Misplaced Pages

#413586

48-586: The Lenormant Athena is the name given to a small Greek statuette which was made in the first century CE. The Lenormant Athena was discovered in 1859 near the Pnyx hill in Athens and identified by François Lenormant a year later as a small copy of the Athena Parthenos of Phidias . The 41 centimetres (16 in) high pentelic marble sculpture has thus come to be known by his name. The unfinished work

96-407: A CMU wall having much greater lateral and tensile strength than unreinforced walls. "Architectural masonry is the evolvement of standard concrete masonry blocks into aesthetically pleasing concrete masonry units (CMUs)". CMUs can be manufactured to provide a variety of surface appearances. They can be colored during manufacturing or stained or painted after installation. They can be split as part of

144-427: A darker color or an irregular shape. Others may use antique salvage bricks, or new bricks may be artificially aged by applying various surface treatments, such as tumbling. The attempts at rusticity of the late 20th century have been carried forward by masons specializing in a free, artistic style, where the courses are intentionally not straight, instead weaving to form more organic impressions. A crinkle-crankle wall

192-622: A defense wall built in the fourth century BC and reconstructed a century later. The new walls, made of almost solid masonry and ashlar blocks , were two-meter thick. The stretch began on a northern end with a tower that stood south of the Melitides Gate of the Themistoclean Wall and ended at the western end of the summit where it joined the Diateichisma. The wall featured seven towers set with 40-meter interval while

240-575: A masonry wall is not entirely dependent on the bond between the building material and the mortar; the friction between the interlocking blocks of masonry is often strong enough to provide a great deal of strength on its own. The blocks sometimes have grooves or other surface features added to enhance this interlocking, and some dry set masonry structures forgo mortar altogether. Stone blocks used in masonry can be dressed or rough, though in both examples corners, door and window jambs, and similar areas are usually dressed. Stonemasonry utilizing dressed stones

288-508: A non-staggered bond. The wide selection of brick styles and types generally available in industrialized nations allow much variety in the appearance of the final product. In buildings built during the 1950s-1970s, a high degree of uniformity of brick and accuracy in masonry was typical. In the period since then this style was thought to be too sterile, so attempts were made to emulate older, rougher work. Some brick surfaces are made to look particularly rustic by including burnt bricks, which have

336-408: A permanent colored facing (typically composed of polyester resins, silica sand and various other chemicals) to a concrete masonry unit, providing a smooth impervious surface." Glass block or glass brick are blocks made from glass and provide a translucent to clear vision through the block. A masonry veneer wall consists of masonry units, usually clay-based bricks, installed on one or both sides of

384-531: A reasonable estimate of the number of politically active citizens (citizens were free males born in the city, or perhaps 20% of the adult population). There were wooden seats for the members of the Council of 500, who were selected by lot for terms of a single year to run the city on a day-to-day basis, and prepare the agenda for the Assembly. In later times two stoae , or covered galleries, were built to protect

432-667: A right to be heard first. Democratic government at Athens was suspended in 411 BC and again in 404 BC with the assumption of power by oligarchies during crises in the Peloponnesian War . The Spartans and their allies in Athens installed a dictatorship, called the Thirty Tyrants , but in 403 BC the democrats seized power again and the meetings at the Pnyx resumed. Athens lost its independence to Philip II of Macedon after

480-431: A structurally independent wall usually constructed of wood or masonry. In this context, the brick masonry is primarily decorative, not structural. The brick veneer is generally connected to the structural wall by brick ties (metal strips that are attached to the structural wall, as well as the mortar joints of the brick veneer). There is typically an air gap between the brick veneer and the structural wall. As clay-based brick

528-478: A wall of a given size. Furthermore, cinder and concrete blocks typically have much lower water absorption rates than brick. They often are used as the structural core for veneered brick masonry or are used alone for the walls of factories, garages, and other industrial-style buildings where such appearance is acceptable or desirable. Such blocks often receive a stucco surface for decoration. Surface-bonding cement , which contains synthetic fibers for reinforcement,

SECTION 10

#1732775249414

576-558: Is a brick wall that follows a serpentine path, rather than a straight line. This type of wall is more resistant to toppling than a straight wall; so much so that it may be made of a single wythe of unreinforced brick and so despite its longer length may be more economical than a straight wall. Blocks of cinder concrete ( cinder blocks or breezeblocks ), ordinary concrete ( concrete blocks ), or hollow tile are generically known as Concrete Masonry Units (CMUs). They usually are much larger than ordinary bricks and so are much faster to lay for

624-456: Is known as ashlar masonry, whereas masonry using irregularly shaped stones is known as rubble masonry . Both rubble and ashlar masonry can be laid in coursed rows of even height through the careful selection or cutting of stones, but a great deal of stone masonry is uncoursed. Solid brickwork is made of two or more wythes of bricks with the units running horizontally (called stretcher bricks) bound together with bricks running transverse to

672-525: Is located less than 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) west of the Acropolis and about 2 km south-west of the Syntagma Square in the centre of Athens. The "mainly natural hollow" was first used from before 500 BC to perhaps 404 BC, when the arrangement was changed by adding a retaining wall below the speakers' platform, with the space between filled with earth. The Pnyx was probably the prototype for

720-405: Is of great art historical significance since it not only shows us what Phidias' statue looked like but also the reliefs on her shield and the base on which she stood, which are otherwise only known from literary sources. Athena stands in a quiet, graceful pose, resting her weight on her right leg. She is dressed in an Attic peplos . Her left arm rests on her shield. An Amazonomachy is depicted on

768-549: Is only as long as the wire they are composed of and if used in severe climates (such as shore-side in a salt water environment) must be made of appropriate corrosion-resistant wire. Most modern gabions are rectangular. Earlier gabions were often cylindrical wicker baskets, open at both ends, used usually for temporary, often military, construction. Similar work can be done with finer aggregates using cellular confinement . Masonry walls have an endothermic effect of its hydrates , as in chemically bound water , unbound moisture from

816-427: Is restored by the excavators) is not that much larger than Pnyx I. Pnyx III: The Pnyx was rebuilt and expanded in the 3rd quarter of the 4th century B.C., probably around 345-335 B.C. A massive, curved, retaining wall was built (or at least begun) on the north. The southern side of the auditorium and speaker's platform (bema) were quarried out of the natural bedrock. (Traces of the quarrying process can still be seen at

864-717: Is sometimes used in this application and can impart extra strength to a block wall. Surface-bonding cement is often pre-colored and can be stained or painted thus resulting in a finished stucco-like surface. The primary structural advantage of concrete blocks in comparison to smaller clay-based bricks is that a CMU wall can be reinforced by filling the block voids with concrete with or without steel rebar . Generally, certain voids are designated for filling and reinforcement, particularly at corners, wall-ends, and openings while other voids are left empty. This increases wall strength and stability more economically than filling and reinforcing all voids. Typically, structures made of CMUs will have

912-496: Is usually not completely waterproof, the structural wall will often have a water-resistant surface (usually tar paper ) and weep holes can be left at the base of the brick veneer to drain moisture that accumulates inside the air gap. Concrete blocks, real and cultured stones , and veneer adobe are sometimes used in a very similar veneer fashion. Most insulated buildings that use concrete block, brick, adobe, stone, veneers or some combination thereof feature interior insulation in

960-457: The Greek theatre auditorium , with the late form perhaps reflecting changes in theatre design. The Pnyx was used for popular assemblies in Athens as early as 507 BC, when the reforms of Cleisthenes transferred political power to the citizenry. It was then outside the city proper, but close enough to be convenient. It looks down on the ancient Agora , which was the commercial and social centre of

1008-556: The Acropolis. Finally, in the Roman period, part of the Pnyx was used as a sanctuary of Zeus Hypsistos. Evidence for the sanctuary consist of c. 50 niches for votive plaques cut into the bedrock scarp east of the speaker's platform. Many of the votive plaques are carved with representations of human body parts (eyes, breasts, etc.), suggesting that this Zeus Hypsistos was a healing divinity. Scholars such as Mogens Herman Hansen suggest

SECTION 20

#1732775249414

1056-534: The Altar of Zeus are the foundations of Meton's heliotropion, the oldest known astronomical observatory, where he performed several of his measurements that led to the calculations involving the eponymous 19-year Metonic cycle which he introduced in 432 BC into the lunisolar Attic calendar , a calendar that appears in the Antikythera Mechanism . Today the site of the Pnyx is under the control of

1104-647: The Ephorate of Prehistorical and Classical Antiquities of the Greek Ministry of Culture . The surrounding parkland is fenced, but can be visited free of charge at any time. 37°58′18″N 23°43′10″E  /  37.97167°N 23.71944°E  / 37.97167; 23.71944 Masonry Masonry is the craft of building a structure with brick, stone, or similar material, including mortar plastering which are often laid in, bound, and pasted together by mortar . The term masonry can also refer to

1152-464: The Greek word meaning "tightly packed together"). In the early history of the Pnyx, three phases can be distinguished: Pnyx I: Probably constructed in the early 5th century B.C.. The people apparently sat on the hillside facing a speaker's platform on the north. The seating capacity may have been anywhere from 6,000 to 13,000 people. This phase is represented archaeologically only by a few cuttings in

1200-415: The Pnyx was able to hold about 6,000 citizens, though later expansions may have accommodated 8,000 or as many as 13,000. French classical scholar Robert Flacelière states that the Pnyx had enough standing room for as many as 20,000 citizens, though this is disputed. The grassy area in front of the bema was in ancient times an area of bare rock, on which about 6,000 men could stand. This can be taken as

1248-598: The ancient Greek speakers with the inspiration that not even the Roman Forum could rival. It is described as a result of previous reforms that included the utilization of demography and topography for the purpose of serving the interests of a rhetorical culture. As such, the Pnyx is the material embodiment of the principle of isēgoría (Greek: ἰσηγορία ), "equal speech", i.e. the equal right of every citizen to debate matters of policy. The other two principles of democracy were isonomía (Greek: ἰσονομία ), equality under

1296-745: The battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC; but they continued to run their internal affairs democratically until the coup by Demetrius of Phaleron in 322 BC. After his fall, the Athenians continued to run their internal affairs according to democratic forms for centuries. Excavations at the site were begun in 1910 by the Greek Archaeological Society and definitely confirmed the site as the Pnyx. Large-scale excavations were conducted at various times between 1930 and 1937 by Homer Thompson , in collaboration first with K. Kourouniotes and later with Robert Scranton . These excavations discovered

1344-441: The bedrock and a boundary stone (not found in situ), so that it is impossible to determine the date and size with any precision. Pnyx II: Probably late 5th century B.C. In this phase the orientation of the auditorium was apparently reversed (a reconstruction that is based more upon ancient literary sources than from the actual archaeological record). A stepped terrace wall was created on the north to support an artificial terrace, and

1392-406: The building units (stone, brick, etc.) themselves. The common materials of masonry construction are bricks and building stone , rocks such as marble , granite , and limestone , cast stone , concrete blocks , glass blocks , and adobe . Masonry is generally a highly durable form of construction. However, the materials used, the quality of the mortar and workmanship, and the pattern in which

1440-497: The city. At this site all the great political struggles of Athens of the "Golden Age" were fought out. Pericles , Aristides and Alcibiades spoke here, within sight of the Parthenon, temple of Athena . Here Demosthenes delivered his vilifications of Philip II of Macedon . The Pnyx is a small, rocky hill surrounded by parkland, with a large flat platform of eroded stone set into its side, and by steps carved on its slope. It

1488-534: The concrete block, and the poured concrete if the hollow cores inside the blocks are filled. Masonry can withstand temperatures up to 1,000 °F (538 °C) and it can withstand direct exposure to fire for up to 4 hours. In addition to that, concrete masonry keeps fires contained to their room of origin 93% of the time. For those reasons, concrete and masonry units hold the highest flame spread index classification, Class A. Fire cuts can be used to increase safety and reduce fire damage to masonry buildings. From

Lenormant Athena - Misplaced Pages Continue

1536-563: The connecting walls were strengthened by buttresses. The Pnyx was the official meeting place of the Athenian democratic assembly ( Ancient Greek : ἐκκλησία, ekklesía ). In the earliest days of Athenian democracy (after the reforms of Kleisthenes in 508 B.C.), the ekklesia met in the Agora. Sometime in the early 5th century, the meeting place was moved to a hill south and west of the Acropolis. This new meeting place came to be called "Pnyx" (from

1584-648: The cores remain unfilled. Filling some or all of the cores with concrete or concrete with steel reinforcement (typically rebar ) offers much greater tensile and lateral strength to structures. One problem with masonry walls is that they rely mainly on their weight to keep them in place; each block or brick is only loosely connected to the next via a thin layer of mortar. This is why they do not perform well in earthquakes, when entire buildings are shaken horizontally. Many collapses during earthquakes occur in buildings that have load-bearing masonry walls. Besides, heavier buildings having masonry suffer more damage. The strength of

1632-417: The dignitaries against the rain and sun. In theory, all citizens were equal and all of the male citizens had the right to speak. In practice, relatively few citizens actually spoke or proposed actions. A citizen who made a proposal might be subjected to a future prosecution (graphe paranomon) if the proposal was illegal or came to be seen as detrimental to Athens. There was a rule that citizens aged over 50 had

1680-514: The eastern side of the great rock-cut scarp). On a terrace above (south of) the speaker's platform, the foundations were begun for 2 long stoas (but these seem never to have been finished). It is unknown for how many years Pnyx III was used as the meeting place of the ekklesia, and certainly by the 1st century B.C. the assembly held their meetings in the Theater of Dionysos on the South Slope of

1728-411: The form of fiberglass batts between wooden wall studs or in the form of rigid insulation boards covered with plaster or drywall . In most climates this insulation is much more effective on the exterior of the wall, allowing the building interior to take advantage of the aforementioned thermal mass of the masonry. This technique does, however, require some sort of weather-resistant exterior surface over

1776-469: The foundations of the important buildings at the Pnyx, although nothing else remains of them. These included the two large stoas, erected between 330 and 326 BC, the Altar of Zeus Agoraios, erected at the same time, but removed during the reign of Augustus (first century BC), and the Sanctuary of Zeus Hypsistos. Most of these buildings were erected after the Pnyx had lost its real significance. West to

1824-464: The insulation and, consequently, is generally more expensive. Gabions are baskets, usually now of zinc -protected steel ( galvanized steel ) that are filled with fractured stone of medium size. These will act as a single unit and are stacked with setbacks to form a revetment or retaining wall . They have the advantage of being well drained, flexible, and resistant to flood, water flow from above, frost damage, and soil flow. Their expected useful life

1872-470: The law, and isopoliteía (Greek: ἰσοπολιτεία ), equality of vote and equal opportunity to assume political office. The right of isēgoría was expressed by the presiding officer of the Pnyx assembly, who formally opened each debate with the open invitation " Tís agoreúein boúletai? " (Greek: " Τίς ἀγορεύειν βούλεται; ", "Who wishes to speak to the Popular Assembly?"). The Pnyx was protected by

1920-457: The manufacturing process, giving the blocks a rough face replicating the appearance of natural stone, such as brownstone . CMUs may also be scored, ribbed, sandblasted, polished, striated (raked or brushed), include decorative aggregates, be allowed to slump in a controlled fashion during curing, or include several of these techniques in their manufacture to provide a decorative appearance. "Glazed concrete masonry units are manufactured by bonding

1968-490: The other hand, masonry is also used in non-structural applications such as fireplaces chimneys and veneer systems. Brick and concrete block are the most common types of masonry in use in industrialized nations and may be either load-bearing or non-load-bearing. Concrete blocks, especially those with hollow cores, offer various possibilities in masonry construction. They generally provide great compressive strength and are best suited to structures with light transverse loading when

Lenormant Athena - Misplaced Pages Continue

2016-400: The people sat facing a speaker's platform on the south. Some sources stated that this retaining wall was constructed around 500 BC for the purpose of holding the soil that was brought in to form the level space for the bema. Part of the stepped terrace wall is preserved, as well as a staircase with rock-cut steps leading up to it from the direction of the Agora. The size of the auditorium (as it

2064-519: The shield. In her right hand, which rests on a strong support, Athena must have held a Nike , which has not survived. The unfinished base depicts the birth of Pandora . The back is still in an unfinished state as well. Today the statuette is stored in the National Archaeological Museum, Athens with inventory number 128. This sculpture article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Pnyx The Pnyx

2112-410: The top course of blocks in the walls filled with concrete and tied together with steel reinforcement to form a bond beam. Bond beams are often a requirement of modern building codes and controls. Another type of steel reinforcement referred to as ladder-reinforcement , can also be embedded in horizontal mortar joints of concrete block walls. The introduction of steel reinforcement generally results in

2160-413: The units are assembled can substantially affect the durability of the overall masonry construction. A person who constructs masonry is called a mason or bricklayer . These are both classified as construction trades . Masonry is one of the oldest building crafts in the world. The construction of Egyptian pyramids, Roman aqueducts, and medieval cathedrals are all examples of masonry. Early structures used

2208-597: The wall (called "header" bricks). Each row of bricks is known as a course. The pattern of headers and stretchers employed gives rise to different 'bonds' such as the common bond (with every sixth course composed of headers), the English bond, and the Flemish bond (with alternating stretcher and header bricks present on every course). Bonds can differ in strength and in insulating ability. Vertically staggered bonds tend to be somewhat stronger and less prone to major cracking than

2256-511: The weight of the masonry itself to stabilize the structure against lateral movements. The types and techniques of masonry used evolved with architectural needs and cultural norms. Since mid-20th century, masonry has often featured steel-reinforced elements to help carry the tension force present in modern thin, light, tall building systems. Masonry has both structural and non-structural applications. Structural applications include walls, columns, beams, foundations, load-bearing arches, and others. On

2304-445: Was the meeting place of one of the world's earliest known democratic legislatures, the Athenian ekklesia (assembly), and the flat stone platform was the bema , the "stepping stone" or speakers' platform. This was the oratorical platform from which noted politicians such as Pericles and orators "fulmined over Greece." Some scholars note that the environs and position of the Pnyx as well as its openness and objects of appeal, provided

#413586