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143-739: The Leeds Revolutionary Feminist Group was a feminist organisation active in the United Kingdom in the 1970s and 1980s. While there were a number of contemporary revolutionary feminist organisations in the UK, the Leeds group was 'internationally significant'. The group is remembered chiefly for two reasons. The first is organising the UK-wide ‘ Reclaim the Night ’ marches in November 1977. The second
286-652: A liberal democratic framework, without radically altering the structure of society; liberal feminism "works within the structure of mainstream society to integrate women into that structure". During the 19th and early 20th centuries liberal feminism focused especially on women's suffrage and access to education . Former Norwegian supreme court justice and former president of the liberal Norwegian Association for Women's Rights , Karin Maria Bruzelius , has described liberal feminism as "a realistic, sober, practical feminism". Susan Wendell argues that "liberal feminism
429-417: A " matrix of domination ". Fourth-wave feminism is a proposed extension of third-wave feminism which corresponds to a resurgence in interest in feminism beginning around 2012 and associated with the use of social media. According to feminist scholar Prudence Chamberlain, the focus of the fourth wave is justice for women and opposition to sexual harassment and violence against women. Its essence, she writes,
572-643: A "post-feminist" society, where "gender equality has (already) been achieved". According to Chunn, "many feminists have voiced disquiet about the ways in which rights and equality discourses are now used against them". Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical or philosophical fields. It encompasses work in a variety of disciplines, including anthropology , sociology , economics , women's studies , literary criticism , art history , psychoanalysis , and philosophy . Feminist theory aims to understand gender inequality and focuses on gender politics, power relations, and sexuality. While providing
715-402: A counterpart to the putatively patriarchal strands in the dominant masculine culture. While differing during the progression of "waves", it is a movement that has sought to challenge the political structure, power holders, and cultural beliefs or practices. Although antecedents to feminism may be found far back before the 18th century, the seeds of the modern feminist movement were planted during
858-414: A critique of capitalism and are focused on ideology's relationship to women. Marxist feminism argues that capitalism is the root cause of women's oppression, and that discrimination against women in domestic life and employment is an effect of capitalist ideologies. Socialist feminism distinguishes itself from Marxist feminism by arguing that women's liberation can only be achieved by working to end both
1001-480: A critique of these social and political relations, much of feminist theory also focuses on the promotion of women's rights and interests. Themes explored in feminist theory include discrimination, stereotyping , objectification (especially sexual objectification ), oppression , and patriarchy . In the field of literary criticism , Elaine Showalter describes the development of feminist theory as having three phases. The first she calls "feminist critique", in which
1144-594: A durable interest in their hearts, or to become the friends of the fellow-creatures who find amusement in their society"(Wollstonecraft 2008, p. 10). During the mid-nineteenth century, the women's movement developed as a result of women striving to improve their status and usefulness in society. Nancy Cott , historian and professor, wrote about the objectives of the feminist movement: "to initiate measures of charitable benevolence, temperance , and social welfare and to initiate struggles for civil rights , social freedoms , higher education, remunerative occupations, and
1287-414: A feminist. They embraced individualism and diversity , and pushed to eliminate conformity. The twentieth century woman had the mindset of wanting to have it all. They wanted a professional career, as well as be a wife and mother. Harriet Kimble Wrye PhD, ABPP, FIPA wrote of her research on the psychoanalytic perspectives of being a feminist in the twentieth century, "So many of us look back, and recognizing
1430-467: A good wife and mother. Real Womanhood came to be with the Civil war , when women were forced to work in place of men who were at war. Real Women learned how to support themselves and took that knowledge with them in their marriage and education. Public Womanhood came with women being allowed to work domestic type jobs such as nursing, teaching, and secretary, which were jobs previously performed by men, but
1573-532: A husband at all. De Beauvoir also argues that women lack ambition because of how they are raised, noting that girls are told to follow the duties of their mothers, whereas boys are told to exceed the accomplishments of their fathers. Along with other influences, such as Betty Friedan, Simone de Beauvoir's work helped the feminist movement to solidify the second wave. Contributors to The Women's Liberation Movement include Simone de Beauvoir, Christiane Rochefort , Christine Delphy and Anne Tristan. The defining moment in
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#17327722795291716-493: A main force behind major historical societal changes for women's rights, particularly in the West , where they are near-universally credited with achieving women's suffrage , gender-neutral language , reproductive rights for women (including access to contraceptives and abortion ), and the right to enter into contracts and own property. Although feminist advocacy is, and has been, mainly focused on women's rights, some argue for
1859-400: A medicine thesis about men suffering from tuberculosis and having developed, according to the author Ferdinand-Valère Faneau de la Cour, feminine traits. The word "féministe" ("feminist"), inspired by its medical use, was coined by Alexandre Dumas fils in a 1872 essay, referring to men who supported women rights. In both cases, the use of the word was very negative and reflected a criticism of
2002-483: A modern or party-political sense; she highlights "equality of opportunity" as a defining feature of liberal feminism. Liberal feminism is a very broad term that encompasses many, often diverging modern branches and a variety of feminist and general political perspectives; some historically liberal branches are equality feminism , social feminism , equity feminism , difference feminism , individualist/libertarian feminism and some forms of state feminism , particularly
2145-463: A mystical connection between women and nature. Sara Ahmed argues that Black and postcolonial feminisms pose a challenge "to some of the organizing premises of Western feminist thought". During much of its history , feminist movements and theoretical developments were led predominantly by middle-class white women from Western Europe and North America. However, women of other races have proposed alternative feminisms. This trend accelerated in
2288-403: A new answer. "The sperm tries to pull its getaway act even on the egg itself, but is held down against its struggles by molecules on the surface of the egg that hook together with counterparts on the sperm's surface, fastening the sperm until the egg can absorb it." This is a goal in feminism to see these gendered metaphors and bring it to the public's attention. The outcome of looking at things in
2431-626: A new perspective can produce new information. The increased entry of women into the workplace beginning in the 20th century has affected gender roles and the division of labor within households. Sociologist Arlie Russell Hochschild in The Second Shift and The Time Bind presents evidence that in two-career couples, men and women, on average, spend about equal amounts of time working, but women still spend more time on housework. Feminist writer Cathy Young responds to Hochschild's assertions by arguing that, in some cases, women may prevent
2574-621: A so-called "confusion of the sexes" by women who refused to abide by the sexual division of society and challenged the inequalities between sexes. The concepts appeared in the Netherlands in 1872, Great Britain in the 1890s, and the United States in 1910. The Oxford English Dictionary dates the first appearance in English in this meaning back to 1895. Depending on the historical moment, culture and country, feminists around
2717-533: A social and ideological change. In 1963, Betty Friedan 's book The Feminine Mystique helped voice the discontent that American women felt. The book is widely credited with sparking the beginning of second-wave feminism in the United States. Within ten years, women made up over half the First World workforce. In 1970, Australian writer Germaine Greer published The Female Eunuch , which became
2860-445: A sociologist who studies masculinity , wrote of patriarchy: "Patriarchy encourages men to seek security, status, and other rewards through control; to fear other men's ability to control and harm them; and to identify being in control as both their best defense against loss and humiliation and the surest route to what they need and desire". During the pre-feminist era, women were expected to be proper, delicate, and emotional nurturers of
3003-619: A wave of their own strength in the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom (1851–1864). However, there are too many women from the bottom identities in the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. It is difficult to get rid of the fate of being used. Until the end of the Qing Dynasty, women with more knowledges took the initiative in the fight for women's rights and that is where feminism basically started. The term 'feminism'
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#17327722795293146-445: A way that people describe the world. Martin explains that these metaphors structure how people think and in regards to science can shape what questions are being asked. If the right questions are not being asked then the answers are not going to be the right either. For example, the aggressive sperm and passive egg is a metaphor that felt 'natural' to people in history but as scientists have reexamined this phenomenon they have come up with
3289-473: A way to describe the depression women felt about their limited choices in life. While reading The Feminine Mystique, women found they related to what Friedan wrote. Women were forced to look at themselves in a way they had not before. They saw within themselves, all the things they had given up in the name of conformity. The women's movement became more popular in May 1968 when women began to read again, more widely,
3432-607: A worldwide bestseller, reportedly driving up divorce rates. Greer posits that men hate women , that women do not know this and direct the hatred upon themselves, as well as arguing that women are devitalised and repressed in their role as housewives and mothers. Third-wave feminism is traced to the emergence of the riot grrrl feminist punk subculture in Olympia, Washington , in the early 1990s, and to Anita Hill 's televised testimony in 1991—to an all-male, all-white Senate Judiciary Committee —that Clarence Thomas , nominated for
3575-484: Is "incredulity that certain attitudes can still exist". Fourth-wave feminism is "defined by technology", according to Kira Cochrane , and is characterized particularly by the use of Facebook , Twitter , Instagram , YouTube , Tumblr , and blogs such as Feministing to challenge misogyny and further gender equality . Issues that fourth-wave feminists focus on include street and workplace harassment , campus sexual assault and rape culture. Scandals involving
3718-537: Is a feminist movement beginning in the early 1960s and continuing to the present; as such, it coexists with third-wave feminism. Second-wave feminism is largely concerned with issues of equality beyond suffrage, such as ending gender discrimination . Second-wave feminists see women's cultural and political inequalities as inextricably linked and encourage women to understand aspects of their personal lives as deeply politicized and as reflecting sexist power structures. The feminist activist and author Carol Hanisch coined
3861-448: Is an historical tradition that grew out of liberalism, as can be seen very clearly in the work of such feminists as Mary Wollstonecraft and John Stuart Mill , but feminists who took principles from that tradition have developed analyses and goals that go far beyond those of 18th and 19th century liberal feminists, and many feminists who have goals and strategies identified as liberal feminist ... reject major components of liberalism" in
4004-459: Is no way to determine when the exact date was when the feminist movement was first thought up, because women have been writing on the topic for thousands of years. For instance, the female poet from Ancient Greece, Sappho , born in roughly 615 BC, made waves as an acclaimed poet during a time when the written word was conducted primarily by men. She wrote poetry about, among other things, sexuality. There have been four main waves of feminism since
4147-412: Is particularly the case for libertarian feminism which conceives of people as self-owners and therefore as entitled to freedom from coercive interference. Radical feminism arose from the radical wing of second-wave feminism and calls for a radical reordering of society to eliminate male supremacy . It considers the male-controlled capitalist hierarchy as the defining feature of women's oppression and
4290-407: Is sometimes described as non-sexist language by advocates and politically correct language by opponents. Not only has the movement come to change the language into gender neutral but the feminist movement has brought up how people use language. Emily Martin describes the concept of how metaphors are gendered and ingrained into everyday life. Metaphors are used in everyday language and have become
4433-405: Is the publication of the pamphlet Political Lesbianism: The Case Against Heterosexuality , which advocated political lesbianism . British activist Sheila Jeffreys was closely involved with the group, while UK feminist Julie Bindel has spoken of the group's influence on her, as have many others. The Leeds Revolutionary Feminist Group was founded in 1977, the result of a wider backlash against
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4576-457: Is used to describe a range of viewpoints reacting to feminism since the 1980s. While not being "anti-feminist", postfeminists believe that women have achieved second wave goals while being critical of third- and fourth-wave feminist goals. The term was first used to describe a backlash against second-wave feminism, but it is now a label for a wide range of theories that take critical approaches to previous feminist discourses and includes challenges to
4719-666: The All-Russian Union for Women's Equality in 1905, allowing women to vote and allowing co-education. In 1931, the All-Asian Women's Conference was held in Lahore in what was then British India . This meeting is one example of the time period which "demonstrated the networking of women across various divides". The spirit of the conference can be understood as International or Global feminist . The feminist movement has been an ongoing force throughout history. There
4862-642: The Chinese Communist Party created projects aimed at integrating women into the workforce, and claimed that the revolution had successfully achieved women's liberation. According to Nawar al-Hassan Golley, Arab feminism was closely connected with Arab nationalism . In 1899, Qasim Amin , considered the "father" of Arab feminism, wrote The Liberation of Women , which argued for legal and social reforms for women. He drew links between women's position in Egyptian society and nationalism, leading to
5005-547: The Custody of Infants Act 1839 in the UK, which introduced the tender years doctrine for child custody and gave women the right of custody of their children for the first time. Other legislation, such as the Married Women's Property Act 1870 in the UK and extended in the 1882 Act , became models for similar legislation in other British territories. Victoria passed legislation in 1884 and New South Wales in 1889;
5148-605: The Everyday Sexism Project , No More Page 3 , Stop Bild Sexism , Mattress Performance , 10 Hours of Walking in NYC as a Woman , #YesAllWomen , Free the Nipple , One Billion Rising , the 2017 Women's March , the 2018 Women's March , and the #MeToo movement. In December 2017, Time magazine chose several prominent female activists involved in the #MeToo movement, dubbed "the silence breakers", as Person of
5291-754: The International Council of Women , established in 1888 in Washington, DC, US. The term Feminist Movement was coined in the late nineteenth century to distinguish the Feminist Movement from the Women's Movement, allowing for inclusion of male feminists. The new movement thus prompted the likes of male feminists George Lansbury of the British Labour Party to run for political candidacy on the feminist ticket in 1906. As
5434-828: The Iranian revolution of 1979, many of the rights that women had gained from the women's movement were systematically abolished, such as the Family Protection Law . By the mid-20th century, women still lacked significant rights. In France , women obtained the right to vote only with the Provisional Government of the French Republic of 21 April 1944. The Consultative Assembly of Algiers of 1944 proposed on 24 March 1944 to grant eligibility to women but following an amendment by Fernard Grenier , they were given full citizenship, including
5577-644: The National American Suffrage Association . The parade drew over five thousand participants who were led by Inez Milholland . The parade was strategically scheduled for the day before the inauguration of President Woodrow Wilson , which drew in a lot of people to Washington. The women gathered in front of the US Capitol and then traveled fourteen blocks to the Treasury Department. The parade proceeded through
5720-549: The OECD countries surveyed, on average women performed 5% more work than men, or 105% of men's total work—an additional 20 minutes per day. However, men did up to 19 minutes more work per day than women in five out of the eighteen OECD countries surveyed: Canada, Denmark, Hungary, Israel, and The Netherlands. During the course of the women's movement in Western society, affective changes have taken place, including women's suffrage ,
5863-640: The Supreme Court of the United States , had sexually harassed her. The term third wave is credited to Rebecca Walker , who responded to Thomas's appointment to the Supreme Court with an article in Ms. magazine, "Becoming the Third Wave" (1992). She wrote: So I write this as a plea to all women, especially women of my generation: Let Thomas' confirmation serve to remind you, as it did me, that
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6006-430: The raison d'être of classic liberal feminism was "to pose an immanent critique of liberalism, revealing the gendered exclusions within liberal democracy's proclamation of universal equality, particularly with respect to the law, institutional access, and the full incorporation of women into the public sphere." Rottenberg contrasts classic liberal feminism with modern neoliberal feminism which "seems perfectly in sync with
6149-432: The temperance movement , expanded from Europe and moved into the United States. Women began speaking out on the effects of the consumption of alcohol had on the morals of their husbands and blamed it on the problems within their household. They called for a moral reform by limiting or prohibiting the sale and consumption of alcohol, beginning the fight toward Prohibition which did not begin until 1920. The women fighting for
6292-540: The " Declaration of Sentiments ", which called for equal rights for women and men on the basis of education, right to property, organizational leadership, right to vote, and marital freedoms. For the Suffragette's first major display, they held a parade on 3 March 1913, in Washington DC. The first suffragette parade, which was also the first civil rights march on Washington, was coordinated by Alice Paul and
6435-399: The 1800s, and vary among nations and communities. Priorities range from opposition to female genital mutilation in one country, to opposition to the glass ceiling in another. Feminism in parts of the Western world has been an ongoing movement since the turn of the century . During its inception, feminism has gone through a series of four high moments termed Waves . First-wave feminism
6578-716: The 1950s to attribute the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848 (at which the Women's Suffrage Movement began in the United States) as the earliest North American Feminist Movement. The convention met annually for fifteen years thereafter. Attendees drafted the Seneca Falls Declaration of Sentiments , outlining the new movement's ideology and political strategies. The earliest North American and European international women's organizations were
6721-588: The 1960s was a demonstration held to protest against the Miss America pageant in Atlantic City on 7 September 1968, termed the "cattle parade". The purpose of the protest was to call attention to beauty standards and the objectification of women. Through this era, women gained equal rights such as a right to an education, a right to work, and a right to contraception and abortion. One of the most important issues that The Women's Liberation movement faced
6864-1072: The 1960s with the civil rights movement in the United States and the end of Western European colonialism in Africa, the Caribbean, parts of Latin America, and Southeast Asia. Since that time, women in developing nations and former colonies and who are of colour or various ethnicities or living in poverty have proposed additional feminisms. Womanism emerged after early feminist movements were largely white and middle-class. Postcolonial feminists argue that colonial oppression and Western feminism marginalized postcolonial women but did not turn them passive or voiceless. Third-world feminism and indigenous feminism are closely related to postcolonial feminism. These ideas also correspond with ideas in African feminism , motherism, Stiwanism, negofeminism, femalism, transnational feminism , and Africana womanism . In
7007-641: The 1960s, both of these traditions are also contrasted with the radical feminism that arose from the radical wing of second-wave feminism and that calls for a radical reordering of society to eliminate patriarchy. Liberal, socialist, and radical feminism are sometimes referred to as the "Big Three" schools of feminist thought. Since the late 20th century, many newer forms of feminism have emerged. Some forms, such as white feminism and gender-critical feminism , have been criticized as taking into account only white, middle class, college-educated, heterosexual , or cisgender perspectives. These criticisms have led to
7150-701: The 1970s, the Marxist philosophy about female and feminism was transmitted to China and became the guiding principle of feminism movement in China by introducing class struggle theories to address gender quality. In the 1990s, more female scholars were adapted to feminism in Western countries, and they promoted feminism and equal rights for women by publishing, translating and carrying out research on global feminism and made feminism in China as one part of their study to raise more concern and awareness for gender equality issues.An important means of improving women's status in China
7293-468: The 1980s, standpoint feminists have argued that the feminist movement should address global issues (such as rape, incest , and prostitution) and culturally specific issues (such as female genital mutilation in some parts of Africa and Arab societies , as well as glass ceiling practices that impede women's advancement in developed economies) in order to understand how gender inequality interacts with racism, homophobia , classism and colonization in
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#17327722795297436-556: The 20th century with the Chinese Revolution in 1911. In China, Feminism has a strong association with socialism and class issues. Some commentators believe that this close association is damaging to Chinese feminism and argue that the interests of party are placed before those of women. In the patriarchal society, the struggle for women's emancipation means to enact laws that guarantee women's full equality of race, sex, property and freedom of marriage. To further eliminate
7579-536: The Haudenosaunee ( Iroquois ) nations long before America was colonized. Some have come to recognize the beginning of the feminist movement in 1832, as American Anti-Slavery Society (AASS), and The Connecticut Female Anti-Slavery Society formed as early as 1833. By the year 1837, 139 AASS societies were formed across the nation. The first national AASS convention was held in New York City in 1837. During
7722-533: The People Act was passed granting the vote to women over the age of 30 who owned property. In 1928, this was extended to all women over 21. Emmeline Pankhurst was the most notable activist in England. Time named her one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century , stating: "she shaped an idea of women for our time; she shook society into a new pattern from which there could be no going back." In
7865-470: The Qing Dynasty, the discussion on feminism had two dimensions including the sex differences between men and women such as maternal role and duties of women and social difference between genders; the other dimension was the aim of liberation of women. The view of the feminists were diverse: some believed feminism was benefiting the nation and some believed feminism was associated with the individual development of female in improving their rights and welfare. In
8008-620: The Reclaim the Night marches that were held in various cities across the United Kingdom on the night of 12 November 1977. They were inspired by night marches which had taken place in Germany with the message that women should be able to walk at night without fear. The marches took place in the context of the ‘ Yorkshire Ripper ’ murders, where thirteen women and girls were murdered over a five-year period. Feminists were angry not just over
8151-535: The Rights of Woman in which she argues that class and private property are the basis of discrimination against women, and that women as much as men needed equal rights. Charles Fourier , a utopian socialist and French philosopher, is credited with having coined the word "féminisme" in 1837. but no trace of the word have been found in his works. The word "féminisme" ("feminism") first appeared in France in 1871 in
8294-504: The US, notable leaders of this movement included Lucretia Mott , Elizabeth Cady Stanton , and Susan B. Anthony , who each campaigned for the abolition of slavery before championing women's right to vote. These women were influenced by the Quaker theology of spiritual equality, which asserts that men and women are equal under God. In the US, first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with
8437-549: The Year . Decolonial feminism reformulates the coloniality of gender by critiquing the very formation of gender and its subsequent formations of patriarchy and the gender binary , not as universal constants across cultures, but as structures that have been instituted by and for the benefit of European colonialism . Marìa Lugones proposes that decolonial feminism speaks to how "the colonial imposition of gender cuts across questions of ecology, economics, government, relations with
8580-573: The awareness of feminist movements evolved, transnational feminism and nationalist feminist movements established themselves worldwide. Priorities and ideas vary based on the political or cultural positions of the women in the area where each movement originates. General topics of feminist coalition politics include lack of legal rights, poverty, medical vulnerability, and labor. These political issues are often organized around division by class, caste , ethnicity, religion, sexuality, nationality, and age. Early Russian nationalist feminist activists founded
8723-446: The ballot." The setting of these goals resulted from women's rising awareness of the precariousness of their situation in the patriarchal society of the 1800s. The developing movement promoted a series of new images for women: True Womanhood, Real Womanhood, Public Womanhood, and New Womanhood." True Womanhood was the ideal that women were meant to be pure and moral. A true woman was raised learning manners and submission to males to be
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#17327722795298866-482: The beginning of the feminist movement in Western society, each with their own fight for women's rights. The first in the wave was in the 1840s. It was based on Education, right to property, organizational leadership, right to vote, and marital freedoms. The second wave was in the 1960s. It was based on gender issues, women's sexual liberation, reproductive rights, job opportunities for women, violence against women, and changes in custody and divorce laws. The third wave
9009-552: The body" as a subversive exercise. The work of Julia Kristeva , a feminist psychoanalyst and philosopher, and Bracha Ettinger , artist and psychoanalyst, has influenced feminist theory in general and feminist literary criticism in particular. However, as the scholar Elizabeth Wright points out, "none of these French feminists align themselves with the feminist movement as it appeared in the Anglophone world". Many overlapping feminist movements and ideologies have developed over
9152-493: The book The Second Sex , written in 1949 by a defender of women's rights, Simone de Beauvoir . De Beauvoir's writing explained why it was difficult for talented women to become successful. The obstacles de Beauvoir enumerates include women's inability to make as much money as men do in the same profession, women's domestic responsibilities, society's lack of support towards talented women, and women's fear that success will lead to an annoyed husband or prevent them from even finding
9295-711: The case was dismissed and Clarence Thomas was confirmed into the Supreme Court. Though the case was dismissed, it encouraged other women to speak out on their own experiences which led to Congress passing the Civil Rights Act of 1991 , which gave legal action against workplace sexual harassment. The United Nations Human Development Report 2004 estimated that when both paid employment and unpaid household tasks are accounted for, on average women work more than men. In rural areas of selected developing countries women performed an average of 20% more work than men, or 120% of men's total work, an additional 102 minutes per day. In
9438-413: The corporation could pay women much less than men. New Womanhood was based on eliminating the traditional conformity of women's roles, inferiority from men, and living a more fulfilled life. "The four overlapping phases of the Women's Movement advanced women from domestic prisoners to significant members of their communities within less than a century." In the 1820s the women's movement, then called
9581-427: The creation of ethnically specific or multicultural forms of feminism, such as black feminism and intersectional feminism. Some have argued that feminism often promotes misandry and the elevation of women's interests above men's, and criticize radical feminist positions as harmful to both men and women. Mary Wollstonecraft is seen by many as a founder of feminism due to her 1792 book titled A Vindication of
9724-509: The crowd of angry spectators who became verbally and physically abusive toward the women. By the end of the demonstration, there was reported at least one hundred people taken to the hospital due to injuries. In 1918 Crystal Eastman wrote an article published in the Birth Control Review , she contended that birth control is a fundamental right for women and must be available as an alternative if they are to participate fully in
9867-596: The development of Cairo University and the National Movement. In 1923 Hoda Shaarawi founded the Egyptian Feminist Union , became its president and a symbol of the Arab women's rights movement. The Iranian Constitutional Revolution in 1905 triggered the Iranian women's movement , which aimed to achieve women's equality in education , marriage, careers, and legal rights . However, during
10010-410: The economic and cultural sources of women's oppression. Anarcha-feminists believe that class struggle and anarchy against the state require struggling against patriarchy, which comes from involuntary hierarchy. Ecofeminists see men's control of land as responsible for the oppression of women and destruction of the natural environment . Ecofeminism has been criticized for focusing too much on
10153-544: The end of the 19th century, with the self-governing colony of New Zealand granting women the right to vote in 1893; South Australia followed suit with the Constitutional Amendment (Adult Suffrage) Act 1894 in 1894. This was followed by Australia granting female suffrage in 1902. In Britain, the suffragettes and suffragists campaigned for the women's vote, and in 1918 the Representation of
10296-423: The environment. Liberal feminism , also known under other names such as reformist, mainstream, or historically as bourgeois feminism, arose from 19th-century first-wave feminism, and was historically linked to 19th-century liberalism and progressivism , while 19th-century conservatives tended to oppose feminism as such. Liberal feminism seeks equality of men and women through political and legal reform within
10439-411: The equal participation of men in housework and parenting. Economists Mark Aguiar and Erik Hurst calculate that the amount of time spent on housework by women since the 1960s has dropped considerably. Leisure for both men and women has risen significantly and by about the same amount for both sexes. Jeremy Greenwood, Ananth Seshadri and Mehmet Yorukoglu argue that the introduction of modern appliances into
10582-490: The evolving neoliberal order." According to Zhang and Rios, "liberal feminism tends to be adopted by 'mainstream' (i.e., middle-class) women who do not disagree with the current social structure." They found that liberal feminism with its focus on equality is viewed as the dominant and "default" form of feminism. Some modern forms of feminism that historically grew out of the broader liberal tradition have more recently also been described as conservative in relative terms. This
10725-490: The existence of a fourth wave , starting around 2012, which has used social media to combat sexual harassment , violence against women and rape culture ; it is best known for the Me Too movement . First-wave feminism was a period of activity during the 19th and early-20th centuries. In the UK and US, it focused on the promotion of equal contract, marriage, parenting, and property rights for women. New legislation included
10868-583: The fear of another famine occurring across France. On that day, women along with revolutionaries , had planned to gather in the market. Once gathered, the crowd stormed the Hotel de Ville (the City Hall of Paris) where weapons were being stored. The armed crowd then marched to the Palace of Versailles to draw King Louis XVI 's attention to the high prices and food shortages. For King Louis XVI's remaining time on
11011-636: The feminist reader examines the ideologies behind literary phenomena. The second Showalter calls " gynocriticism ", in which the "woman is producer of textual meaning". The last phase she calls "gender theory", in which the "ideological inscription and the literary effects of the sex/gender system are explored". This was paralleled in the 1970s by French feminists , who developed the concept of écriture féminine (which translates as "female or feminine writing"). Hélène Cixous argues that writing and philosophy are phallocentric and along with other French feminists such as Luce Irigaray emphasize "writing from
11154-453: The fight is far from over. Let this dismissal of a woman's experience move you to anger. Turn that outrage into political power. Do not vote for them unless they work for us. Do not have sex with them, do not break bread with them, do not nurture them if they don't prioritize our freedom to control our bodies and our lives. I am not a post-feminism feminist. I am the Third Wave. Third-wave feminism also sought to challenge or avoid what it deemed
11297-407: The financial, social, and cultural inequalities of women in business and in their home lives, and included renewed campaigning for greater influence of women in politics and media. In reaction to political activism, feminists have also had to maintain focus on women's reproductive rights, such as the right to abortion. Fourth-wave feminism examines the interlocking systems of power that contribute to
11440-488: The first convention, it was debated whether black women could participate. By the second and third conventions, demands were heard which saw to it that conventions were open to African American leadership and membership participation. On the evening of the second convention held in Philadelphia Hall, after the meeting adjourned and the attendees left, a violent mob burned down the hall. The issues discussed included
11583-414: The first efforts towards women's suffrage came from more stable and privileged backgrounds, and were able to dedicate time and energy into making change. Initial developments for women, therefore, mainly benefited white women in the middle and upper classes. During the second wave, the feminist movement became more inclusive of women of color and women of different cultures. The 1960s second wave of feminism
11726-597: The flaunting leaves, after having pleased a fastidious eye, fade, disregarded on the stalk, long before the season when they ought to have arrived at maturity." Early ideas and activism of pro-feminism beliefs before the existence of the Feminist movement are described as protofeminist . Protofeminists in the United States organized before the Seneca Falls convention as part of the suffrage, abolition, and other movements. Gender equality movements were practiced within
11869-460: The gender is unknown. Gender-neutral language is language usage which is aimed at minimizing assumptions regarding the gender of human referents. The advocacy of gender-neutral language reflects, at least, two different agendas: one aims to clarify the inclusion of both sexes or genders (gender-inclusive language); the other proposes that gender, as a category, is rarely worth marking in language (gender-neutral language). Gender-neutral language
12012-479: The harassment, abuse, and murder of women and girls have galvanized the movement. These have included the 2012 Delhi gang rape , 2012 Jimmy Savile allegations , the Bill Cosby allegations , 2014 Isla Vista killings , 2016 trial of Jian Ghomeshi , 2017 Harvey Weinstein allegations and subsequent Weinstein effect , and the 2017 Westminster sexual scandals . Examples of fourth-wave feminist campaigns include
12155-450: The home has allowed women to enter the work force. Feminist criticisms of men's contributions to child care and domestic labor in the Western middle class are typically centered around the idea that it is unfair for women to be expected to perform more than half of a household's domestic work and child care when both members of the relationship perform an equal share of work outside the home. Several studies provide statistical evidence that
12298-417: The household. They were raised in a manner in which gaining a husband to take care of them and raising a family was their ultimate priority. Author Mary Wollstonecraft wrote of the lesser sex in her 1792 novels A Vindication of the Rights of Woman & A Vindication of the Rights of Men , "..for, like the flowers which are planted in too rich a soil, strength and usefulness are sacrificed to beauty; and
12441-483: The inclusion of men's liberation within its aims, because they believe that men are also harmed by traditional gender roles . Feminist theory , which emerged from feminist movements, aims to understand the nature of gender inequality by examining women's social roles and lived experiences. Feminist theorists have developed theories in a variety of disciplines in order to respond to issues concerning gender. Numerous feminist movements and ideologies have developed over
12584-432: The late 20th century various feminists began to argue that gender roles are socially constructed , and that it is impossible to generalize women's experiences across cultures and histories. Post-structural feminism draws on the philosophies of post-structuralism and deconstruction in order to argue that the concept of gender is created socially and culturally through discourse . Postmodern feminists also emphasize
12727-563: The late part of that century. Christine de Pizan , a late medieval writer, was possibly the earliest feminist in the western tradition. She is believed to be the first woman to make a living out of writing. Feminist thought began to take a more substantial shape during the Enlightenment with such thinkers as Lady Mary Wortley Montagu and the Marquis de Condorcet championing women's education. The first scientific society for women
12870-427: The legacy of the class society of patriarchal women (drowning of infants, corset , foot binding , etc.), discrimination, play, mutilate women's traditional prejudice and habitual forces on the basis of the development of productive forces, it is gradually needful on achieving gender in politics, economy, social and family aspects of equality. Before the westernization movement and the reform movement, women had set off
13013-409: The main ways that women as a whole are kept under systematic control. Women who engage in heterosexual activity are denounced as ‘collaborators with the enemy’. While many women were influenced by the pamphlet, it also evoked a critical reaction. Many heterosexual women were offended at being called collaborators, and the labeling of all men as the enemy of women. Lesbian feminists and others also opposed
13156-467: The modern western feminist movement is divided into multiple "waves". The first comprised women's suffrage movements of the 19th and early-20th centuries, promoting women's right to vote. The second wave , the women's liberation movement , began in the 1960s and campaigned for legal and social equality for women. In or around 1992, a third wave was identified, characterized by a focus on individuality and diversity. Additionally, some have argued for
13299-448: The modern world. "In short, if feminism, conscious and bold and intelligent, leads the demand, it will be supported by the secret eagerness of all women to control the size of their families, and a suffrage state should make short work of repealing these old laws that stand in the way of birth control." She stated "I don't believe there is one woman within the confines of this state who does not believe in birth control!" The women who made
13442-546: The murders but also the police reaction to them. Police had advised women not to go out at night. Not only was this not practical to many women, it was also seen as blaming the victims . As many of the murders took place in the Chapeltown area of Leeds, and because many of the organisers lived in the area, the Leeds march took place there. This drew criticism from some anti-racist campaigners. They argued that since Chapeltown
13585-488: The new Islamist movement and growing conservatism. However, some activists proposed a new feminist movement, Islamic feminism , which argues for women's equality within an Islamic framework. In Latin America , revolutions brought changes in women's status in countries such as Nicaragua , where feminist ideology during the Sandinista Revolution aided women's quality of life but fell short of achieving
13728-495: The number of female dependents in family and encouraged women to receive the rights of education and enter the workforce to be economic independent from men and finally help the nation to reach higher wealth and prosperity. For feminist Ma Junwu and Jin Tianhe, they both supported the equality between husbands and wives, women enjoy legitimate and equal rights and also rights to enter the political sphere. A key assertion from Jin Tianhe
13871-588: The passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (1919), granting women the right to vote in all states. The term first wave was coined retroactively when the term second-wave feminism came into use. In Germany , feminists like Clara Zetkin was very interested in women's politics , including the fight for equal opportunities and women's suffrage , through socialism. She helped to develop
14014-448: The perceived dominance of liberal feminism . The group emphasised the importance of women-only spaces and organisation, and identified male violence against women and the threat of it as the keystone in the oppression of women. According to Alison Garthwaite , who was heavily involved with the Leeds group, the group differed from many separatists by their opposition to separatism as a lifestyle, or an end in itself. The group organised
14157-466: The planet. The feminist movement continued during the periods between waves, just not to the extent of the four large motions. The first documented gathering of women to form a movement with a common goal was on 5 October 1789, during the French Revolution . The event was later referred to as the Women's March on Versailles . The gathering was based on a lack of food, high market prices, and
14300-508: The population are being subjugated by the other half'(Wollstonecraft 2009 p.59). She went on to write about the Law of Nature and the desire for women to present more as themselves, and demand respect and equality from their male counterparts, "...men endeavor to sink us still lower, merely to render us alluring objects for a moment; and women, intoxicated by the adoration which men, under the influence of their senses, pay them, do not see, to obtain
14443-440: The pressures under which we struggled, wonder how we did what we did and at what price." On 11 October 1991, the first televised workplace sexual harassment case was aired. Anita Hill , who was a law professor at the time accused Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas of persistent sexual harassment. Anita Hill recounted the details of her experience in court to an all male panel. Despite there being four corroborating witnesses,
14586-496: The provisional emancipation of some women, but post-war periods signalled the return to conservative roles. In Switzerland , women gained the right to vote in federal elections in 1971; but in the canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden women obtained the right to vote on local issues only in 1991, when the canton was forced to do so by the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland . In Liechtenstein , women were given
14729-511: The remaining Australian colonies passed similar legislation between 1890 and 1897. With the turn of the 19th century, activism focused primarily on gaining political power, particularly the right of women's suffrage , though some feminists were active in campaigning for women's sexual , reproductive , and economic rights too. Women's suffrage (the right to vote and stand for parliamentary office) began in Britain's Australasian colonies at
14872-575: The right to vote , run for public office , work , earn equal pay , own property , receive education , enter into contracts , have equal rights within marriage , and maternity leave . Feminists have also worked to ensure access to contraception , legal abortions , and social integration ; and to protect women and girls from sexual assault , sexual harassment , and domestic violence . Changes in female dress standards and acceptable physical activities for women have also been part of feminist movements. Many scholars consider feminist campaigns to be
15015-513: The right to abort with the passing of the Veil Law in 1975. The 1980s and 1990s drew a different perspective in the feminist movement and was termed Grrl Feminism or Riot Grrl Feminism. The ideas of this era took root with the popularization of the Riot grrrl feminist punk subculture in Olympia, Washington , in the early 1990s. The feminists of this era strived to redefine what it meant to be
15158-449: The right to initiate divorce proceedings and "no fault" divorce, the right of women to make individual decisions regarding pregnancy (including access to contraceptives and abortion), and the right to own property. It has also led to broad employment for women at more equitable wages, and access to university education. Prior to the 20th century, women in China were considered essentially different from men. Feminism in China started in
15301-546: The right to vote by the women's suffrage referendum of 1984 . Three prior referendums held in 1968 , 1971 and 1973 had failed to secure women's right to vote. Feminists continued to campaign for the reform of family laws which gave husbands control over their wives. Although by the 20th century coverture had been abolished in the UK and US, in many continental European countries married women still had very few rights. For instance, in France, married women did not receive
15444-534: The right to vote. Grenier's proposition was adopted 51 to 16. In May 1947, following the November 1946 elections , the sociologist Robert Verdier minimized the " gender gap ", stating in Le Populaire that women had not voted in a consistent way, dividing themselves, as men, according to social classes. During the baby boom period, feminism waned in importance. Wars (both World War I and World War II) had seen
15587-422: The right to work without their husband's permission until 1965. Feminists have also worked to abolish the "marital exemption" in rape laws which precluded the prosecution of husbands for the rape of their wives. Earlier efforts by first-wave feminists such as Voltairine de Cleyre , Victoria Woodhull and Elizabeth Clarke Wolstenholme Elmy to criminalize marital rape in the late 19th century had failed; this
15730-418: The second wave's essentialist definitions of femininity , which, third-wave feminists argued, overemphasized the experiences of upper middle-class white women. Third-wave feminists often focused on " micro-politics " and challenged the second wave's paradigm as to what was, or was not, good for women, and tended to use a post-structuralist interpretation of gender and sexuality. Feminist leaders rooted in
15873-418: The second wave's ideas. Other postfeminists say that feminism is no longer relevant to today's society. Amelia Jones has written that the postfeminist texts which emerged in the 1980s and 1990s portrayed second-wave feminism as a monolithic entity. Dorothy Chunn describes a "blaming narrative" under the postfeminist moniker, where feminists are undermined for continuing to make demands for gender equality in
16016-428: The second wave, such as Gloria Anzaldúa , bell hooks , Chela Sandoval , Cherríe Moraga , Audre Lorde , Maxine Hong Kingston , and many other non-white feminists, sought to negotiate a space within feminist thought for consideration of race-related subjectivities. Third-wave feminism also contained internal debates between difference feminists , who believe that there are important psychological differences between
16159-459: The sexes, and those who believe that there are no inherent psychological differences between the sexes and contend that gender roles are due to social conditioning . Standpoint theory is a feminist theoretical point of view stating that a person's social position influences their knowledge. This perspective argues that research and theory treat women and the feminist movement as insignificant and refuses to see traditional science as unbiased. Since
16302-450: The similarity between the duties as a citizen of both men and women and the cohesion to ensue if both genders were considered equal. British philosopher and writer Mary Wollstonecraft published in 1792 what has been seen as the first feminist treaty on the human rights of women, " Vindication of the Rights of Woman ." She pressed the issue of equality between men and women, stating: "No society can be either virtuous or moral while half of
16445-732: The slogan "The Personal is Political", which became synonymous with the second wave. Second- and third-wave feminism in China has been characterized by a reexamination of women's roles during the communist revolution and other reform movements, and new discussions about whether women's equality has actually been fully achieved. In 1956, President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt initiated " state feminism ", which outlawed discrimination based on gender and granted women's suffrage, but also blocked political activism by feminist leaders. During Sadat 's presidency, his wife, Jehan Sadat , publicly advocated further women's rights, though Egyptian policy and society began to move away from women's equality with
16588-454: The social stratification of traditionally marginalized groups , as well as the world around them. The base of the Women's Movement, since its inception, has been grounded in the injustice of inequality between men and women. Throughout history, the relationship between men and women has been that of a patriarchal society , citing the law of nature as the justification, which was interpreted to mean women are inferior to men. Allan Johnson,
16731-748: The social construction of gender and the discursive nature of reality; however, as Pamela Abbott et al. write, a postmodern approach to feminism highlights "the existence of multiple truths (rather than simply men and women's standpoints)". Feminist movement The feminist movement , also known as the women's movement , refers to a series of social movements and political campaigns for radical and liberal reforms on women's issues created by inequality between men and women. Such issues are women's liberation , reproductive rights , domestic violence , maternity leave , equal pay , women's suffrage , sexual harassment , and sexual violence . The movement's priorities have expanded since its beginning in
16874-656: The social-democratic women's movement in Germany. From 1891 to 1917, she edited the SPD women's newspaper Die Gleichheit (Equality). In 1907 she became the leader of the newly founded "Women's Office" at the SPD. She also contributed to International Women's Day (IWD). During the late Qing period and reform movements such as the Hundred Days' Reform , Chinese feminists called for women's liberation from traditional roles and Neo-Confucian gender segregation . Later,
17017-409: The spirit world, and knowledge, as well as across everyday practices that either habituate us to take care of the world or to destroy it." Decolonial feminists like Karla Jessen Williamson and Rauna Kuokkanen have examined colonialism as a force that has imposed gender hierarchies on Indigenous women that have disempowered and fractured Indigenous communities and ways of life. The term postfeminism
17160-589: The state feminism of the Nordic countries . The broad field of liberal feminism is sometimes confused with the more recent and smaller branch known as libertarian feminism, which tends to diverge significantly from mainstream liberal feminism. For example, "libertarian feminism does not require social measures to reduce material inequality; in fact, it opposes such measures ... in contrast, liberal feminism may support such requirements and egalitarian versions of feminism insist on them." Catherine Rottenberg notes that
17303-710: The suggestion that sexuality was a choice. Feminism Feminism is a range of socio- political movements and ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes . Feminism holds the position that modern societies are patriarchal —they prioritize the male point of view—and that women are treated unjustly in these societies. Efforts to change this include fighting against gender stereotypes and improving educational, professional, and interpersonal opportunities and outcomes for women. Originating in late 18th-century Europe, feminist movements have campaigned and continue to campaign for women's rights , including
17446-556: The temperance movement came to the realization, without the ability to vote on the issues they were fighting for, nothing would ever change. Feminism in the United States, Canada, and a number of countries in Western Europe has been divided by scholars into three waves: first , second and third-wave feminism . Recent (early 2010s) research suggests there may be a fourth wave characterized, in part, by new media platforms. The feminist movement's agenda includes acting as
17589-662: The throne, he stopped fighting the Revolutionaries. The march signaled a sort of change of power, showing that there is power in the people, and diminished the perception that the monarch was invincible. The French Revolution began with the inequality felt by French citizens and came as a reaction from the " Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen " which was signed in August 1789. The declaration gave rights to men who were termed active citizens . Active citizenship
17732-465: The title Love your enemy? The debate between heterosexual feminism and political lesbianism . The re-publication highlighted some of the responses to the argument. The authors of the pamphlet advocate that women should become lesbians. Lesbian here is defined as a woman who refrains from heterosexual sexual activity, not necessarily a woman who sleeps with other women. It is argued that heterosexuality must be abandoned since heterosexual relations are one of
17875-449: The total uprooting and reconstruction of society as necessary. Separatist feminism does not support heterosexual relationships. Lesbian feminism is thus closely related. Other feminists criticize separatist feminism as sexist. Rosemary Hennessy and Chrys Ingraham say that materialist forms of feminism grew out of Western Marxist thought and have inspired a number of different (but overlapping) movements, all of which are involved in
18018-517: The vote, oppression, and slavery, and laid the basis for future movements. On November 15, 1895, Elizabeth Cady Stanton wrote an address describing how, in her perspective, the Seneca Falls Convention "... was the first woman's rights convention ever held in the world ... a declaration was read and signed by most of those present, and a series of radical resolutions adopted." Stanton's recollection prompted historians since
18161-424: The workforce, political environment and education. The foot-binding costume had long been established in China which was an act to display the beauty and social status of women by binding their feet into an extremely small shoe with good decorations and ornaments. Liang Qichao proposed the abolishment of this act due to concern the health of female being a supportive wives and caring mothers. He also proposed to reduce
18304-458: The world have had different causes and goals. Most western feminist historians contend that all movements working to obtain women's rights should be considered feminist movements, even when they did not (or do not) apply the term to themselves. Other historians assert that the term should be limited to the modern feminist movement and its descendants. Those historians use the label " protofeminist " to describe earlier movements. The history of
18447-410: The years, representing different viewpoints and political aims. Traditionally, since the 19th century, first-wave liberal feminism , which sought political and legal equality through reforms within a liberal democratic framework, was contrasted with labour -based proletarian women's movements that over time developed into socialist and Marxist feminism based on class struggle theory. Since
18590-402: The years. Feminism is often divided into three main traditions called liberal, radical and socialist/Marxist feminism, sometimes known as the "Big Three" schools of feminist thought. Since the late 20th century, newer forms of feminisms have also emerged. Some branches of feminism track the political leanings of the larger society to a greater or lesser degree, or focus on specific topics, such as
18733-411: Was French playwright Olympes de Gouges , who wrote the " Declaration of the Rights of Woman " in 1791, in contrast to the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen." She famously stated, "Women are born free and are man's equal in law. Social distinctions can be founded solely on common utility." Olympes used her words to urge women to speak up and take control of their rights. She demonstrated
18876-420: Was a mostly-black area, the march risked reinforcing the ‘black beast’ stereotype and drawing unwanted police attention the area. Increasing policing, however, was not a demand of the organisers. The pamphlet Political Lesbianism: The Case Against Heterosexuality also proved controversial. The pamphlet was published in 1979, having originated from a conference talk given in 1977. It was republished in 1981 under
19019-428: Was first transmitted to China in 1791 which was proposed by Olympe de Gouges and promoted the 'women's liberation'. The feminist movement in China was mainly kickstarted and driven by male feminists prior to female feminists. Key male feminists in China in the 19th to 20th century included Liang Qichao , Ma Junwu and Jin Tianhe . In 1897, Liang Qichao proposed banning of foot-binding and encouraged women to engage in
19162-775: Was founded in Middelburg , a city in the south of the Dutch republic , in 1785. Though the feminist movement had already begun in America with the Temperance Movement, the First Wave of Feminism , known as the Suffragette Movement, began on 19–20 July 1848 during the first Women's Right Convention in Seneca Falls, New York. The convention drew over 300 people, who were predominately white, middle-class women. Sixty-eight women and thirty-two men signed
19305-421: Was given to French men who were twenty-five years, or older, worked, and paid taxes, and who could not be titled a servant . The declaration dismissed the population who were women, foreigners, children, and servants, as passive citizens . Passive citizens, French women in particular, focused their fight on gaining citizenship and equal rights. One of the first women to speak out on women's rights and inequality
19448-401: Was in the 1990s. It was based on individualism , diversity, redefined what it meant to be a feminist, intersectionality , sex positivity , transfeminism , and postmodern feminism . Lastly, the fourth wave began in the 2000s, and is currently still in progress. It has been based around female empowerment , body shaming , sexual harassment , spiritual concerns, human rights, and concerns for
19591-500: Was not correlated to the interest of the nation and she analysed three reasons behind the male feminists included: following the Western trend, to alleviate their financial burdens and high quality of reproduction. Besides, Li Zongsu proposed that women should strive for their legitimate rights which includes broader aspects than the male feminists: call for their own right over men, the Qing Court and in an international extent. In
19734-404: Was only achieved a century later in most Western countries, but is still not achieved in many other parts of the world. French philosopher Simone de Beauvoir provided a Marxist solution and an existentialist view on many of the questions of feminism with the publication of Le Deuxième Sexe ( The Second Sex ) in 1949. The book expressed feminists' sense of injustice. Second-wave feminism
19877-552: Was oriented around the station of middle- or upper-class white women and involved suffrage and political equality, education, right to property, organizational leadership, and marital freedoms. Second-wave feminism attempted to further combat social and cultural inequalities. Although the first wave of feminism involved mainly middle class white women, the second wave brought in women of different social classes, women of color, and women from other developing nations that were seeking solidarity. Third-wave feminism continued to address
20020-567: Was termed the Women's liberation movement . It was the largest and broadest social movement in US history. The second wave was based around a sociopolitical - cultural movement. Activists fought for gender issues , women's sexual liberation , reproductive rights , job opportunities for women, violence against women , and changes in custody and divorce laws. It is believed the feminist movement gained attention in 1963, when Betty Friedan published her novel, The Feminine Mystique . Friedan wrote of "the problem that has no name"(Friedan 1963), as
20163-423: Was the banning of abortion and contraception, which the group saw as a violation of women's rights. Thus, they made a declaration known as Le Manifeste de 343 which held signatures from 343 women admitting to having had an illegal abortion. The declaration was published in two French newspapers, Le Nouvel observateur and Le Monde , on 5 April 1971. The group gained support upon the publication. Women received
20306-631: Was through legislation. After the PRC's founding in 1949, women were granted the same rights that men were entitled to by law, largely because women's liberation was presented as part of the Chinese nation's liberation. Feminists are sometimes, though not exclusively, proponents of using non-sexist language , such as using "Ms" to refer to both married and unmarried women. Feminists are also often proponents of using gender-inclusive language, such as "humanity" instead of "mankind", or "they" in place of "he" where
20449-560: Was women as the mother of the nation. These views from male feminists in early feminism in China represented the image of ideal women in the imagination of men. Key female feminists in China in the 19th to 20th century included Lin Zongsu, He Zhen, Chen Xiefen and Qiu Jin. The female feminists in early China focused more on the methods or ways that women should behave and liberate themselves to achieve equal and deserved rights and independence. He Zhen expressed her opinion that women's liberation
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