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129-683: Texts and educational modules developed at GDAE are now being distributed and managed through Boston University’s Economics in Context Initiative . This carries forward the effort to develop a truly “contextual economics” – one that takes full account of humanity’s social and physical environments. GDAE’s current research and educational efforts are centered in three areas: “Land, Energy, and Climate”, Green Economics , and educational materials in Environmental and Natural Resource Economics.  GDAE researchers present their research in

258-549: A declaratory judgment action in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California on January 20, 2006, seeking a judicial determination that Internet Archive did not violate Shell's copyright . Shell responded and brought a countersuit against Internet Archive for archiving her site, which she alleges is in violation of her terms of service . On February 13, 2007,

387-487: A fiduciary responsibility to the greater ecological world, and that sustainable development must therefore take a different approach to valuing natural resources and ecological functions. Recently, Stanislav Shmelev developed a new methodology for the assessment of progress at the macro scale based on multi-criteria methods, which allows consideration of different perspectives, including strong and weak sustainability or conservationists vs industrialists and aims to search for

516-627: A market system failed to take into account the needs of future generations, and that a socialist economy required calculation in kind , the tracking of all the different materials, rather than synthesising them into money as a general equivalent . In this he was criticised by neo-liberal economists such as Ludwig von Mises and Freidrich Hayek in what became known as the socialist calculation debate . The debate on energy in economic systems can also be traced back to Nobel prize -winning radiochemist Frederick Soddy (1877–1956). In his book Wealth, Virtual Wealth and Debt (1926), Soddy criticized

645-562: A pornographic actor named Daniel Davydiuk tried to remove archived images of himself from the Wayback Machine's archive, first by sending multiple DMCA requests to the archive, and then by appealing to the Federal Court of Canada . The images were removed from the website in 2017. In 2018, archives of stalkerware application FlexiSpy's website were removed from the Wayback Machine. The company claimed to have contacted

774-475: A 'middle way' by providing a strong neo-Keynesian economic push without putting excessive pressure on the natural resources, including water or producing emissions, both directly and indirectly. A key concept of energy economics is net energy gain , which recognizes that all energy sources require an initial energy investment in order to produce energy. To be useful the energy return on energy invested ( EROEI ) has to be greater than one. The net energy gain from

903-414: A calendar layout with circles whose width visualizes the number of crawls each day, but no marking of duplicates with asterisks or an advanced search page. A top toolbar was added to facilitate navigating between captures. A bar chart visualizes the frequency of captures per month over the years. Features like "Changes", "Summary", and a graphical site map were added subsequently. In March that year, it

1032-550: A ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley . By the time the Wayback Machine launched, it already contained over 10 billion archived pages. The data is stored on the Internet Archive's large cluster of Linux nodes. It revisits and archives new versions of websites on occasion (see technical details below). Sites can also be captured manually by entering a website's URL into the search box, provided that

1161-717: A commitment to eradicate global inequality through sustainable development (See Green Economics). Examples of heterodox ecological economic experiments include the Catalan Integral Cooperative and the Solidarity Economy Networks in Italy. Both of these grassroots movements use communitarian based economies and consciously reduce their ecological footprint by limiting material growth and adapting to regenerative agriculture . Cultural and heterodox applications of economic interaction around

1290-416: A decline, with valuable habitat such as estuaries in critical condition. The aquaculture or farming of piscivorous fish, like salmon , does not help solve the problem because they need to be fed products from other fish. Studies have shown that salmon farming has major negative impacts on wild salmon, as well as the forage fish that need to be caught to feed them. Since animals are higher on

1419-477: A given Web page was accessible to the public. These dates are used to determine if a Web page is available as prior art for instance in examining a patent application. There are technical limitations to archiving a website, and as a consequence, opposing parties in litigation can misuse the results provided by website archives. This problem can be exacerbated by the practice of submitting screenshots of web pages in complaints, answers, or expert witness reports when

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1548-557: A green economy, competent institutions and governance systems are vital in guaranteeing the efficient execution of strategies, guidelines, campaigns, and programmes. Shifting to a Green Economy demands a fresh mindset and an innovative outlook of doing business. It likewise necessitates new capacities, skills set from labor and professionals who can competently function across sectors, and able to work as effective components within multi-disciplinary teams. To achieve this goal, vocational training packages must be developed with focus on greening

1677-540: A judge for the United States District Court for the District of Colorado dismissed all counterclaims except breach of contract . The Internet Archive did not move to dismiss the copyright infringement claims that Shell asserted arose out of its copying activities, which would also go forward. On April 25, 2007, Internet Archive and Suzanne Shell jointly announced the settlement of their lawsuit. The Internet Archive said it "...has no interest in including materials in

1806-458: A key role in producing well-being. At the same time, there is intense debate about how and when to place values on these benefits. A study was carried out by Costanza and colleagues to determine the 'value' of the services provided by the environment. This was determined by averaging values obtained from a range of studies conducted in very specific context and then transferring these without regard to that context. Dollar figures were averaged to

1935-579: A modern conceptual framework based on the material and energy flows of economic production and consumption . His magnum opus , The Entropy Law and the Economic Process (1971), is credited by Daly as a fundamental text of the field, alongside Soddy's Wealth, Virtual Wealth and Debt . Some key concepts of what is now ecological economics are evident in the writings of Kenneth Boulding and E. F. Schumacher , whose book Small Is Beautiful – A Study of Economics as if People Mattered (1973)

2064-420: A new data centre in a Sun Modular Datacenter on Sun Microsystems ' California campus. As of 2009 , the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month. A new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and a fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing in 2011, where captures appear in

2193-494: A novel perspective on the management of surplus energy within economies. This concept encourages a shift from growth-centric models to approaches that prioritise sustainable and meaningful expenditures of excess resources . Thermoeconomics is based on the proposition that the role of energy in biological evolution should be defined and understood through the second law of thermodynamics , but also in terms of such economic criteria as productivity , efficiency , and especially

2322-662: A per hectare number for different types of ecosystem e.g. wetlands, oceans. A total was then produced which came out at 33 trillion US dollars (1997 values), more than twice the total GDP of the world at the time of the study. This study was criticized by pre-ecological and even some environmental economists – for being inconsistent with assumptions of financial capital valuation – and ecological economists – for being inconsistent with an ecological economics focus on biological and physical indicators. The whole idea of treating ecosystems as goods and services to be valued in monetary terms remains controversial. A common objection

2451-494: A predetermined number of hyperlinks based on a preset depth limit, so it cannot archive every hyperlink on every page. In a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. , defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots.txt file on its website that was causing the Wayback Machine to retroactively remove access to previous versions of pages it had archived from Netbula's site, pages that Chordiant believed would support its case. Netbula objected to

2580-508: A series of policy briefs, working papers, and at numerous conferences. GDAE’s earlier research and publications include areas such as globalization, trade, and feminist economics. Neva Goodwin and William Moomaw are Co-Directors of GDAE. Other members of the research team are Jonathan M. Harris, Brian Roach and Anne-Marie Codur. Monica Barros is responsible for administration and communications. Gillian Davies, Andrew Tirrell , and David Sussman are Visiting Scholars at GDAE, and Jeronim Capaldo

2709-501: A site blocked the Internet Archive, any previously archived pages from the domain were immediately rendered unavailable as well. In addition, the Internet Archive stated that "Sometimes, a website owner will contact us directly and ask us to stop crawling or archiving a site. We comply with these requests." In addition, the website says: "The Internet Archive is not interested in preserving or offering access to Web sites or other internet documents of persons who do not want their materials in

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2838-515: A site might be included in more than one crawl list, so how often a site is crawled varies widely. A "Save Page Now" archiving feature was made available in October 2013, accessible on the lower right of the Wayback Machine's main page. Once a target URL is entered and saved, the web page will become part of the Wayback Machine. Through the Internet address web.archive.org, users can upload to

2967-479: A user commented, "There needs to be a Scientists' March on Washington". The site is used heavily for verification, providing access to references and content creation by Misplaced Pages editors . When new URLs are added to Misplaced Pages, the Internet Archive has been archiving them. In September 2020, a partnership was announced with Cloudflare to automatically archive websites served via its "Always Online" service, which will also allow it to direct users to its copy of

3096-747: A wide range of creative efforts that have been and are being made to extend economic understanding. GDAE has produced an electronic collection of publications that are available for free to universities in 138 nations, with special attention to those institutions that are most in need of library resources. The collection, or the Social Science Library (SSL), contains over 3,400 full-text journal articles, book chapters, reports, and working papers in anthropology, economics, history, philosophy, social psychology, sociology and political science. It also includes full bibliographic references (including abstracts) to more than 6,000 additional articles. The SSL

3225-465: Is a research fellow. Bethany Tietjen and Josephine Watson are GDAE Research Assistants. GDAE’s research program emphasizes ecological health and the correlation between social and economic well-being. They view economic systems in physical contexts of technology and the natural world, as well as in the social/psychological contexts of history, politics, ethics, culture, institutions, and human motivations. GDAE has extensive publication record, including

3354-432: Is also controversial in ecological economics. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization achieved near-universal agreement in 2008 that such payments directly valuing ecosystem preservation and encouraging permaculture were the only practical way out of a food crisis. The holdouts were all English-speaking countries that export GMOs and promote " free trade " agreements that facilitate their own control of

3483-516: Is an important debate in ecological economics and the economics of sustainability. There is a continuum of views among economists between the strongly neoclassical positions of Robert Solow and Martin Weitzman , at one extreme and the 'entropy pessimists' , notably Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen and Herman Daly , at the other. Neoclassical economists tend to maintain that man-made capital can, in principle, replace all types of natural capital. This

3612-668: Is available upon request to those that qualify for access. For people who are not in the recipient countries, a web-based version, with the 10,000+ bibliographic entries, but without the full text PDFs is available on request. In 2000, GDAE established the Leontief Prize. Named in honor of Wassily Leontief , member of the GDAE advisory board and recipient of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences ,

3741-672: Is based in part upon Recommendations for Managing Removal Requests and Preserving Archival Integrity , known as The Oakland Archive Policy , published by the School of Information Management and Systems at University of California, Berkeley in 2002, which gives a website owner the right to block access to the site's archives. Wayback has complied with this policy to help avoid expensive litigation. The Wayback retroactive exclusion policy began to relax in 2017, when it stopped honoring robots on U.S. government and military web sites for both crawling and displaying web pages. As of April 2017, Wayback

3870-432: Is both a transdisciplinary and an interdisciplinary field of academic research addressing the interdependence and coevolution of human economies and natural ecosystems , both intertemporally and spatially. By treating the economy as a subsystem of Earth's larger ecosystem, and by emphasizing the preservation of natural capital , the field of ecological economics is differentiated from environmental economics , which

3999-508: Is degrowth economics. Degrowth addresses both biophysical limits and global inequality while rejecting neoliberal economics. Degrowth prioritizes grassroots initiatives in progressive socio-ecological goals, adhering to ecological limits by shrinking the human ecological footprint (See Differences from Mainstream Economics Below). It involves an equitable downscale in both production and consumption of resources in order to adhere to biophysical limits. Degrowth draws from Marxian economics , citing

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4128-460: Is distinguishable from neoclassical economics primarily by its assertion that the economy is embedded within an environmental system. Ecology deals with the energy and matter transactions of life and the Earth, and the human economy is by definition contained within this system. Ecological economists argue that neoclassical economics has ignored the environment, at best considering it to be a subset of

4257-414: Is for complex querying, filtering, and analysis of captured data. Historically, the Wayback Machine has respected the robots exclusion standard (robots.txt) in determining if a website would be crawled – or if already crawled, if its archives would be publicly viewable. Website owners had the option to opt out of Wayback Machine through the use of robots.txt. It applied robots.txt rules retroactively; if

4386-466: Is ignoring robots.txt more broadly, not just for U.S. government websites. From its public launch in 2001, the Wayback Machine has been studied by scholars both for the ways it stores and collects data as well as for the actual pages contained in its archive. As of 2013, scholars had written about 350 articles on the Wayback Machine, mostly from the information technology , library science , and social science fields. Social science scholars have used

4515-417: Is known as the weak sustainability view, essentially that every technology can be improved upon or replaced by innovation, and that there is a substitute for any and all scarce materials. At the other extreme, the strong sustainability view argues that the stock of natural resources and ecological functions are irreplaceable. From the premises of strong sustainability, it follows that economic policy has

4644-444: Is not analyzable from a strictly economic standpoint and suggests an interdisciplinary approach combining social and natural sciences as a means to address this. When considering surplus energy, ecological economists state this could be used for activities that do not directly contribute to economic productivity but instead enhance societal and environmental well-being. This concept of dépense , as developed by Georges Bataille , offers

4773-577: Is not contained – the Stern report is an example. The disagreement has sparked a vigorous debate on issue of discounting and intergenerational equity. Mainstream economics has attempted to become a value-free ' hard science ', but ecological economists argue that value-free economics is generally not realistic. Ecological economics is more willing to entertain alternative conceptions of utility , efficiency , and cost-benefits such as positional analysis or multi-criteria analysis. Ecological economics

4902-466: Is not made. Food production may become a problem, as erosion , an impending water crisis , and soil salinity (from irrigation ) reduce the productivity of agriculture. Ecological economists argue that industrial agriculture , which exacerbates these problems, is not sustainable agriculture , and are generally inclined favorably to organic farming , which also reduces the output of carbon. Global wild fisheries are believed to have peaked and begun

5031-526: Is now known as ecosocialism . The antecedents of ecological economics can be traced back to the Romantics of the 19th century as well as some Enlightenment political economists of that era. Concerns over population were expressed by Thomas Malthus , while John Stuart Mill predicted the desirability of the stationary state of an economy . Mill thereby anticipated later insights of modern ecological economists, but without having had their experience of

5160-425: Is related directly to well-being, focusing instead on biodiversity and creativity – or natural capital and individual capital , in the terminology sometimes adopted to describe these economically. In practice, ecological economics focuses primarily on the key issues of uneconomic growth and quality of life . Ecological economists are inclined to acknowledge that much of what is important in human well-being

5289-467: Is restricted by the publisher or stored in databases that are not accessible. To overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It.org was developed in 2005 by the Internet Archive as a means of allowing institutions and content creators to voluntarily harvest and preserve collections of digital content, and create digital archives. Crawls are contributed from various sources, some imported from third parties and others generated internally by

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5418-439: Is that life is precious or priceless, but this demonstrably degrades to it being worthless within cost-benefit analysis and other standard economic methods. Reducing human bodies to financial values is a necessary part of mainstream economics and not always in the direct terms of insurance or wages . One example of this in practice is the value of a statistical life , which is a dollar value assigned to one life used to evaluate

5547-438: Is the mainstream economic analysis of the environment. One survey of German economists found that ecological and environmental economics are different schools of economic thought , with ecological economists emphasizing strong sustainability and rejecting the proposition that physical (human-made) capital can substitute for natural capital (see the section on weak versus strong sustainability below). Ecological economics

5676-404: Is then a concern that ecological economics has failed to learn from the extensive literature in environmental ethics about how to structure a plural value system. Resource and neoclassical economics focus primarily on the efficient allocation of resources and less on the two other problems of importance to ecological economics: distribution ( equity ), and the scale of the economy relative to

5805-538: Is to ground economic thinking and practice in physical reality, especially in the laws of physics (particularly the laws of thermodynamics ) and in knowledge of biological systems. It accepts as a goal the improvement of human well-being through development, and seeks to ensure achievement of this through planning for the sustainable development of ecosystems and societies. Of course the terms development and sustainable development are far from lacking controversy. Richard B. Norgaard argues traditional economics has hi-jacked

5934-429: Is typically viewed as economics for sustainable development , and may have goals similar to green politics . In international, regional, and national policy circles, the concept of the green economy grew in popularity as a response to the financial predicament at first then became a vehicle for growth and development. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) defines a 'green economy' as one that focuses on

6063-556: Is under siege ". The Wayback Machine's software has been developed to " crawl " the Web and download all publicly accessible information and data files on webpages, the Gopher hierarchy, the Netnews (Usenet) bulletin board system, and downloadable software. The information collected by these "crawlers" does not include all the information available on the Internet, since much of the data

6192-495: The Green Economy adherents robustly promote good governance. To boost local investments and foreign ventures, it is crucial to have a constant and foreseeable macroeconomic atmosphere. Likewise, such an environment will also need to be transparent and accountable. In the absence of a substantial and solid governance structure, the prospect of shifting towards a sustainable development route would be insignificant. In achieving

6321-693: The Wayback Machine , Principles of Economics in Context Archived 2019-10-23 at the Wayback Machine , Environmental and Resource Economics Archived 2019-10-23 at the Wayback Machine and the soon to be published Essentials of Economics in Context. These textbooks present all the content required of a standard text yet also go beyond this material to offer a more holistic approach to understanding economic processes by integrating aspects of history, institutions, gender, inequality, and

6450-557: The precautionary principle . As ecological economists try to minimize these potential disasters, calculating the fallout of environmental destruction becomes a humanitarian issue as well. Already, the Global South has seen trends of mass migration due to environmental changes. Climate refugees from the Global South are adversely affected by changes in the environment, and some scholars point to global wealth inequality within

6579-472: The trophic level , they are less efficient sources of food energy. Reduced consumption of meat would reduce the demand for food, but as nations develop, they tend to adopt high-meat diets similar to that of the United States. Genetically modified food (GMF) a conventional solution to the problem, presents numerous problems – Bt corn produces its own Bacillus thuringiensis toxin/protein, but

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6708-554: The Archive would have to delete pages from its system upon request of the creator. The exclusion policies for the Wayback Machine may be found in the FAQ section of the site. Some cases have been brought against the Internet Archive specifically for its Wayback Machine archiving efforts. In late 2002, the Internet Archive removed various sites that were critical of Scientology from the Wayback Machine. An error message stated that this

6837-864: The Archive. For example, crawls are contributed by the Sloan Foundation and Alexa , crawls run by Internet Archive on behalf of NARA and the Internet Memory Foundation , mirrors of Common Crawl . The "Worldwide Web Crawls" have been running since 2010 and capture the global Web. In September 2020, the Internet Archive announced a partnership with Cloudflare – an American content delivery network service provider – to automatically index websites served via its "Always Online" services. Documents and resources are stored with time stamp URLs such as 20241124103401 . Pages' individual resources such as images and style sheets and scripts, as well as outgoing hyperlinks , are linked to with

6966-589: The First and Second laws of thermodynamics , to determine how much energy is needed at each point in a system, and in what form that energy is a cost in various environmental issues. The energy accounting system keeps track of energy in, energy out, and non-useful energy versus work done , and transformations within the system. Scientists have written and speculated on different aspects of energy accounting. Ecological economists agree that ecosystems produce enormous flows of goods and services to human beings, playing

7095-407: The Northern District of California, San Jose Division, rejected Netbula's arguments and ordered them to disable the robots.txt blockage temporarily in order to allow Chordiant to retrieve the archived pages that they sought. In an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite , No. 02 C 3293, 65 Fed. R. Evid. Serv. 673 (N.D. Ill. October 15, 2004), a litigant attempted to use

7224-422: The Wayback Machine a large variety of contents, including PDF and data compression file formats. The Wayback Machine creates a permanent local URL of the upload content, that is accessible in the web, even if not listed while searching in the https://archive.org official website. Starting in October 2019, users were limited to 15 archival requests and retrievals per minute. As technology has developed over

7353-469: The Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, perhaps for the first time. Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network . Prior to the trial proceedings, EchoStar indicated that it intended to offer Wayback Machine snapshots as proof of the past content of Telewizja Polska's website. Telewizja Polska brought a motion in limine to suppress

7482-423: The Wayback Machine contained over 25 petabytes of data. As of December 2020, the Wayback Machine contained over 70 petabytes of data. The Wayback Machine service offers three public APIs, SavePageNow, Availability, and CDX. SavePageNow can be used to archive web pages. Availability API for checking the archive availability status for a web page, checking whether an archive for the web page exists or not. CDX API

7611-618: The Wayback Machine has been unable to display YouTube comments when saving videos' watch pages, as, according to the Archive Team, comments are no longer "loaded within the page itself." The Wayback Machine's web crawler has difficulty extracting anything not coded in HTML or one of its variants, which can often result in broken hyperlinks and missing images. Due to this, the web crawler cannot archive "orphan pages" that are not linked to by other pages. The Wayback Machine's crawler only follows

7740-433: The Wayback Machine of persons who do not wish to have their Web content archived. We recognize that Ms. Shell has a valid and enforceable copyright in her Web site and we regret that the inclusion of her Web site in the Wayback Machine resulted in this litigation." Shell said, "I respect the historical value of Internet Archive's goal. I never intended to interfere with that goal nor cause it any harm." Between 2013 and 2016,

7869-587: The Wayback Machine to analyze how the development of websites from the mid-1990s to the present has affected the company's growth. When the Wayback Machine archives a page, it usually includes most of the hyperlinks, keeping those links active when they just as easily could have been broken by the Internet's instability. Researchers in India studied the effectiveness of the Wayback Machine's ability to save hyperlinks in online scholarly publications and found that it saved slightly more than half of them. "Journalists use

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7998-431: The Wayback Machine to provide "universal access to all knowledge" by preserving archived copies of defunct web pages. Launched on May 10, 1996, the Wayback Machine had saved more than 38.2 billion web pages by the end of 2009. As of November 2024, the Wayback Machine has archived more than 916 billion web pages and well over 100 petabytes of data. The Internet Archive began archiving cached web pages in 1996. One of

8127-456: The Wayback Machine to view dead websites, dated news reports, and changes to website contents. Its content has been used to hold politicians accountable and expose battlefield lies." In 2014, an archived social media page of Igor Girkin , a separatist rebel leader in Ukraine, showed him boasting about his troops having shot down a suspected Ukrainian military airplane before it became known that

8256-458: The Wayback Machine's storage capacity by 700 terabytes. In January 2013, the company announced a milestone of 240 billion URLs. In October 2013, the company introduced the "Save a Page" feature, which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL, and quickly generates a permanent link unlike the preceding liveweb feature. In December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained 435 billion web pages—almost nine petabytes of data, and

8385-429: The above-mentioned factors easily benefits at least one other. For instance, photo voltaic (or solar) panels have a 15% efficiency when absorbing the sun's energy, but its construction demand has increased 120% within both commercial and residential properties. Additionally, this construction has led to a roughly 30% increase in work demands (Chen). The potential for the substitution of man-made capital for natural capital

8514-401: The annual award recognizes outstanding contributions to economic theory that address contemporary realities and support just and sustainable societies. 42°24′20″N 71°07′30″W  /  42.405628°N 71.125017°W  / 42.405628; -71.125017 Green Economics Organizations: Ecological economics , bioeconomics , ecolonomy , eco-economics , or ecol-econ

8643-419: The archive calls a "three-dimensional index". Kahle and Gilliat created the machine hoping to archive the entire Internet and provide "universal access to all knowledge". The name "Wayback Machine" is a reference to a fictional time-traveling device in the animated cartoon The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle and Friends from the 1960s. In a segment of the cartoon entitled "Peabody's Improbable History",

8772-412: The characters Mister Peabody and Sherman use the " Wayback Machine " to travel back in time to witness and participate in famous historical events. From 1996 to 2001, the information was kept on digital tape, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers and scientists to tap into the "clunky" database . When the archive reached its fifth anniversary in 2001, it was unveiled and opened to the public in

8901-440: The collection." On April 17, 2017, reports surfaced of sites that had gone defunct and became parked domains that were using robots.txt to exclude themselves from search engines, resulting in them being inadvertently excluded from the Wayback Machine. Following this, the Internet Archive changed the policy to require an explicit exclusion request to remove sites from the Wayback Machine. Wayback's retroactive exclusion policy

9030-437: The costs and benefits (or profitability) of the various mechanisms for capturing and utilizing available energy to build biomass and do work. As a result, thermoeconomics is often discussed in the field of ecological economics, which itself is related to the fields of sustainability and sustainable development. Exergy analysis is performed in the field of industrial ecology to use energy more efficiently. The term exergy ,

9159-698: The costs of small changes in risk to life–such as exposure to one pollutant. Economics, in principle, assumes that conflict is reduced by agreeing on voluntary contractual relations and prices instead of simply fighting or coercing or tricking others into providing goods or services. In doing so, a provider agrees to surrender time and take bodily risks and other (reputation, financial) risks. Ecosystems are no different from other bodies economically except insofar as they are far less replaceable than typical labour or commodities. Despite these issues, many ecologists and conservation biologists are pursuing ecosystem valuation . Biodiversity measures in particular appear to be

9288-530: The current neoliberal economic system as a source of this issue. The most cogent example of how the different theories treat similar assets is tropical rainforest ecosystems, most obviously the Yasuni region of Ecuador . While this area has substantial deposits of bitumen it is also one of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth and some estimates establish it has over 200 undiscovered medical substances in its genomes – most of which would be destroyed by logging

9417-462: The development and modern history of ecological economics and explain its differentiation from resource and environmental economics, as well as some of the controversy between American and European schools of thought. An article by Robert Costanza , David Stern, Lining He, and Chunbo Ma responded to a call by Mick Common to determine the foundational literature of ecological economics by using citation analysis to examine which books and articles have had

9546-516: The development terminology in his book Development Betrayed . Well-being in ecological economics is also differentiated from welfare as found in mainstream economics and the 'new welfare economics' from the 1930s which informs resource and environmental economics. This entails a limited preference utilitarian conception of value i.e., Nature is valuable to our economies, that is because people will pay for its services such as clean air, clean water, encounters with wilderness, etc. Ecological economics

9675-499: The earliest known pages was archived on May 10, 1996, at 2:08   p.m. ( UTC ). Internet Archive founders Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat launched the Wayback Machine in San Francisco , California , in October 2001, primarily to address the problem of web content vanishing whenever it gets changed or when a website is shut down. The service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which

9804-418: The ecological footprint of human interactions in the economy. This footprint is measured by the impact of human activities on natural resources and the waste generated in the process. Ecological economists aim to minimize the ecological footprint, taking into account the scarcity of global and regional resources and their accessibility to an economy. Some ecological economists prioritise adding natural capital to

9933-666: The economy as pollution and waste. The potential of an environment to provide services and materials is referred to as an "environment's source function", and this function is depleted as resources are consumed or pollution contaminates the resources. The "sink function" describes an environment's ability to absorb and render harmless waste and pollution: when waste output exceeds the limit of the sink function, long-term damage occurs. Some persistent pollutants, such as some organic pollutants and nuclear waste are absorbed very slowly or not at all; ecological economists emphasize minimizing "cumulative pollutants". Pollutants affect human health and

10062-634: The ecosystem. This train of thought respects physical bio-limits and non-human species, pursuing equity and social justice through direct democracy and grassroots leadership. Social well-being is paired with spiritual, physical, and material well-being. These movements are unique to their region, but the values can be seen across the globe in indigenous traditions, such as the Ubuntu Philosophy in South Africa. Ecological economics differs from mainstream economics in that it heavily reflects on

10191-507: The ecosystems upon which it relies. Ecological economics makes a clear distinction between growth (quantitative increase in economic output) and development (qualitative improvement of the quality of life ), while arguing that neoclassical economics confuses the two. Ecological economists point out that beyond modest levels, increased per-capita consumption (the typical economic measure of "standard of living") may not always lead to improvement in human well-being, but may have harmful effects on

10320-634: The environment and broader societal well-being. This situation is sometimes referred to as uneconomic growth (see diagram above). Ecological economics challenges the conventional approach towards natural resources, claiming that it undervalues natural capital by considering it as interchangeable with human-made capital—labor and technology. The impending depletion of natural resources and increase of climate-changing greenhouse gasses should motivate us to examine how political, economic and social policies can benefit from alternative energy. Shifting dependence on fossil fuels with specific interest within just one of

10449-420: The environment, into three main categories. These are the mainstream new resource economists, the new environmental pragmatists, and the more radical social ecological economists. International survey work comparing the relevance of the categories for mainstream and heterodox economists shows some clear divisions between environmental and ecological economists. A growing field of radical social-ecological theory

10578-639: The environment. The texts come with a full set of supplementary materials including instructor resource material with lecture outlines, a test bank of over 2,000 questions, and PowerPoint slides. Detailed student study guides are available for free download. GDAE has also produced an extensive set of teaching modules that are designed for use as stand-alone supplements in undergraduate or graduate-level courses. These modules are available as free downloadable PDFs.  They range from 25-60 pages, and most include discussion questions and glossary. The teaching modules are designed to allow instructors to easily incorporate

10707-556: The exception of Daly. In 1987, Daly and Costanza edited an issue of Ecological Modeling to test the waters. A book entitled Ecological Economics , by Joan Martinez Alier , was published later that year. Alier renewed interest in the approach developed by Otto Neurath during the interwar period . The year 1989 saw the foundation of the International Society for Ecological Economics and publication of its journal, Ecological Economics , by Elsevier . Robert Costanza

10836-594: The field. Some are close to resource and environmental economics while others are far more heterodox in outlook. An example of the latter is the European Society for Ecological Economics . An example of the former is the Swedish Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics. Clive Spash has argued for the classification of the ecological economics movement, and more generally work by different economic schools on

10965-494: The forest or mining the bitumen. Effectively, the instructional capital of the genomes is undervalued by analyses that view the rainforest primarily as a source of wood, oil/tar and perhaps food. Increasingly the carbon credit for leaving the extremely carbon-intensive ("dirty") bitumen in the ground is also valued – the government of Ecuador set a price of US$ 350M for an oil lease with the intent of selling it to someone committed to never exercising it at all and instead preserving

11094-483: The global ecosystem in 1997. Initially published in Nature , the article concluded on $ 33 trillion with a range from $ 16 trillion to $ 54 trillion (in 1997, total global GDP was $ 27 trillion). Half of the value went to nutrient cycling . The open oceans, continental shelves, and estuaries had the highest total value, and the highest per-hectare values went to estuaries, swamps/floodplains, and seagrass/algae beds. The work

11223-412: The green economy denote a fundamental shift for more effective, resourceful, environment-friendly and resource‐saving technologies that could lessen emissions and alleviate the adverse consequences of climate change , at the same time confront issues about resource exhaustion and grave environmental dilapidation. As an indispensable requirement and vital precondition to realizing sustainable development,

11352-447: The growth of efficient systems as the alienation of nature and man. Economic movements like degrowth reject the idea of growth itself. Some degrowth theorists call for an "exit of the economy". Critics of the degrowth movement include new resource economists, who point to the gaining momentum of sustainable development. These economists highlight the positive aspects of a green economy, which include equitable access to renewable energy and

11481-408: The health of the ecosystem. The economic value of natural capital and ecosystem services is accepted by mainstream environmental economics, but is emphasized as especially important in ecological economics. Ecological economists may begin by estimating how to maintain a stable environment before assessing the cost in dollar terms. Ecological economist Robert Costanza led an attempted valuation of

11610-409: The human aspects and natural influences and an economic order that can generate high-salary jobs. In 2011, its definition was further developed as the word 'green' is made to refer to an economy that is not only resourceful and well-organized but also impartial, guaranteeing an objective shift to an economy that is low-carbon, resource-efficient, and socially-inclusive . The ideas and studies regarding

11739-555: The human economy. The neoclassical view ignores much of what the natural sciences have taught us about the contributions of nature to the creation of wealth e.g., the planetary endowment of scarce matter and energy, along with the complex and biologically diverse ecosystems that provide goods and ecosystem services directly to human communities: micro- and macro-climate regulation, water recycling, water purification, storm water regulation, waste absorption, food and medicine production, pollination, protection from solar and cosmic radiation,

11868-525: The initial lawsuit was filed, the Archive should have removed all previous copies of the plaintiff website from the Wayback Machine, however, some material continued to be publicly visible on Wayback. The lawsuit was settled out of court after Wayback fixed the problem. Activist Suzanne Shell filed suit in December 2005, demanding Internet Archive pay her US$ 100,000 for archiving her website profane-justice.org between 1999 and 2004. Internet Archive filed

11997-432: The instrumentalism of shallow ecology and the environmental economists commodification of everything external to the market system. A simple circular flow of income diagram is replaced in ecological economics by a more complex flow diagram reflecting the input of solar energy, which sustains natural inputs and environmental services which are then used as units of production . Once consumed, natural inputs pass out of

12126-473: The most influence on the development of the field. However, citations analysis has itself proven controversial and similar work has been criticized by Clive Spash for attempting to pre-determine what is regarded as influential in ecological economics through study design and data manipulation. In addition, the journal Ecological Economics has itself been criticized for swamping the field with mainstream economics. Various competing schools of thought exist in

12255-556: The most promising way to reconcile financial and ecological values, and there are many active efforts in this regard. The growing field of biodiversity finance began to emerge in 2008 in response to many specific proposals such as the Ecuadoran Yasuni proposal or similar ones in the Congo . US news outlets treated the stories as a "threat" to "drill a park" reflecting a previously dominant view that NGOs and governments had

12384-430: The motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbula's website and that they should have subpoenaed Internet Archive for the pages directly. An employee of Internet Archive filed a sworn statement supporting Chordiant's motion, however, stating that it could not produce the web pages by any other means "without considerable burden, expense and disruption to its operations." Magistrate Judge Howard Lloyd in

12513-403: The pest resistance is believed to be only a matter of time. Global warming is now widely acknowledged as a major issue, with all national scientific academies expressing agreement on the importance of the issue. As the population growth intensifies and energy demand increases, the world faces an energy crisis . Some economists and scientists forecast a global ecological crisis if energy use

12642-543: The plaintiff were invalid, based on the content of their website from several years prior. The plaintiff, Healthcare Advocates, then amended their complaint to include the Internet Archive, accusing the organization of copyright infringement as well as violations of the DMCA and the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act . Healthcare Advocates claimed that, since they had installed a robots.txt file on their website, even if after

12771-523: The plane actually was a civilian Malaysian Airlines jet ( Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 ), after which he deleted the post and blamed Ukraine's military for downing the plane. In 2017, the March for Science originated from a discussion on Reddit that indicated someone had visited Archive.org and discovered that all references to climate change had been deleted from the White House website. In response,

12900-497: The prevailing belief of the economy as a perpetual motion machine, capable of generating infinite wealth—a criticism expanded upon by later ecological economists such as Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen and Herman Daly. European predecessors of ecological economics include K. William Kapp (1950) Karl Polanyi (1944), and Romanian economist Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen (1971). Georgescu-Roegen, who would later mentor Herman Daly at Vanderbilt University , provided ecological economics with

13029-472: The primary responsibility to protect ecosystems. However Peter Barnes and other commentators have recently argued that a guardianship/trustee/commons model is far more effective and takes the decisions out of the political realm. Commodification of other ecological relations as in carbon credit and direct payments to farmers to preserve ecosystem services are likewise examples that enable private parties to play more direct roles protecting biodiversity, but

13158-401: The production of coal, oil and gas has declined over time as the easiest to produce sources have been most heavily depleted. In traditional energy economics, surplus energy is often seen as something to be capitalized on—either by storing for future use or by converting it into economic growth. Ecological economics generally rejects the view of energy economics that growth in the energy supply

13287-486: The production of the ‘In-Context’ series of textbooks and free teaching modules which are now managed by the Economics in Context Initiative at Boston University . The textbooks in question include Microeconomics in Context Archived 2019-10-23 at the Wayback Machine , Macroeconomics in Context Archived 2019-10-23 at the Wayback Machine , Macroeconomics in Context (European Edition) Archived 2019-10-23 at

13416-402: The rainforest. While this natural capital and ecosystems services approach has proven popular amongst many it has also been contested as failing to address the underlying problems with mainstream economics, growth, market capitalism and monetary valuation of the environment. Critiques concern the need to create a more meaningful relationship with Nature and the non-human world than evident in

13545-468: The sectors. Simultaneously, the educational system needs to be assessed as well in order to fit in the environmental and social considerations of various disciplines. Among the topics addressed by ecological economics are methodology, allocation of resources, weak versus strong sustainability, energy economics, energy accounting and balance, environmental services, cost shifting, modeling, and monetary policy. A primary objective of ecological economics (EE)

13674-516: The separability of economic values from scientific research, contending that economics is unavoidably normative , i.e. prescriptive, rather than positive or descriptive. Positional analysis, which attempts to incorporate time and justice issues, is proposed as an alternative. Ecological economics shares several of its perspectives with feminist economics , including the focus on sustainability, nature, justice and care values. Karl Marx also commented on relationship between capital and ecology, what

13803-410: The site if it cannot reach the original host. In 2014, there was a six-month lag time between when a website was crawled and when it became available for viewing in the Wayback Machine. As of 2024, the lag time is 3 to 10 hours. The Wayback Machine offers only limited search facilities. Its "Site Search" feature allows users to find a site based on words describing the site, rather than words found on

13932-411: The snapshots on the grounds of hearsay and unauthenticated source, but Magistrate Judge Arlander Keys rejected Telewizja Polska's assertion of hearsay and denied TVP's motion in limine to exclude the evidence at trial. At the trial, however, District Court Judge Ronald Guzman, the trial judge, overruled Magistrate Keys' findings, and held that neither the affidavit of the Internet Archive employee nor

14061-546: The social and ecological costs of the Post–World War II economic expansion . In 1880, Marxian economist Sergei Podolinsky attempted to theorize a labor theory of value based on embodied energy ; his work was read and critiqued by Marx and Engels . Otto Neurath developed an ecological approach based on a natural economy whilst employed by the Bavarian Soviet Republic in 1919. He argued that

14190-508: The teaching modules into one or more weeks of weeks of semester alongside whatever textbooks they are using.    GDAE produced the six-volume series, Frontier Issues in Economic Thought Archived 2021-04-13 at the Wayback Machine , which was published by Island Press . The articles that GDAE researchers selected and summarized for this project focus on the limitations of the mainstream economic paradigm and

14319-545: The time stamp of the currently viewed page, so they are redirected automatically to their individual captures that are the closest in time. The frequency of snapshot captures varies per website. Websites in the "Worldwide Web Crawls" are included in a "crawl list", with the site archived once per crawl. A crawl can take months or even years to complete, depending on size. For example, "Wide Crawl Number 13" started on January 9, 2015, and completed on July 11, 2016. However, there may be multiple crawls ongoing at any one time, and

14448-644: The typical capital asset analysis of land, labor, and financial capital. These ecological economists use tools from mathematical economics , as in mainstream economics, but may apply them more closely to the natural world. Whereas mainstream economists tend to be technological optimists, ecological economists are inclined to be technological sceptics. They reason that the natural world has a limited carrying capacity and that its resources may run out. Since destruction of important environmental resources could be practically irreversible and catastrophic, ecological economists are inclined to justify cautionary measures based on

14577-415: The underlying links are not exposed and therefore, can contain errors. For example, archives such as the Wayback Machine do not fill out forms and therefore, do not include the contents of non- RESTful e-commerce databases in their archives. In Europe, the Wayback Machine could be interpreted as violating copyright laws. Only the content creator can decide where their content is published or duplicated so

14706-565: The underlying pages (i.e., the Telewizja Polska website) were admissible as evidence. Judge Guzman reasoned that the employee's affidavit contained both hearsay and inconclusive supporting statements, and the purported web page, printouts were not self-authenticating. The United States Patent and Trademark Office and the European Patent Office will accept date stamps from the Internet Archive as evidence of when

14835-458: The view of a starry night sky, etc. There has then been a move to regard such things as natural capital and ecosystems functions as goods and services. However, this is far from uncontroversial within ecology or ecological economics due to the potential for narrowing down values to those found in mainstream economics and the danger of merely regarding Nature as a commodity. This has been referred to as ecologists 'selling out on Nature'. There

14964-492: The web pages themselves. The Wayback Machine does not include every web page ever made due to the limitations of its web crawler. The Wayback Machine cannot completely archive web pages that contain interactive features such as Flash platforms and forms written in JavaScript and progressive web applications , because those functions require interaction with the host website. This means that, since approximately July 9, 2013,

15093-404: The website allows the Wayback Machine to " crawl " it and save the data. On October 30, 2020, the Wayback Machine began fact-checking content. As of January 2022, domains of ad servers are disabled from capturing. In May 2021, for Internet Archive's 25th anniversary, the Wayback Machine introduced the "Wayforward Machine" which allows users to "travel to the Internet in 2046, where knowledge

15222-431: The western development model of economics. Meaning G ood Life , Buen Vivir emphasizes harmony with nature, diverse pluralculturism, coexistence, and inseparability of nature and material. Value is not attributed to material accumulation, and it instead takes a more spiritual and communitarian approach to economic activity. Ecological Swaraj originated out of India, and is an evolving world view of human interactions within

15351-584: The world have begun to be included as ecological economic practices. E.F. Schumacher introduced examples of non-western economic ideas to mainstream thought in his book, Small is Beautiful , where he addresses neoliberal economics through the lens of natural harmony in Buddhist economics . This emphasis on natural harmony is witnessed in diverse cultures across the globe. Buen Vivir is a traditional socio-economic movement in South America that rejects

15480-594: The world transport network: The US, UK, Canada and Australia. Wayback Machine The Wayback Machine is a digital archive of the World Wide Web founded by the Internet Archive , an American nonprofit organization based in San Francisco , California . Created in 1996 and launched to the public in 2001, it allows users to go "back in time" to see how websites looked in the past. Its founders, Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat , developed

15609-572: The years, the storage capacity of the Wayback Machine has grown. In 2003, after only two years of public access, the Wayback Machine was growing at a rate of 12 terabytes per month. The data is stored on PetaBox rack systems custom designed by Internet Archive staff. The first 100TB rack became fully operational in June 2004, although it soon became clear that they would need much more storage than that. The Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage in 2009, and hosts

15738-425: Was coined by Zoran Rant in 1956, but the concept was developed by J. Willard Gibbs . In recent decades, utilization of exergy has spread outside of physics and engineering to the fields of industrial ecology, ecological economics, systems ecology , and energetics . An energy balance can be used to track energy through a system, and is a very useful tool for determining resource use and environmental impacts, using

15867-640: Was criticized by articles in Ecological Economics Volume 25, Issue 1, but the critics acknowledged the positive potential for economic valuation of the global ecosystem. The Earth's carrying capacity is a central issue in ecological economics. Early economists such as Thomas Malthus pointed out the finite carrying capacity of the earth, which was also central to the MIT study Limits to Growth . Diminishing returns suggest that productivity increases will slow if major technological progress

15996-758: Was founded in the 1980s as a modern discipline on the works of and interactions between various European and American academics (see the section on History and development below). The related field of green economics is in general a more politically applied form of the subject. According to ecological economist Malte Michael Faber  [ de ] , ecological economics is defined by its focus on nature, justice, and time. Issues of intergenerational equity , irreversibility of environmental change, uncertainty of long-term outcomes, and sustainable development guide ecological economic analysis and valuation. Ecological economists have questioned fundamental mainstream economic approaches such as cost-benefit analysis , and

16125-470: Was growing at about 20 terabytes a week. In July 2016, the Wayback Machine reportedly contained around 15 petabytes of data. In October 2016, it was announced that the way web pages are counted would be changed, resulting in the decrease of the archived pages counts shown. Embedded objects such as pictures, videos, style sheets, JavaScripts are no longer counted as a "web page", whereas HTML, PDF, and plain text documents remain counted. In September 2018,

16254-451: Was in response to a "request by the site owner". Later, it was clarified that lawyers from the Church of Scientology had demanded the removal and that the site owners did not want their material removed. In 2003, Harding Earley Follmer & Frailey defended a client from a trademark dispute using the Archive's Wayback Machine. The attorneys were able to demonstrate that the claims made by

16383-545: Was published just a few years before the first edition of Herman Daly 's comprehensive and persuasive Steady-State Economics (1977). The first organized meetings of ecological economists occurred in the 1980s. These began in 1982, at the instigation of Lois Banner, with a meeting held in Sweden (including Robert Costanza , Herman Daly , Charles Hall , Bruce Hannon, H.T. Odum , and David Pimentel). Most were ecosystem ecologists or mainstream environmental economists, with

16512-516: Was said on the Wayback Machine forum that "the Beta of the new Wayback Machine has a more complete and up-to-date index of all crawled materials into 2010, and will continue to be updated regularly. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a little bit of material past 2008, and no further index updates are planned, as it will be phased out this year." Also in 2011, the Internet Archive installed their sixth pair of PetaBox racks which increased

16641-531: Was the first president of the society and first editor of the journal, which is currently edited by Richard Howarth. Other figures include ecologists C.S. Holling and H.T. Odum , biologist Gretchen Daily, and physicist Robert Ayres . In the Marxian tradition, sociologist John Bellamy Foster and CUNY geography professor David Harvey explicitly center ecological concerns in political economy . Articles by Inge Ropke (2004, 2005) and Clive Spash (1999) cover

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