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74-492: Legio XIV was first raised by Caesar in Cisalpine Gaul during his raids into, and conquest of, Gaul. Their enlistment term was for 16 years, as per the other Republican legions (though Augustus raised that to 20). In the first years, the legion frequently was left behind to guard the camp during battles and raids. Following its early destruction at Atuatuca (near today's Tongeren , Belgium ) during Ambiorix's revolt it

148-404: A naval raid of Pontus , in the northern part of Asia Minor. After ravaging the province, they moved south into Cappadocia . A Roman army from Antioch, under Valerian, tried to intercept them but failed. According to Zosimus , this army was infected by a plague that gravely weakened it. In that condition, this army had to repel a new invasion of the province of Mesopotamia by Shapur I , ruler of

222-440: A show of submission, but his soldiers mutinied and proclaimed him emperor. Under his command, they besieged Cologne, and after some weeks the defenders of the city opened the gates and handed Saloninus and Silvanus to Postumus, who had them killed. The dating of these events was long uncertain, but an inscription discovered in 1992 at Augsburg indicates that Postumus had been proclaimed emperor by September 260. Postumus claimed

296-584: A single prolonged one. It seems that, at first, a major naval expedition was led by the Heruli starting from north of the Black Sea and leading to the ravaging of many cities of Greece (among them, Athens and Sparta ). Then another, even more numerous army of invaders started a second naval invasion of the empire. The Romans defeated the barbarians on sea first. Gallienus's army then won a battle in Thrace , and

370-522: A thickness of 3.20m. Horrea were located southwest of Tungrorum, just outside the first wall, and depended on the Roman army rather than on the city. Atuatuca Eboronum was besieged by the armies of Julius Caesar during the revolt of Ambrorix in the winter of 54–53 BC. The stronghold also played an important role in Caesar's subsequent attempts to annihilate the tribe in 53 and 51 BC. Atuatuca Tungrorum

444-798: A war with the Sarmatians and Trajan's Dacian Wars (101–106 AD), the legion was moved to Carnuntum , where it stayed for three centuries. Some vexillations or subunits of the Fourteenth fought in the wars against the Mauri , under Antoninus Pius , and the legion participated in the Parthian campaign of Emperor Lucius Verus . During his war against the Marcomanni , Emperor Marcus Aurelius based his headquarters in Carnuntum. In AD 193, after

518-433: Is hard to fix the precise date of these events), probably due to the vacuum left by the withdrawal of troops supporting Gallienus in the campaign against Ingenuus. Franks broke through the lower Rhine, invading Gaul , some reaching as far as southern Spain, sacking Tarraco (modern Tarragona ). The Alemanni invaded, probably through Agri Decumates (an area between the upper Rhine and the upper Danube), likely followed by

592-581: Is thought to be located to the south of Rome, at the IXth mile of the Via Appia . Gallienus was not treated favorably by ancient historians. The biased and largely fictional account of that reign in the Historia Augusta describes him as a lover of luxury, who dressed in purple, sprinkled gold dust in his hair, and built castles of apples. Emperor Julian's The Caesars presents Gallienus "with

666-848: The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest , one of the greatest disasters in Roman military history. The legion secured a victory for Germanicus, and earned him a triumph from his adopted father and biological uncle, Emperor Tiberius . Stationed in Moguntiacum , Germania Superior from AD 9, Legio XIV Gemina Martia Victrix was one of four legions used by Aulus Plautius and Claudius in the Roman invasion of Britain in AD 43. It built its legionary fortress at Mancetter on Watling Street and by AD 58 it had moved its base to Wroxeter . It took part in

740-598: The Gallic Empire remained independent until 274. In 262, the mint in Alexandria started to again issue coins for Gallienus, demonstrating that Egypt had returned to his control after suppressing the revolt of the Macriani. In spring of 262, the city was wrenched by civil unrest as a result of a new revolt. The rebel this time was the prefect of Egypt, Lucius Mussius Aemilianus , who had already given support to

814-590: The Juthungi . After devastating Germania Superior and Raetia (parts of southern France and Switzerland ), they entered Italy, the first invasion of the Italian peninsula, aside from its most remote northern regions, since Hannibal 500 years before. When invaders reached the outskirts of Rome, they were repelled by an improvised army assembled by the Senate, consisting of local troops (probably praetorian guards) and

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888-810: The Lava Treasure in Corsica , France, in the 1980s. He contributed to military history as the first to commission primarily cavalry units, the Comitatenses , that could be dispatched anywhere in the Empire in short order. This reform arguably created a precedent for the future emperors Diocletian and Constantine I . The biographer Aurelius Victor reports that Gallienus forbade senators from becoming military commanders. This policy undermined senatorial power, as more reliable equestrian commanders rose to prominence. In Southern's view, these reforms and

962-595: The Sasanian Empire threw the Roman Empire into the chaos of civil war. Control of the whole empire passed to Gallienus. He defeated the eastern usurpers Macrianus Major and Lucius Mussius Aemilianus in 261–262 but failed to stop the formation of the breakaway Gallic Empire under general Postumus . Aureolus , another usurper, proclaimed himself emperor in Mediolanum in 268 but was defeated outside

1036-467: The Sassanid Empire . The invasion occurred probably in the early spring of 260. The Roman army was defeated at the Battle of Edessa , and Valerian was taken prisoner. Shapur's army raided Cilicia and Cappadocia (in present-day Turkey ), sacking, as Shapur's inscriptions claim, 36 cities. It took a rally by an officer named Callistus (Balista), a fiscal official named Fulvius Macrianus ,

1110-767: The Scheldt and Rhine rivers. The oldest one, Atuatuca Eboronum , attested during the Gallic Wars (58–50 BC), was the stronghold of the Eburones . The other one, Atuatuca Tungrorum (modern Tongeren ), founded around 10 BC, was the Roman-era capital of the Civitas Tungrorum , inhabited by the Tungri . The place name Atuatuca is first mentioned in the mid-first century BC by Julius Caesar to designate

1184-459: The 4th and 5th centuries, in a context of insecurity caused by Germanic migrations from the other side of the Rhine , and due to changes in regional and inter-regional trade. From the early 4th century onward, a new outer wall surrounded the city. Since Tungrorum was located on the route linking Boulogne to Cologne , the decline of road transportation in favour of rivers during this period led to

1258-597: The Alps with their valuables and captives from Italy. A historian in the 19th century suggested that the initiative of the Senate gave rise to jealousy and suspicion by Gallienus, thus contributing to his exclusion of senators from military commands. Around the same time, Regalianus , who held some command in the Balkans, was proclaimed emperor. The reasons for this are unclear, and the Historia Augusta (almost

1332-724: The Balkans in preparation for a campaign against the Parthians that Nero planned but which never materialised. In AD 89 the governor of Germania Superior , Lucius Antonius Saturninus , rebelled against Domitian , with the support of the XIVth and of the XXI Rapax , but the revolt was suppressed. When the XXIst legion was lost in AD 92, XIV Gemina was sent to Pannonia to replace it, setting up camp in Vindobona ( Vienna ). After

1406-583: The Dalmatians, spread the word that the forces of Aureolus were leaving the city, and Gallienus left his tent without his bodyguard, only to be struck down by Cecropius. One version has Claudius selected as emperor by the conspirators, another chosen by Gallienus on his death bed; the Historia Augusta was concerned to substantiate the descent of the Constantinian dynasty from Claudius, and this may explain its accounts, which do not involve Claudius in

1480-574: The East. Gallienus had installed his son Saloninus and his guardian, Silvanus , in Cologne in 258. Postumus, a general in command of troops on the banks of the Rhine, defeated some raiders and took possession of their spoils. Instead of returning it to the original owners, he preferred to distribute it amongst his soldiers. When news of this reached Silvanus, he demanded the spoils be sent to him. Postumus made

1554-583: The Eburones after a drought year, which was a cause of the rebellion, although Aduatuca had not been named in the earlier discussion. Unfortunately, although Caesar says the fort was in the middle of the territory of the Eburones, there is no consensus on the boundaries of the Eburone territory. At one point Caesar says that the chief part of the territory of the Eburones was between the Mosa (Maas or Meuse ) and

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1628-663: The Meuse and the Jeker river, around 15 km east of Tongeren, as the most likely place for the Eburonean stronghold. An excavation of the place revealed that fortifications had twice been made in the 1st century BC. This may explain why the old name of the central place of the Eburones, Atuatuca , was adopted by the newly founded Roman civitas of the Tungri, Atuatuca Tungrorum , located nearby. The Roman-era Atuatuca Tungrorum

1702-464: The Ocean. There was "no regular army, nor a town, nor a garrison which could defend itself by arms; but the people were scattered in all directions. Where either a hidden valley, or a woody spot, or a difficult morass furnished any hope of protection or of security to any one, there he had fixed himself". Several arguments have been given for interpreting the name Atuatuca to mean fortress, and not to be

1776-588: The Pannonian provinces, took advantage and declared himself emperor. Valerian II had apparently died on the Danube, most likely in 258. Ingenuus may have been responsible for Valerian II's death. Alternatively, the defeat and capture of Valerian at the battle of Edessa may have been the trigger for the subsequent revolts of Ingenuus, Regalianus , and Postumus . In any case, Gallienus reacted with great speed. He left his son Saloninus as Caesar at Cologne , under

1850-623: The Persians while they invaded Europe with an army of 30,000 men, according to the Historia Augusta . At first they met no opposition. The Pannonian legions joined the invaders, being resentful of the absence of Gallienus. He sent his successful commander Aureolus against the rebels, however, and the decisive battle was fought in the spring or early summer of 261, most likely in Illyricum, although Zonaras locates it in Pannonia. In any case,

1924-515: The Rhine. But it is generally agreed that the Eburone territory also included land between the Scheldt and the Maas , including all or most of the low-lying " Campine ". Caesar described the surrounding area as a place where the Eburones were able to disperse dangerously; some, including the Eburone leader Ambiorix , apparently into remote parts of the Ardennes, and others towards tidal islands in

1998-470: The Romans actually designated it as the capital as early as 10 BC. Shortly after its the creation, elements of the local population may have settled in the new town. The second generation then replaced the native 'state houses' with Romanized courtyard houses, at a period when the Roman armies had left for a long time. Three different fires, evidenced by archaeological findings, led to the quasi-destruction of

2072-417: The army of Aureolus, having defeated the Macriani, rejoined him, and Postumus was expelled. Aureolus was entrusted with the pursuit and deliberately allowed Postumus to escape and gather new forces. Gallienus returned in 263 or 265 and surrounded Postumus in an unnamed Gallic city. During the siege, Gallienus was severely wounded by an arrow and had to flee. The standstill persisted until his later death, and

2146-426: The army of the usurpers was defeated and surrendered, and their two leaders were killed. In the aftermath of the battle, the rebellion of Postumus had already started, so Gallienus had no time to deal with the rest of the usurpers, namely Balista and Quietus. He came to an agreement with Odenathus, who had just returned from his victorious Persian expedition. Odenathus received the title of dux Romanorum and besieged

2220-495: The boy probably joined Gallienus on campaign at that time, and when Gallienus moved west to the Rhine provinces in 257, he remained behind on the Danube as the personification of Imperial authority. Sometime between 258 and 260 (the exact date is unclear), while Valerian was distracted with the ongoing invasion of Shapur I in the East, and Gallienus was preoccupied with his problems in the West, Ingenuus , governor of at least one of

2294-453: The city by Gallienus and besieged inside. While the siege was ongoing, Gallienus was assassinated, stabbed to death by the officer Cecropius, as part of a conspiracy. The exact birth date of Gallienus is unknown. The 6th-century Greek chronicler John Malalas and the Epitome de Caesaribus report that he was about 50 years old at the time of his death, meaning he was born around 218. He was

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2368-455: The city of Sirmium . There is a suggestion that Gallienus invited the Roxolani to attack Regalianus, but other historians dismiss the accusation. It is also suggested that the invasion was finally checked by Gallienus near Verona and that he directed the restoration of the province, probably in person. In the East, Valerian was confronted with serious troubles. Bands of " Scythai " began

2442-439: The consulship for himself and one of his associates, Honoratianus, but according to D.S. Potter, he never tried to unseat Gallienus or invade Italy. Upon receiving news of the murder of his son, Gallienus began gathering forces to face Postumus. The invasion of the Macriani forced him to dispatch Aureolus with a large force to oppose them, however, leaving him with insufficient troops to battle Postumus. After some initial defeats,

2516-409: The death of Pertinax , the commander of the Fourteenth, Septimius Severus , was acclaimed emperor by the Pannonian legions, and above all by his own. XIV Gemina fought for its emperor in his march to Rome to attack usurper Didius Julianus (193), contributed to the defeat of the usurper Pescennius Niger (194), and probably fought in the Parthian campaign that ended with the sack of the capital of

2590-575: The decline in senatorial influence not only helped Aurelian to salvage the Empire, but they also make Gallienus one of the emperors most responsible for the creation of the Dominate , along with Septimius Severus , Diocletian, and Constantine I. The capture of Valerian in the year 259 forced Gallienus to issue the first official declaration of tolerance with regard to the Christians, restoring their places of worship and cemeteries, therefore implying

2664-458: The defeat of Boudicca in 60 or 61. At the Battle of Watling Street the 14th defeated Boudicca's force of 230,000, according to Tacitus and Dio, with their meager force of 10,000 Legionaries and Auxiliaries. This act secured them as Nero's "most effective" legion, and he kept them garrisoned in Britain during the next few years to keep the uneasy tribes in check. In 67 AD the legion was sent to

2738-421: The dress and languishing gait of a woman", which is possibly connected with coins portraying the emperor with unusual iconography and bearing the legend Gallienae Augustae . This animosity within the sources was partly due to the secession of Gaul and Palmyra and his inability to win them back; at the time of Gallienus's death, Palmyra was still nominally loyal to Rome, but, under the leadership of Odaenathus ,

2812-420: The emperor pursued the invaders. According to some historians, he was the leader of the army who won the great Battle of Naissus , while the majority believes that the victory must be attributed to his successor, Claudius II . In 268, at some time before or soon after the battle of Naissus, the authority of Gallienus was challenged by Aureolus , commander of the cavalry stationed in Mediolanum ( Milan ), who

2886-521: The emperor. Gallienus spent most of his time in the provinces of the Rhine area ( Germania Inferior , Germania Superior , Raetia , and Noricum ), though he almost certainly visited the Danube area and Illyricum in the years from 253 to 258. According to Eutropius and Aurelius Victor, he was particularly energetic and successful in preventing invaders from attacking the German provinces and Gaul, despite

2960-480: The empire, Ctesiphon (198). In the turmoil following the defeat of Valerian , the XIV Gemina supported usurper Regalianus against Emperor Gallienus (260), then Gallienus against Postumus of the Gallic Empire (earning the title VI Pia VI Fidelis —"six times faithful, six times loyal"), and, after Gallienus' death, Gallic Emperor Victorinus (269–271). At the beginning of the 5th century, XIV Gemina

3034-438: The end of the first century BC have been found there. The location of the stronghold has been highly debated among scholars since the middle of the 20th century. In the words of Edith Wightman , "changes which took place after Caesar, involving new folk from across the Rhine and reorganization of existing peoples, make localization difficult." Caesar describes Atuatuca as a castellum ('fort, stronghold, shelter') located in

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3108-657: The evidence has reinvigorated the idea. Other proposed sites in the nearby Liège Province include Battice , Limbourg , Dolembreux , northeast of Esneux and Chaudfontaine ; as well as Thuin , in Hainaut province . In Germany, Atsch in Stolberg , near Aachen , as well as the Ichenberg hill near Eschweiler have also been proposed. Gallienus Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus ( / ˌ ɡ æ l i ˈ ɛ n ə s / ; c.  218 – September 268)

3182-668: The influence of the Old French phonology during the first millennium AD. The ancient name of the city of Tongeren , founded ex-nihilo by the Romans around 10 BC, is rendered as Atuatuca Tungrorum on the basis of written sources from the beginning of the Common Era : the settlement is known as Atouatoukon ca. 170 AD ( Ptolemy ), Tungri in the late 4th c. AD ( Ammianus Marcellinus ), civitas Tungrorum ( Notitia Galliarum ), Aduaga Tungrorum ( Antonine Itinerary ), and as Atuaca ( Tabula Peutingeriana ). The meaning of

3256-544: The middle of the Eburonean territory, between the Meuse and the Rhine rivers. However, one cannot exclude a location west of the Meuse, since Caesar also states that the land of the Eburones bordered on that of the Menapii , and that there were Eburones living close to the "Ocean", which may suggest that a number of them lived west of this river. Vanvinckenroye has proposed the plateau of Caster at Kanne , situated between

3330-469: The murder, but the sources agree that most of Gallienus's officials wanted him dead. According to the Historia Augusta, an unreliable source compiled long after the events it describes, a conspiracy was led by the commander of the guard Aurelius Heraclianus and Lucius Aurelius Marcianus . Marcianus's role in the conspiracy is not confirmed by any other ancient source. Cecropius, commander of

3404-538: The murder. The other sources ( Zosimus i.40 and Zonaras xii.25) report that the conspiracy was organized by Heraclianus, Claudius, and Aurelian . According to Aurelius Victor and Zonaras, on hearing the news that Gallienus was dead, the Senate in Rome ordered the execution of his family (including his brother Valerianus and son Marinianus) and their supporters, just before receiving a message from Claudius to spare their lives and deify his predecessor. The tomb of Gallienus

3478-581: The name Atuatuca remains unclear. According to Xavier Delamarre , it may be formed with the Gaulish suffix ad- ('towards') attached to the stem uātu- (' Vāti , soothsayer, seer, prophet') and the suffix -cā (most likely a feminine variant of -āco- , denoting the provenance or localization). An original Gaulish form *ad-uātu-cā ('place of the soothsayer, where one goes to prophesy') has thus been proposed. The meaning 'the fortress' has also been postulated by Alfred Holder in 1896, by reconstructing

3552-523: The name in Gaulish as *ad-uatucā and comparing the second element to the Old Irish faidche ('the free place, the field near a dún [fortress]' < *uaticiā ). This proposition has been debated as linguistically untenable in recent scholarship. The name Atuatuci , borne by a Gallic-Germanic tribe dwelling near the Eburones , is linguistically related to the place name Atuatuca , although

3626-469: The name of a fort. [ Id castelli nomen est . This could also mean it is the name for a fort.] This is nearly in the middle of the Eburones, where Titurius and Aurunculeius had been quartered for the purpose of wintering." He was referring to earlier sections of the commentaries where Q. Titurius Sabinus and L. Aurunculeius Cotta were slain during the start of this rebellion of the Eburones. These two lieutenants of Caesar had been ordered to winter amongst

3700-439: The remnants of the Roman army in the east, and Odenathus and his Palmyrene horsemen to turn the tide against Shapur. The Sassanids were driven back, but Macrianus proclaimed his two sons Quietus and Macrianus (sometimes misspelled Macrinus) as emperors. Coins struck for them in major cities of the East indicate acknowledgement of the usurpation. The two Macriani left Quietus, Ballista, and, presumably, Odenathus to deal with

3774-433: The result was a clear defeat of Aemilianus. In the aftermath, Gallienus became Consul three more times in 262, 264, and 266. In the years 267–269, Goths and other barbarians invaded the empire in great numbers. Sources are extremely confused on the dating of these invasions, the participants, and their targets. Modern historians are not even able to discern with certainty whether there were two or more of these invasions or

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3848-422: The revolt of the Macriani. The correspondence of bishop Dionysius of Alexandria provides a commentary on the background of invasion, civil war, plague, and famine that characterized this age. Knowing he could not afford to lose control of the vital Egyptian granaries, Gallienus sent his general Theodotus against Aemilianus, probably by a naval expedition. The decisive battle probably took place near Thebes , and

3922-659: The rise of the neighbouring Maastricht , washed by the Meuse river. This shift of regional power is symbolized by the fact that Servatius (d. 384), a bishop of Tungrorum, was buried in Maastricht. Apart from later mentions of this placename which clearly refer to Tongeren, Caesar's commentaries on his wars in Gaul are the only surviving source of information. His first mention of "Aduatuca" by name, during discussion of his suppression of an Eburone rebellion , and subsequent involvement by Sigambri from Germany, says that it "is

3996-444: The same as Tongeren. Apart from Tongeren, proposals concerning the location of this earlier Atuatuca of the Eburones include the small village of Berg  [ nl ] , just outside Tongeren, Spa (at a place called Balmoral) and Caestert at the place Kanne , just south of Maastricht , and reasonably close to Tongeren. Dendrochronological evidence was once thought to count against this proposal, but more recent review of

4070-477: The settlement cannot be historically linked to the tribe with certainty. Willy Vanvinckenroye has argued that the Eburones did not have their own strongholds and used instead the fortress of the Atuatuci to house troops since they were tributary to them. The exact location of Eburonean stronghold remains uncertain, but it is almost certainly not the same as Tungrorum since no evidence of human settlement before

4144-465: The settlement: a first one, traditionally linked to the Batavian revolt (69–70), a second dated the mid-2nd century (of unknown cause), and a third from the 3rd century (also of unknown cause, perhaps linked to Frankish invasions). Although Ammianus Marcellinus still described Tungrorum as a "wealthy and populous" city by the late 4th century AD, the settlement entered into a slow decline during

4218-502: The sole resource for these events) does not provide a credible story. It is possible the seizure can be attributed to the discontent of the civilian and military provincials, who felt the defense of the province was being neglected. Regalianus held power for some six months and issued coins bearing his image. After some success against the Sarmatians , his revolt ended when the Roxolani invaded Pannonia and killed Regalianus in taking

4292-546: The son of Emperor Valerian and Mariniana , who may have been of senatorial rank, possibly the daughter of Egnatius Victor Marinianus , and his brother was Valerianus Minor . Inscriptions on coins connect him with Falerii in Etruria , which may have been his birthplace; it has yielded many inscriptions relating to his mother's family, the Egnatii . Gallienus married Cornelia Salonina about ten years before his accession to

4366-410: The spelling variation has been debated. Maurits Gysseling has proposed that Atuatuca was the original form, which later gave way to Aduatuca under the influence of Romance languages . Lauran Toorians argues on the contrary that the original Gaulish prefix ad- was changed to at- as the result of a hypercorrection by medieval copyists, who may have thought that the ad- form had emerged under

4440-523: The strongest of the civilian population. On their retreat through northern Italy, they were intercepted and defeated in the battle of Mediolanum (near present-day Milan ) by Gallienus's army, which had advanced from Gaul, or from the Balkans after dealing with the Franks. The battle of Mediolanum was decisive, and the Alemanni did not bother the empire for the next ten years. The Juthungi managed to cross

4514-429: The stronghold of the Eburones : "...he [Caesar] concentrated the baggage of all the legions at Aduatuca. That is the name of a fort ( castellum ) situated almost in the middle of the territory of the Eburones." Whether Atuatuca or Aduatuca is the original form is uncertain. In the earliest surviving manuscript of Caesar's Gallic War , dated to the early 9th c. AD, the name is given as Aduatuca . The reason for

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4588-470: The supervision of Albanus (or Silvanus) and the military leadership of Postumus. He then hastily crossed the Balkans , taking with him the new cavalry corps ( comitatus ) under the command of Aureolus and defeated Ingenuus at Mursa or Sirmium . Ingenuus was killed by his own guards or committed suicide by drowning himself after the fall of his capital, Sirmium. A major invasion by the Alemanni and other Germanic tribes occurred between 258 and 260 (it

4662-405: The throne. She was the mother of three princes: Valerian II , who died in 258; Saloninus , who was named co-emperor but was murdered in 260 by the army of general Postumus; and Marinianus , who was killed in 268, shortly after his father was assassinated. When Valerian was proclaimed emperor in September 253, he asked the Senate to ratify the elevation of Gallienus to Augustus . He

4736-450: The usurpers, who were based at Emesa . Eventually, the people of Emesa killed Quietus, and Odenathus arrested and executed Balista about November 261. After the defeat at Edessa, Gallienus lost control over the provinces of Britain, Spain, parts of Germania, and a large part of Gaul when another general, Postumus , declared his own realm (usually known today as the Gallic Empire ). The revolt partially coincided with that of Macrianus in

4810-599: The weakness caused by Valerian's march on Italy against Aemilianus in 253. According to numismatic evidence, he seems to have won many victories there, and a victory in Roman Dacia might also be dated to that period. Even the hostile Latin tradition attributes success to him at this time. In 255 or 257, Gallienus was made consul again, suggesting that he briefly visited Rome on those occasions, although no record survives. During his Danube sojourn (Drinkwater suggests in 255 or 256), he proclaimed his elder son Valerian II Caesar and thus official heir to himself and Valerian I;

4884-445: Was Roman emperor with his father Valerian from 253 to 260 and alone from 260 to 268. He ruled during the Crisis of the Third Century that nearly caused the collapse of the empire. He won numerous military victories against usurpers and Germanic tribes, but was unable to prevent the secession of important provinces. His 15-year reign was the longest in half a century. Born into a wealthy and traditional senatorial family, Gallienus

4958-512: Was also designated consul ordinarius for 254. As Marcus Aurelius and his adopted brother Lucius Verus had done a century earlier, Gallienus and his father divided the Empire. Valerian left for the East to stem the Persian threat, and Gallienus remained in Italy to repel the Germanic tribes on the Rhine and Danube. Division of the empire had become necessary due to its sheer size and the numerous threats it faced, and it facilitated negotiations with enemies who demanded to communicate directly with

5032-452: Was founded around ca. 10 BC as a Roman military base. The city appears to be an ex-nihilo Roman creation, since there are no trace of Iron Age settlement. According to the traditional view, the camp was abandoned under Tiberius (14–37 AD), then civilians from the neighbouring canabae took possession of the base, which ultimately became the capital of the Tungrian civitas . A more recent theory, proposed by Vanderhoeven, states that

5106-470: Was immediately reconstituted. For years after the Massacre at Atuatuca carried out by the Eburones under Ambiorix together with Cativolcus they were viewed as an unlucky legion, but its honor had been preserved due to the efforts of their Aquilifer , Lucius Petrosidius . This legion fought under General Germanicus Julius Caesar against the Germanic leader Arminius . A decade before this campaign, Arminius succeeded in wiping out three entire legions in

5180-493: Was independent in nearly every other respect. Palmyra would formally secede after Odaenathus's death and the ascension of his widow Zenobia . It was not until the reign of Aurelian several years later that the breakaway provinces were truly brought back into the Roman fold. According to modern scholar Pat Southern, some historians now see Gallienus in a more positive light. Gallienus produced some useful reforms. About 40 rare gold coins of Gallienus have been discovered as part of

5254-411: Was located in the Jeker valley, between the Scheldt and the Meuse basins. The settlement is estimated to have reached 60ha during the pre- Flavian era, around 100ha in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD, then around 50ha during the 4th and 5th centuries. A first wall, dated to the mid-2nd century AD, had a perimeter of 4,544 m, and a second, built in the early 4th century, had a perimeter of 2,604m and

5328-491: Was still assigned at Carnuntum. It probably dissolved with the collapse of the Danube frontier in the 430s. The Notitia Dignitatum lists a Quartodecimani comitatensis unit under the Magister Militum per Thracias ; it is possible that this unit is XIV Gemina . Atuatuca Atuatuca (or Aduatuca ) is the name of two ancient fortified settlements located in the eastern part of modern Belgium , between

5402-410: Was supposed to keep an eye on Postumus . Instead, he acted as deputy to Postumus until the very last days of his revolt, when he seems to have claimed the throne for himself. The decisive battle took place at what is now Pontirolo Nuovo near Milan; Aureolus was clearly defeated and driven back to Milan. Gallienus laid siege to the city but was murdered during the siege. There are differing accounts of

5476-544: Was the son of Valerian and Mariniana . Valerian became Emperor in September 253 and had the Roman Senate elevate Gallienus to the rank of Augustus . Valerian divided the empire between him and his son, with Valerian ruling the east and his son the west. Gallienus defeated the usurper Ingenuus in 258 and destroyed an Alemanni army at Mediolanum in 259. The defeat and capture of Valerian at Edessa in 260 by

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