatin ( Pt(NH 3 ) 2 Cl 2 , a widely used anticancer drug. Ammine complexes of chromium (III) formed the basis of Alfred Werner 's revolutionary theory on the structure of coordination compounds. Werner noted only two isomers ( fac - and mer -) of the complex [CrCl 3 (NH 3 ) 3 ] could be formed, and concluded

2240-615: Is not known whether the term is equivalent to the more modern sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride). The fermentation of urine by bacteria produces a solution of ammonia ; hence fermented urine was used in Classical Antiquity to wash cloth and clothing, to remove hair from hides in preparation for tanning, to serve as a mordant in dying cloth, and to remove rust from iron. It was also used by ancient dentists to wash teeth. Oil Campaign of World War II#Campaign strategy The Allied oil campaign of World War II

2320-404: Is only +0.04 V. In practice, both oxidation to dinitrogen and reduction to dihydrogen are slow. This is particularly true of reducing solutions: the solutions of the alkali metals mentioned above are stable for several days, slowly decomposing to the metal amide and dihydrogen. Most studies involving liquid ammonia solutions are done in reducing conditions; although oxidation of liquid ammonia

2400-543: Is the precursor to nitric acid, which is the source for most N-substituted aromatic compounds. Amines can be formed by the reaction of ammonia with alkyl halides or, more commonly, with alcohols : Its ring-opening reaction with ethylene oxide give ethanolamine , diethanolamine , and triethanolamine . Amides can be prepared by the reaction of ammonia with carboxylic acid and their derivatives. For example, ammonia reacts with formic acid (HCOOH) to yield formamide ( HCONH 2 ) when heated. Acyl chlorides are

2480-438: Is usually slow, there is still a risk of explosion, particularly if transition metal ions are present as possible catalysts. The ammonia molecule has a trigonal pyramidal shape, as predicted by the valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR theory) with an experimentally determined bond angle of 106.7°. The central nitrogen atom has five outer electrons with an additional electron from each hydrogen atom. This gives

Leuna works - Misplaced Pages Continue

2560-461: Is very difficult in the absence of a catalyst (such as platinum gauze or warm chromium(III) oxide ), due to the relatively low heat of combustion , a lower laminar burning velocity, high auto-ignition temperature , high heat of vapourization , and a narrow flammability range . However, recent studies have shown that efficient and stable combustion of ammonia can be achieved using swirl combustors, thereby rekindling research interest in ammonia as

2640-651: The Federal Republic of Germany , the Soviet Union, and the United Kingdom . In the 1950s an oil refinery was built, which processed crude oil supplied from the Soviet Union via a branch of the Druzhba pipeline . The latter also had a branch to Rostock port allowing the import of oil of other origin by sea. Following the oil price hikes of 1973/1974, and of 1979/1980, and the reduced supply from

2720-480: The German Democratic Republic . Next to the existing plant, the construction of Leuna II started in 1959. This was a modern petrochemical plant, with equipment such as a cracking plant for the production of ethylene and propene and the subsequent processing facilities for the production of phenol , caprolactam , and HDPE partly being supplied domestically, partly being imported from

2800-399: The Haber process . The process helped revolutionize agriculture by providing cheap fertilizers. The global industrial production of ammonia in 2021 was 235 million tonnes. Industrial ammonia is transported by road in tankers , by rail in tank wagons , by sea in gas carriers , or in cylinders . Ammonia boils at −33.34 °C (−28.012 °F) at a pressure of one atmosphere , but

2880-592: The IG Farben Leuna works headed by Heinrich Bütefisch was a prime target for the Allied bombing offensive against German oil production . Leuna had been the first plant to test the Bergius process , which synthesized oil products from lignite, but switched to brown coal tar in 1944, due to air raid damages. Leuna covered 3 square miles (7.8 km) of land with 250 buildings, including decoy buildings outside

2960-516: The Ruhr . Air Chief Marshal Arthur Harris agreed to divert spare effort to oil targets. They were deemed to be of such importance that one raid was staged that consisted only of bomb carrying fighters, to rest the bomber crews and surprise the defenders. In late summer 1944 the Allies began using reconnaissance photo information to time bombing with the resumption of production at a facility. Even with

3040-477: The Siwa oasis in northwestern Egypt, where salt lakes still exist). The Greek geographer Strabo also mentioned the salt from this region. However, the ancient authors Dioscorides , Apicius , Arrian , Synesius , and Aëtius of Amida described this salt as forming clear crystals that could be used for cooking and that were essentially rock salt . Hammoniacus sal appears in the writings of Pliny , although it

3120-509: The formula N H 3 . A stable binary hydride and the simplest pnictogen hydride , ammonia is a colourless gas with a distinctive pungent smell. Biologically, it is a common nitrogenous waste , and it contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to fertilisers . Around 70% of ammonia produced industrially is used to make fertilisers in various forms and composition, such as urea and diammonium phosphate . Ammonia in pure form

3200-641: The " Transportation Plan "). In March 1944 the "Plan for Completion of Combined Bomber Offensive " was put forward which found favour with the British Ministry of Economic Warfare . The plan proposed attacking "fourteen synthetic plants [of Brabag ] and thirteen refineries" of Nazi Germany. The plan estimated Axis oil production could be reduced by 50% by bombing—33% below the amount Nazi Germany needed —but also included 4 additional priorities: first oil, then fighter and ball bearing production, rubber production, and bomber output. The damage caused by

3280-726: The "European technology mission" ( Plan for Examination of Oil Industry of Axis Europe ) and a report in March 1946, the United States Bureau of Mines employed seven Operation Paperclip synthetic fuel scientists in a Fischer–Tropsch chemical plant in Louisiana, Missouri . In October 1975, Texas A&M University began the German Document Retrieval Project and completed a report on 28 April 1977. The report identified final investigations of

Leuna works - Misplaced Pages Continue

3360-428: The 12 and 28 May trial bombings of oil targets, as well as the confirmation of the oil facilities' importance and vulnerability from Ultra intercepts and other intelligence reports, would result in the oil targets becoming the highest priority on 3 September 1944. In June 1944, in response to Air Ministry query on resources, Bomber Command staff estimated it would take 32,000 tons of bombs to destroy 10 oil targets in

3440-594: The Eighth, 119 planes were lost and not one bomb fell on the Leuna works. The Eighth Air Force also dropped 12,953 tons of explosives on nearby Merseburg . The successful aerial attacks contributed vitally to the defeat of Germany in World War II, since they deprived the country and its troops of essential commodities. On 4 April 1945, production in Leuna stopped entirely. After partial destruction in World War II and

3520-491: The German aircraft industry and lines of communication between Germany and the armies at the front. Following a brief period when German shipping was given priority, oil targets were made secondary priority in mid July under a policy of concentrated attack with five oil refineries listed for attention. Sir Charles Portal was sceptical of the likelihood of success, saying that only a few targets could be located by average crews under moonlit conditions. The RAF viewed Axis oil as

3600-770: The German plants and interrogations of German scientists by the British Intelligence Objectives Sub-Committee, the US Field Information Agency (Technical) , and the Combined Intelligence Objectives Sub-Committee. Despite its successes, by the spring of 1944 the Combined Bomber Offensive had failed to dislocate the German economy or inflict severe disruptions in the production of vital items;

3680-436: The Leuna oil refinery to French company Elf Aquitaine (who later became part of Total) in 1990/1991. Dubious transactions at that time led to the so-called Leuna affair and criminal proceedings against manager Alfred Sirven . In 1997, the new refinery MIDER ( Mitteldeutsche Erdoel-Raffinerie ), now TRM ( TotalEnergies Raffinerie Mitteldeutschland ) started production after two and a half years of construction time. It represents

3760-694: The Leuna works were a centre of organising by the Communist Workers Party of Germany (KAPD) and the associated workplace organisation the General Workers' Union of Germany (AAUD) to which half of the 20,000 workforce belonged. Peter Utzelmann co-ordinated the strike committee during the March Action in March 1921. As one of the largest synthetic oil plants and second most extensive chemical operation in Nazi Germany ,

3840-590: The Soviet Union, substantial investments were made in the oil processing industry. New, more sophisticated cracking plants were imported from the Federal Republic of Germany, from Japan , Austria , and Sweden , and were operated with modern distributed control systems originating in the FRG and the United States . Thereby, the fraction of so-called "black products" such as bitumen and heavy fuel oil

3920-443: The addition of Nessler's solution , which gives a distinct yellow colouration in the presence of the slightest trace of ammonia or ammonium salts. The amount of ammonia in ammonium salts can be estimated quantitatively by distillation of the salts with sodium (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH), the ammonia evolved being absorbed in a known volume of standard sulfuric acid and the excess of acid then determined volumetrically ; or

4000-513: The air raid protection organization which operated over 600 radar-directed guns , while the fire-fighting force consisted of 5,000 men and women. A total of 6,552 bomber sorties over 20 US Eighth Air Force and 2 RAF attacks dropped 18,328 tons of bombs on Leuna. As the most heavily defended industrial target in Europe, Leuna would become so dark from flak, German smoke pots, and exploding oil tanks that " we had no idea how close our bombs came to

4080-443: The ammonia may be absorbed in hydrochloric acid and the ammonium chloride so formed precipitated as ammonium hexachloroplatinate , [NH 4 ] 2 [PtCl 6 ] . Sulfur sticks are burnt to detect small leaks in industrial ammonia refrigeration systems. Larger quantities can be detected by warming the salts with a caustic alkali or with quicklime , when the characteristic smell of ammonia will be at once apparent. Ammonia

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4160-490: The chemistry in liquid ammonia can be classified by analogy with related reactions in aqueous solutions . Comparison of the physical properties of NH 3 with those of water shows NH 3 has the lower melting point, boiling point, density, viscosity , dielectric constant and electrical conductivity . These differences are attributed at least in part to the weaker hydrogen bonding in NH 3 . The ionic self- dissociation constant of liquid NH 3 at −50 °C

4240-443: The commercial hydrogenation of lignite started production on April 1, 1927. In late 1925, BASF became a branch of IG Farben , operating as Ammoniakwerk Merseburg GmbH – Leuna Werke . The site was rapidly expanded in the 1920s and 1930s, with plants producing methanol , synthetic petrol derived from the hydrogenation of lignite, amines and detergents . The synthesis of petrol, although expensive compared to world market prices,

4320-401: The companies are provided by InfraLeuna. With the closure of unprofitable plants and general modernization, the number of employees was reduced significantly from 28000 (1978) to 9000 in 2014. QUINN Chemicals invested in a plant to manufacture methyl methacrylate (MMA) but construction has halted as of January 2009 due to heavy cost overruns. Chancellor Helmut Kohl mediated the transfer of

4400-489: The dissolution of IG Farben, the works were transferred into a Soviet holding. About half of the remaining production plants were dismantled and shipped to the Soviet Union as war reparations . In the following years, the Leuna site was gradually rebuilt and expanded. In 1954 the works were transferred into public property and became known as " VEB Leuna-Werke Walter Ulbricht ", the largest chemical production site in

4480-562: The end of German armaments production." It has been stated to have been "effective immediately, and decisive within less than a year". Luftwaffe Field Marshal Erhard Milch , referring to the consequences of the oil campaign, claimed that "The British left us with deep and bleeding wounds, but the Americans stabbed us in the heart." The following statistics are from the British Bombing Survey Unit. Figures are for

4560-421: The factories in good bombing conditions, 12% when using a mix of visual and instruments but only 5% when it had to use instrument-only bombing techniques; and 80% of their tonnage was delivered under partly or fully instrument conditions. The RAF bombing by night with Pathfinder techniques averaged 16% inside the factory. Bomber Command's efforts against oil were more efficient in some regards – although delivering

4640-511: The final collapse of the German economy. Several prominent German military officers, however, described the oil campaign as critical to the defeat of Nazi Germany. Adolf Galland , wrote in his book "the most important of the combined factors which brought about the collapse of Germany", and the Luftwaffe's wartime leader, Hermann Göring , described it as "the utmost in deadliness". Albert Speer , writing in his memoir, said that "It meant

4720-637: The great importance of oil targets in Axis territory. The first US bombing of a European target was of the Ploiești refineries in Romania on 12 June 1942 and the oil campaign continued at a lower priority until 1944. Priority fell with the need for attacks on German V-weapon targets (" Operation Crossbow ") in France and then the attacks on lines of communication in preparation for the invasion of France (described as

4800-563: The importance of Germany's fuel supplies before the war in their "Western Air Plan 5(c)". The focus of British bombing during 1940 changed repeatedly in response to directives from the Air Ministry . At the start of June, oil targets were made a priority of night bombing with attacks on other war industry to be made on dark nights (when the oil targets could not be located) but with the proviso that "indiscriminate action" should be avoided. On 20 June oil targets were made third priority below

4880-439: The largest direct investment of a French company in the new states of Germany and was supported by an EU state aid of 1400 million Deutsche Mark , corresponding to 27% of the total investment. With the construction of new plants in an area named Leuna III , the industrial complex has expanded towards the village of Spergau . Ammonia Ammonia is an inorganic chemical compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with

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4960-511: The ligands must be arranged around the metal ion at the vertices of an octahedron . Ammonia forms 1:1 adducts with a variety of Lewis acids such as I 2 , phenol , and Al(CH 3 ) 3 . Ammonia is a hard base (HSAB theory) and its E & C parameters are E B = 2.31 and C B = 2.04. Its relative donor strength toward a series of acids, versus other Lewis bases, can be illustrated by C-B plots . Ammonia and ammonium salts can be readily detected, in very minute traces, by

5040-588: The liquid can often be handled in the laboratory without external cooling. Household ammonia or ammonium hydroxide is a solution of ammonia in water. Pliny , in Book XXXI of his Natural History , refers to a salt named hammoniacum , so called because of the proximity of its source to the Temple of Jupiter Amun ( Greek Ἄμμων Ammon ) in the Roman province of Cyrenaica . However, the description Pliny gives of

5120-412: The main plant, and employed 35,000 workers, including 10,000 prisoners and forced labourers . The 14th Flak Division responsible for protecting Leuna had 28,000 troops, 18,000 RAD personnel, 6,000 male and 3,050 female auxiliaries, 900 Hungarian and Italian 'volunteers', 3,600 Russian Hiwis , and 3,000 others, thus making up a total of 62,550 persons. More than 19,000 of Leuna's workers were members of

5200-474: The most reactive, but the ammonia must be present in at least a twofold excess to neutralise the hydrogen chloride formed. Esters and anhydrides also react with ammonia to form amides. Ammonium salts of carboxylic acids can be dehydrated to amides by heating to 150–200 °C as long as no thermally sensitive groups are present. Other organonitrogen compounds include alprazolam , ethanolamine , ethyl carbamate and hexamethylenetetramine . Nitric acid

5280-505: The new low-pressure methanol plant. This hydrogenation -based technology required a large amount of hydrogen and was not profitable. Leunawerke employed about 30,000 people, the fenced-in complex extended over an area about 7 km long and 3 km wide. Two railway stations on the Halle–Bebra railway and several stops of Halle tramway line 5 served the works. Wear and tear of the up to 70 years old plants, in particular those for

5360-556: The oil campaign in the last year of the war. Number of attacks by the RAF and USAAF against oil targets: Short tons dropped on oil targets: The efficiency of the bombing was lacking. Working from German records for certain sites, the USSBS determined that on average 87% of Allied bombs fell outside the factory perimeter and that only a few percent struck plant or equipment inside the boundary. The USAAF could put 26% of their bombing within

5440-528: The oil campaign missions were the first targeted attacks to accomplish these goals. The US strategic bombing survey (USSBS) identified "catastrophic" damage. German industry in and of itself was not significantly affected by attacks on oil targets, as coal was its primary source of energy, but in its analysis of strategic bombing as a whole the USSBS identified the consequences of the breakdown of transportation resulting from attacks against transportation targets as "probably greater than any other single factor" in

5520-483: The priority of oil targets was lowered. To prevent oil supplies from Romania reaching Germany, the RAF had extended its aerial mining activities to the Danube. Despite the RAF and Harris claims regarding the great importance of oil targets, Harris had opposed assigning the highest priority to oil targets but acknowledged post-war that the campaign was "a complete success" with the qualifier: "I still do not think that it

5600-527: The production of syngas and ammonia and the high-pressure methanol plant, increased considerably until the 1980s, so that the high expenditures for energy, upkeep, and manpower made their economical operation impossible. To counter the shortage of manpower, construction soldiers were also employed. After German reunification in 1990, the Leuna works were divided into several smaller units that were sold to several companies, among them Total S.A. , BASF , Linde AG , and Belgian DOMO Group . Common utilities for

5680-600: The salt does not conform to the properties of ammonium chloride . According to Herbert Hoover 's commentary in his English translation of Georgius Agricola 's De re metallica , it is likely to have been common sea salt. In any case, that salt ultimately gave ammonia and ammonium compounds their name. Traces of ammonia/ammonium are found in rainwater. Ammonium chloride ( sal ammoniac ), and ammonium sulfate are found in volcanic districts. Crystals of ammonium bicarbonate have been found in Patagonia guano . Ammonia

5760-558: The target. ". On clear days, only 29% of the bombs aimed at Leuna landed inside the plant gates; on radar raids the number dropped to 5.1%. During the first raid of the Oil Plan , 126 Leuna workers were killed. However, after defenses were increased, only 175 additional workers were killed in 21 subsequent raids. Leuna bombing from May 12, 1944 to April 5, 1945, cost the Eighth Air Force 1,280 airmen. In three separate attacks by

5840-572: The war, Britain had identified Germany's reliance on oil and oil products for its war machine, and the strategic bombing started with RAF attacks on Germany in 1940. After the US entered the war (December 1941), it carried out daytime " precision bombing " attacks – such as Operation Tidal Wave against refineries in Romania in 1943. The last major strategic raid of the European theater of the war targeted

5920-488: The water formed, is −382.81 kJ/mol. Dinitrogen is the thermodynamic product of combustion : all nitrogen oxides are unstable with respect to N 2 and O 2 , which is the principle behind the catalytic converter . Nitrogen oxides can be formed as kinetic products in the presence of appropriate catalysts , a reaction of great industrial importance in the production of nitric acid : A subsequent reaction leads to NO 2 : The combustion of ammonia in air

6000-496: The weather limitations: "This was the big breakthrough ... a plant would be wounded ... by successive attacks on its electrical grid—its nervous system—and on its gas and water mains." (author Donald Miller). However, due to bad fall and winter weather, a "far greater tonnage" was expended on Transportation Plan targets than oil targets. The benzol (oil) plant at Linz in Austria was bombed on 16 October 1944. In January 1945,

6080-619: Was an aerial bombing campaign conducted by the RAF and the USAAF against facilities supplying Nazi Germany with petroleum , oil , and lubrication (POL) products. It formed part of the immense Allied strategic bombing effort during the war . The targets in Germany and in Axis -controlled Europe included refineries , synthetic-fuel factories , storage depots and other POL-infrastructure. Before

6160-541: Was pursued in order to reduce Germany's dependency on imported oil products . As Germany possesses very few petroleum deposits of its own, seven hydrogenation plants were constructed and were producing synthetic petrol by 1939, Leuna being the largest. Construction of the Buna Werke Schkopau synthetic rubber plant, then a subsidiary of Leuna ammonia works, started in 1936. Following the Kapp Putsch

6240-616: Was reasonable, at that time, to expect that the [oil] campaign would succeed; what the Allied strategists did was to bet on an outsider , and it happened to win the race." Joint Chiefs of Staff Directive 1067 prohibited German post-war production of oil through July 1947, and the United States Army made post-war provisions to rehabilitate and use petroleum installations where needed, as well as to dispose of unneeded captured equipment. After inspections of various plants by

6320-531: Was reduced to almost zero in favour of the "white products" such as gasoline , diesel fuel , and light heating oil . Motor fuels produced in Leuna II were also exported outside the socialist bloc to bankroll the new plants and to earn hard currency. For instance, Leuna gasoline was sold in West Berlin . Even the heaviest residues from oil processing were used as raw material for the production of syngas in

6400-553: Was selected as the location of a second plant named Badische Anilin- und Sodafabrik, Ammoniakwerk Merseburg . Construction started on 25 May 1916, and the first tank car with ammonia left the works in April 1917. In 1920, the ammonia works of Leuna and Oppau merged into Ammoniakwerke Merseburg-Oppau GmbH . The proximity of the site to lignite (brown coal) mines was also advantageous for the production of syngas ( hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) and tests of coal conversion into liquid fuels on an industrial scale. The Leuna plant for

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