The National Liberation Front ( Arabic : جبهة التحرير الوطني , romanized : Jabhatu l-Taḥrīri l-Waṭanī ; French : Front de libération nationale ) commonly known by its French acronym FLN , is a nationalist political party in Algeria . It was the principal nationalist movement during the Algerian War and the sole legal and ruling political party of the Algerian state until other parties were legalised in 1989.
123-547: Les Temps Modernes ( lit. ' Modern Times ' ) was a French journal, founded by Simone de Beauvoir , Jean-Paul Sartre , and Maurice Merleau-Ponty . Its first issue was published in October 1945. It was named after the 1936 film by Charlie Chaplin . Les Temps Modernes filled the void left by the disappearance of the most important pre-war literary magazine, La Nouvelle Revue Française ( The New French Review ), considered to be André Gide 's magazine, which
246-570: A ceasefire agreement with the FLN. In July of the same year, the Algerian people approved the cease-fire agreement with France in a referendum , supporting economic and social cooperation between the two countries as well. Full independence followed, and the FLN seized control of the country. Political opposition in the form of the MNA and Communist organizations was outlawed, and Algeria was constituted as
369-523: A one-party state . The FLN became its only legal and ruling party. Immediately after independence, the party experienced a severe internal power struggle. Political leaders coalesced into two large camps: a Political Bureau formed by the radical Ahmed Ben Bella , who was assisted by the border army, faced off against the political leadership in the former exile government; Boumédiène's army quickly put down resistance and installed Ben Bella as president. The single most powerful political constituency remained
492-406: A "pro-system" party. Its role as Algeria's liberators has remained the absolute cornerstone of the party's self-perception, and the defining feature of its otherwise somewhat fluid ideology. The FLN was close to former president Abdelaziz Bouteflika , who was made honorary chairman. It mixes its traditional populist interpretations of Algeria's nationalist- revolutionary and Islamic heritage with
615-399: A 1975 interview with Betty Friedan if she would support a minimum wage for women who do housework, Beauvoir answered: "No, we don’t believe that any woman should have this choice. No woman should be authorized to stay at home and raise her children. Society should be different. Women should not have that choice, precisely because if there is such a choice, too many women will make that one. It
738-935: A basic creed of existentialism —that an individual is responsible for making conscious decisions to commit socially useful acts. Thus, literature in the magazine would have a utilitarian component; it would not be just culturally valuable ("art for art's sake"). Other intellectuals, such as André Gide , André Breton , and Louis Aragon , disapproved of this orientation. Sartre's response: " Le monde peut fort bien se passer de la littérature. Mais il peut se passer de l'homme encore mieux. " ("The world can easily get along without literature. But it can get along even more easily without man.") The works of many writers appeared in Les Temps Modernes . They include Richard Wright , Jean Genet , Nathalie Sarraute , Boris Vian , and Samuel Beckett . Political divisions between board members soon surfaced. Raymond Aron quit in 1945 because of
861-645: A colony. At the start of the Algerian War, the FLN offered Jews the opportunity to join their efforts, and in return Jews would be given Algerian citizenship when Algeria won independence. Most of the Jews in Algeria sided with the French Government, much to the dismay of the FLN and their supporters. During the course of the war, Jews in Algeria began to feel as if the FLN was targeting Jews and not just
984-558: A couple for the next 51 years, until his death in 1980. After they were confronted by her father, Sartre asked her to marry him on a provisional basis. One day while they were sitting on a bench outside the Louvre, he said, "Let's sign a two-year lease". Though Beauvoir wrote, "Marriage was impossible. I had no dowry", scholars point out that her ideal relationships described in The Second Sex and elsewhere bore little resemblance to
1107-524: A deranged girl, published in English under the title A Disgraceful Affair ) that, while a student at Lycée Molière, she was sexually exploited by her teacher Beauvoir, who was in her 30s. Sartre and Beauvoir both groomed and sexually abused Lamblin. Bianca wrote her Mémoires in response to the posthumous 1990 publication of Jean-Paul Sartre's Lettres au Castor et à quelques autres: 1926-1963 (Letters to Castor and other friends), in which she noted that she
1230-473: A feminist in 1972 in an interview with Le Nouvel Observateur . In 2018, the manuscript pages of Le Deuxième Sexe were published. Beauvoir published her first novel She Came to Stay in 1943. It has been assumed that it is inspired by her and Sartre's sexual relationship with Olga Kosakiewicz and Wanda Kosakiewicz . Olga was one of her students in the Rouen secondary school where Beauvoir taught during
1353-414: A feminist one: "One is not born but becomes a woman" (French: "On ne naît pas femme, on le devient"). With this famous phrase, Beauvoir first articulated what has come to be known as the sex-gender distinction , that is, the distinction between biological sex and the social and historical construction of gender and its attendant stereotypes. Beauvoir argues that "the fundamental source of women's oppression
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#17327727217171476-642: A form of resistance to the bio-heteronormative family unit. Beauvoir died of pneumonia on 14 April 1986 in Paris, aged 78. She is buried next to Sartre at the Montparnasse Cemetery in Paris. She was honored as a figure at the forefront of the struggle for women's rights around the time of her passing. The Second Sex , first published in 1949 in French as Le Deuxième Sexe , turns the existentialist mantra that existence precedes essence into
1599-440: A foundational tract of contemporary feminism . She was also known for her novels, the most famous of which were She Came to Stay (1943) and The Mandarins (1954). Her most enduring contribution to literature are her memoirs, notably the first volume, Mémoires d'une jeune fille rangée (1958). She received the 1954 Prix Goncourt , the 1975 Jerusalem Prize , and the 1978 Austrian State Prize for European Literature . She
1722-428: A living for herself. She first worked with Maurice Merleau-Ponty and Claude Lévi-Strauss , when all three completed their practice teaching requirements at the same secondary school. Although not officially enrolled, she sat in on courses at the École Normale Supérieure in preparation for the agrégation in philosophy, a highly competitive postgraduate examination that serves as a national ranking of students. It
1845-626: A more military approach as noted in their participation in the Special Organisation (Algeria) , which is a paramilitary component of the MTLD and included the important figures in Algerian politics such Ahmed Ben Bella , Hocine Aït Ahmed , and Mohammed Boudiaf . Later in 1951, the capture of Ahmed Ben Bella and the subsequent dismantling of the Special Organisation temporarily subdued the nationalist movement but sparkled
1968-474: A movement within a wider Arab nationalism and also a pan-Arab solidarity. It essentially drew its political self-legitimization from three sources: Nationalism , and the revolutionary war against France; Socialism , loosely interpreted as a popular anti-exploitation creed; Islam , defined as the main foundation for the national consciousness, and a crucial factor in solidifying the Algerian identity as separate from that of French Algerians or pied-noirs . As
2091-428: A novella-length autobiography, A Very Easy Death , covering the time she spent visiting her aging mother, who was dying of cancer. The novella brings up questions of ethical concerns with truth-telling in doctor-patient relationships. Her 1970 long essay La Vieillesse ( The Coming of Age ) is a rare instance of an intellectual meditation on the decline and solitude all humans experience if they do not die before about
2214-588: A painful account of Sartre's last years. In the opening of Adieux , Beauvoir notes that it is the only major published work of hers which Sartre did not read before its publication. | She contributed the piece "Feminism - Alive, Well, and in Constant Danger" to the 1984 anthology Sisterhood Is Global: The International Women's Movement Anthology , edited by Robin Morgan . After Sartre died in 1980, Beauvoir published his letters to her with edits to spare
2337-454: A petition which advocated the abolition of age of consent laws in France . Beauvoir was born on 9 January 1908, into a bourgeois Parisian family in the 6th arrondissement . Her parents were Georges Bertrand de Beauvoir, a lawyer who once aspired to be an actor, and Françoise Beauvoir (née Brasseur), a wealthy banker's daughter and devout Catholic . Simone had a sister, Hélène , who
2460-427: A philosopher, nor was she considered one at the time of her death, she had a significant influence on both feminist existentialism and feminist theory . Beauvoir wrote novels, essays, biographies, autobiographies, and monographs on philosophy, politics, and social issues. She was best known for her "trailblazing work in feminist philosophy", The Second Sex (1949), a detailed analysis of women's oppression and
2583-510: A play based on Algren, Beauvoir, and Sartre's triangular relationship. The play was stage read in 1999 in Chicago. Beauvoir also wrote a four-volume autobiography, consisting of Memoirs of a Dutiful Daughter , The Prime of Life , Force of Circumstance (sometimes published in two volumes in English translation: After the War and Hard Times ), and All Said and Done . In 1964 Beauvoir published
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#17327727217172706-493: A political journal that Sartre founded along with Maurice Merleau-Ponty and others. Beauvoir used Les Temps Modernes to promote her own work and explore her ideas on a small scale before fashioning essays and books. Beauvoir remained an editor until her death. However, Sartre and Merleau-Ponty had a longstanding feud, which led Merleau-Ponty to leave Les Temps modernes . Beauvoir sided with Sartre and ceased to associate with Merleau-Ponty. In Beauvoir's later years, she hosted
2829-430: A pro-system conservatism , and support for gradual pro-market reform qualified by statist reflexes. Since the breakdown of the one-party system and its detachment from the state structure in ca. 1988–1990, the FLN has been in favor of multi-party democracy , whereas it upheld itself as the only organization representing the Algerian people before this period. The FLN was admitted into Socialist International (SI) as
2952-476: A secular institutional dominance over religion. The later FLN's ideological change towards anti-socialism and anti-communism can be illustrated by Kaid Ahmed's opposition towards Boumédiène's leftist agenda, which featured the radical agrarian revolution that hurt rich landowners who defended themselves on the religious ground and fueled the Islamic movement, which gradually took over the national sentiment later in
3075-449: Is a bad one. Instead, she and Sartre entered into a lifelong "soul partnership", which was sexual but not exclusive, nor did it involve living together. She chose never to marry and never had children. This gave her the time to advance her education and engage in political causes, write and teach, and take lovers. Unfortunately, Beauvoir's prominent open relationships at times overshadowed her substantial academic reputation. A scholar who
3198-513: Is a way of forcing women in a certain direction", further stating that motherhood "should be a choice, and not a result of conditioning”. In about 1976, Beauvoir and Sylvie Le Bon made a trip to New York City in the United States to visit Kate Millett on her farm. In 1977, Beauvoir signed a petition along with other French intellectuals that supported the freeing of three arrested paedophiles . The petition explicitly addresses
3321-440: Is as limiting as heterosexuality: the ideal should be to be capable of loving a woman or a man; either, a human being, without feeling fear, restraint, or obligation." Beauvoir asserted that women are as capable of choice as men, and thus can choose to elevate themselves, moving beyond the " immanence " to which they were previously resigned and reaching " transcendence ", a position in which one takes responsibility for oneself and
3444-405: Is its [femininity's] historical and social construction as the quintessential" Other. Beauvoir defines women as the "second sex" because women are defined as inferior to men. She pointed out that Aristotle argued women are "female by virtue of a certain lack of qualities", while Thomas Aquinas referred to women as "imperfect men" and the "incidental" being. She quotes "In itself, homosexuality
3567-437: Is perhaps the most accessible entry into French existentialism . In the essay, Beauvoir clears up some inconsistencies that many, Sartre included, have found in major existentialist works such as Being and Nothingness . In The Ethics of Ambiguity , Beauvoir confronts the existentialist dilemma of absolute freedom vs. the constraints of circumstance. At the end of World War II, Beauvoir and Sartre edited Les Temps Modernes ,
3690-585: Is the main reason why I became an intellectual." Beauvoir pursued post-secondary education after completing her high school years at Cours Desir [ fr ] . After passing baccalaureate exams in mathematics and philosophy at the age of seventeen in 1925, she studied mathematics at the Institut Catholique de Paris and literature/languages at the Institut Sainte-Marie [ fr ] . She then studied philosophy at
3813-521: The 2017 parliamentary elections , FLN won 164 of the 462 seats, thus losing 44 seats; however, thanks to the good performance of the RND (which won 100 seats), the Presidential Alliance was able to maintain a parliamentary majority and continue to rule the country. Jews in Algeria were given French citizenship during the colonial era starting in 1870, while Muslims were denied citizenship by
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3936-476: The Algerian Civil War (1991–2002) against Islamist groups, the FLN was reelected to power in the 2002 Algerian legislative election , and has generally remained in power until 2007, when it started forming coalitions with other parties. The background of the FLN can be traced back to the growing anti-colonialism and Algerian nationalist sentiments since the outbreak of WWII . The repression against
4059-639: The Lycée Molière (Paris) [ fr ] (1936–39). During the trial of Robert Brasillach Beauvoir was among a small number of prominent intellectuals advocating for his execution for 'intellectual crimes'. She defended this decision in her 1946 essay "An Eye for an Eye". Beauvoir and Jean-Paul Sartre met during her college years. Intrigued by her determination as an educator, he intended to make their relationship romantic. However, she had no interest in doing so. She later changed her mind, and in October 1929, Jean-Paul Sartre and Beauvoir became
4182-513: The Sorbonne and after completing her degree in 1928, wrote her Diplôme d'Études Supérieures Spécialisées [ fr ] (roughly equivalent to an M.A. thesis) on Leibniz for Léon Brunschvicg (the topic was "Le concept chez Leibniz" ["The Concept in Leibniz"]). Her studies of political philosophy through university influenced her to start thinking of societal concerns. Beauvoir
4305-469: The pouvoir , General Mediene's face remains unknown; it is said that anyone who has seen it expires soon after." On 13 September 2015, it was announced that Mediène was retiring and President Bouteflika had appointed General Athmane Tartag to succeed him. Mediène's dismissal was viewed as the culmination of a long "behind-the-scenes power struggle" with Bouteflika, leaving the latter fully in charge and giving him more power to determine his own successor. In
4428-483: The 'Affaire de Versailles', where three adult men, Dejager (age 45), Gallien (age 43), and Burckhardt (age 39) had sexual relations with minors of both sexes aged 12–13. When Things of the Spirit Come First , a set of short stories Beauvoir had written decades previously but had not considered worth publishing, was released in 1980. In 1981 she wrote La Cérémonie des adieux ( A Farewell to Sartre ),
4551-521: The 1930s inspired a whole generation of French thinkers, including Sartre, to discover Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit . However, Beauvoir, reading Hegel in German during the war, produced an original critique of his dialectic of consciousness. Beauvoir was bisexual , and her relationships with young women were controversial. French author Bianca Lamblin (originally Bianca Bienenfeld) wrote in her book Mémoires d'une jeune fille dérangée (Memoirs of
4674-482: The 1956 Suez Crisis . Once Algeria gained independence in 1962, Arab nationalist leader Ahmed Ben Bella was elected president after winning elections with 99.6 per cent of the votes. He composed the Algerian constitution in October 1963, which asserted that Islam was the state religion, Arabic was the sole national and official language of the state, Algeria was an integral part of the Arab world , and that Arabization
4797-434: The 1960s, when Beauvoir was in her fifties and Sylvie was a teenager. In 1980, Beauvoir, 72, legally adopted Sylvie, who was in her late thirties, by which point they had already been in an intimate relationship for decades. Although Beauvoir rejected the institution of marriage her entire life, this adoption was like a marriage for her. Some scholars argue that this adoption was not to secure a literary heir for Beauvoir, but as
4920-409: The 1980s the FLN toned down the socialist content of its programme, enacting some free-market reforms and purging Boumédiène stalwarts. It was not until 1988 that massive demonstrations and riots jolted the country towards major political reform. The riots led to the constitution being amended to allow a multi-party system. The first multi-party elections were the 1990 local elections , which saw
5043-544: The 389 seats. The party nominated Ali Benflis as its candidate for the 2004 presidential elections . He finished as runner-up to the incumbent Abdelaziz Bouteflika , but received only 6.4% of the vote. In 2005 FLN formed the Presidential Alliance with the National Rally for Democracy (RND) and the Movement of Society for Peace (MSP). The 2007 parliamentary elections saw the FLN reduced to 163 seats, although
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5166-578: The Algerian Assembly's double electoral college system stipulated an equal number of 60 representation between the French settlers and the Muslim community while the Muslim community was significantly larger than the settlers. The underrepresentation combined with the unfair election in 1948 limited the MTDL's ability to gain further political power. Consequently, the Algerian nationalists veered to
5289-655: The Algerian Muslim population intensified as Abdelhamid Ben Badis got placed under house arrest and Marshal Pétain 's government banned the Algerian Communist Party and Algerian People's Party . As the war turned gradually more in favor of the Western Allies, given the US's global engagement and its ideological campaign against colonialism, the core sentiment amongst the Algerian nationalists
5412-493: The Algerian indigenous elites; the elimination of class structure undertoned the later FLN populism and socialist agendas. Such egalitarianism , which implies a liberation struggle, reflects the FLN's militant socialism during Ben Bella's period, who considered the struggle was to invent a new society to release the peasantry's potential. This ideological construct of the FLN is controversial and disputed but can be analyzed through lenses of different socio-economic contexts. Given
5535-676: The Algerians' rebellion against their French colonial masters ( The Algerian War —1954–62). In his bitterness against Camus, Sartre selected Francis Jeanson , who did not like the works of Camus, to review the Camus essay L'Homme Révolté ( The Rebel ). When Camus responded to the review with hurt feelings, Sartre put the final blow to a friendship that had lasted for years. He said, " Vous êtes devenu la proie d'une morne démesure qui masque vos difficultés intérieures. ... Tôt ou tard, quelqu'un vous l'eût dit, autant que ce soit moi. " ("You have become
5658-501: The FLN believed in the harmony between religion and socialism and it was in their political interest to renew the FLN party by leading a popular revolution to integrate Islam and socialism. Despite being challenged by the Algerian Ulema and other domestic conservatives who criticized Ben Bella on the shallowness of his intentionally Islamism-leaning policies, the FLN kept its Marxist–Leninist organization principles that featured
5781-667: The FLN heavily defeated by the Islamist Islamic Salvation Front (ISF), which won control of over half the local councils; the FLN received just over a quarter of the vote, retaining control of a similar number of councils. The first round of the parliamentary elections the following year saw the ISF win 188 of the 231 seats, whilst the FLN won only 16, placing third behind the Socialist Forces Front . However, shortly afterwards, due to fears of
5904-410: The FLN ticket in the 2014 presidential elections with 82% of the vote. The elderly and ailing Bouteflika is widely seen as a mere frontman for what has often described as a "shadowy" group of generals and intelligence officers known to the Algerians collectively as le pouvoir ("the power") and whose individual members are called décideurs with The Economist writing in 2012 "The most powerful man in
6027-481: The FLN's Abdelaziz Belkhadem remained Prime Minister. Bouteflika was the party's candidate in the 2009 presidential elections , which he won with 90% of the vote. In 2012, MSP left the Presidential Alliance and joined the Green Algeria Alliance . Despite that, the FLN remained the largest party following the 2012 parliamentary elections , winning 208 of the 462 seats. Bouteflika was re-elected on
6150-399: The French language, and a minimal understanding of philosophy (he was a professor of biology at Smith College ), much of Beauvoir's book was mistranslated or inappropriately cut, distorting her intended message. For years, Knopf prevented the introduction of a more accurate retranslation of Beauvoir's work, declining all proposals despite the efforts of existentialist scholars. Only in 2009
6273-491: The French people living in Algeria. This led to increased tensions between Jews and Muslims in the area. After the war, Algerian citizenship was only extended to Muslims whose fathers and grandfathers were Muslim at the time the FLN won independence from the French Government and those who participated directly or indirectly in the national liberation movement. Algerian Jews were no longer considered Algerian, but they still retained French citizenship. With their French citizenship,
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#17327727217176396-400: The French. Abane Ramdane was recruited to take control of the FLN's Algiers campaign, and went on to become one of its most effective leaders. By 1956, nearly all the nationalist organizations in Algeria had joined the FLN, which had established itself as the main nationalist group through both co-opting and coercing smaller organizations; the most important group that remained outside the FLN
6519-440: The French. It fiercely denounced the extensive use of torture by French forces, opposed Charles de Gaulle 's government, and supported desertion and resistance to conscription. The journal printed testimonies by French soldiers denouncing the war and torture from 1958 to 1962. For this, it was censured and its premises seized. From its inception the review has published many special issues. These include Sartre's 1946 description of
6642-459: The French. The Jews in Algeria were seen as a go-between for French-Muslim relations; however, the lack of citizenship on behalf of the Muslims created tension between the two groups. During the Algerian War, Jews felt as if they were being forced to choose sides; they were either Algerian and fighting with the FLN for independence, or they were French and fighting with the French to keep Algeria as
6765-459: The ISF forming an Islamic state , a military coup d'état cancelled the election process and forced president Bendjedid to resign, sparking the Algerian Civil War . Algeria was under direct military rule for several years, during which the party remained in opposition to the government during the first part of the war, notably in 1995 signing the Sant'Egidio Platform , which was highly critical of
6888-493: The Islamic movement had been rather successfully monitored and subdued by the government during the previous 20 years, but the Iranian Revolution rekindled the movement and posed a greater threat to the state. Since the Algerian independence, Religion had been relegated to the role of legitimizing factor for the party-regime, especially under the presidency of Col. Houari Boumédiènne (1965–78), but even then Islam
7011-521: The Islamism started with the noticeable wave of Islamic discourse led by religious scholars such as Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (1838–97), Mohammed Abduh (1849–1905) and Rashid Rida (1865–1935) that focused on resisting the foreign economic control and establishing an Islamic country based on the sharia, which were the core values of the Algerian Ulama . The movement absolutely rejected atheism and
7134-584: The MNA in Algeria (and wrestling with Messali's followers over control of the expatriate community, in the " Café Wars " in France), and another, stronger component more resembling a traditional army. These units were based in neighbouring Arab countries (notably in Oujda in Morocco , and Tunisia), and although they infiltrated forces and ran weapons and supplies across the border, they generally saw less action than
7257-604: The National Book Award for The Man with the Golden Arm in 1950, and in 1954, Beauvoir won France's most prestigious literary prize for The Mandarins , in which Algren is the character Lewis Brogan. Algren vociferously objected to their intimacy becoming public. Years after they separated, she was buried wearing his gift of a silver ring. When Beauvoir visited Algren in Chicago, Art Shay took well-known nude and portrait photos of Beauvoir. Shay also wrote
7380-618: The United States and China and published essays and fiction rigorously, especially throughout the 1950s and 1960s. Her 1955 travels in China were the basis of her 1957 travelogue The Long March , in which she praised the efforts of the Chinese communists to emancipate women . She published several volumes of short stories, including The Woman Destroyed , which, like some of her other later work, deals with aging. She lived with Claude Lanzmann from 1952 to 1959, but perhaps her most famous lover
7503-606: The United States, an attempt to discredit the myths that many of the French held about this country. In 1955, Claude Lanzmann described Sartre's Marxist philosophy in an issue called " La Gauche " ("The Left"). An issue on " La révolte hongroise " ("The Hungarian Rebellion") (1956–57) denounced Soviet repression. In 1967, at the time of the Six-Day War , an issue, " Le conflit israélo-arabe " ("The Israeli-Arab conflict"), contained articles by both Israelis and Arabs. In 1977, North African writers led by Abdelkebir Khatibi published
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#17327727217177626-427: The War of Independence for pragmatic reasons but refused to allow them to organize separately from the FLN after the war. The FLN then quickly moved to dissolve the pro-Moscow Algerian Communist Party (PCA). However, since independent Algeria was set up as a one-party system under the FLN soon thereafter, many communist intellectuals were later co-opted into the regime at various stages. The cooperation occurred during
7749-477: The age of 60. In the 1970s Beauvoir became active in France's women's liberation movement . She wrote and signed the Manifesto of the 343 in 1971, a manifesto that included a list of famous women who claimed to have had an abortion, then illegal in France. Signatories were diverse as Catherine Deneuve , Delphine Seyrig , and Beauvoir's sister Hélène. In 1974, abortion was legalized in France. When asked in
7872-502: The army. In 1965, the tension between Boumédiène and Ben Bella culminated in a coup d'état, after Ben Bella had tried to sack one of the Colonel's closest collaborators, Foreign Minister Abdelaziz Bouteflika (who was elected President of Algeria in 1999). A statist- socialist and anticolonial nationalist, Boumédiène ruled through decree and "revolutionary legitimacy", marginalizing the FLN in favor of his personal decision-making and
7995-529: The atheist confronts honestly. And to crown all, the believer derives a sense of great superiority from this very cowardice itself." From 1929 through 1943, Beauvoir taught at the lycée level until she could support herself solely on the earnings of her writings. She taught at the Lycée Montgrand [ fr ] ( Marseille ), the Lycée Jeanne-d'Arc (Rouen) [ fr ] , and
8118-495: The book is dedicated. Algren was outraged by the frank way Beauvoir described their sexual experiences in both The Mandarins and her autobiographies. Algren vented his outrage when reviewing American translations of Beauvoir's work. Much material bearing on this episode in Beauvoir's life, including her love letters to Algren, entered the public domain only after her death. National Liberation Front (Algeria) The FLN
8241-531: The ceasefire of 19 March 1962, the FLN is thought to have massacred thousands of harkis , Muslim Algerians who had served in the French army and whom the French, contrary to promises given, had denied a "repatriation" to France. An example of an FLN massacre is the Philippeville massacre . The war for independence continued until March 1962, when the French government finally signed the Évian Accords ,
8364-467: The century. Starting in 1971 and ending in 1992, the government under Chadli Bendjedid was authoritative but collegial, less rigid on ideologies but more moderate on domestic and international issues, while Bendjedid and his advisers believed in socialism. The organization initially committed itself to socialism , but understood this along the lines of Arab socialism , and opposed orthodox Marxism . The existence of different classes in Algerian society
8487-525: The conservative social mores of Algeria's population. It has strongly condemned the radical- fundamentalist religious teachings of the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) and other Islamist groups, even while supporting the inclusion of non-violent Islamist parties in the political system and working with them. Arab nationalism and Pan-Arabism are considered core principles of the FLN and Algerian nationalism . Arab themes were glorified as
8610-459: The desire inside the Special Organisation militants to form a new organization – Revolutionary Committee of Unity and Action (CRUA). It initially had a five-man leadership consisting of Mostefa Ben Boulaïd , Larbi Ben M'hidi , Rabah Bitat , Mohamed Boudiaf and Mourad Didouche . They were joined by Krim Belkacem in August, and Hocine Aït Ahmed , Ahmed Ben Bella and Mohamed Khider later in
8733-429: The early 1930s. She grew fond of Olga. Sartre tried to pursue Olga but she rejected him, so he began a relationship with her sister Wanda. Upon his death, Sartre was still supporting Wanda. He also supported Olga for years, until she met and married Jacques-Laurent Bost , a lover of Beauvoir. However, the main thrust of the novel is philosophical, a scene in which to situate Beauvoir's abiding philosophical pre-occupation –
8856-492: The early Ben Bella and late Boumédiènne years when the Socialist Vanguard Party (PAGS), established in 1966, cooperated and tactically consulted with the FLN and recognized the FLN as the sole legitimate party in the country. During all periods of Algerian post-colonial history, except for a few years between 1990 and 1996, the FLN has been a pillar of the political system and has primarily been viewed as
8979-482: The edition Du Maghreb . In 2001, a special edition was devoted to Serge Doubrovsky . From 2016, the chief editor of Les Temps Modernes was Claude Lanzmann until his death on 5 July 2018, after a short illness. The editorial board consisted of Juliette Simont (Editorial Assistant to Lanzmann), Adrien Barrot, Jean Bourgault, Joseph Cohen, Michel Deguy, Liliane Kandel, Jean Khalfa, Patrice Maniglier, Robert Redeker , Marc Sagnol, Gérard Wormser, and Raphael Zagury-Orly. It
9102-456: The eighth woman to pass the agrégation solidified her economic independence and furthered her feminist ideology. Writing of her youth in Memoirs of a Dutiful Daughter, she said: "...my father's individualism and pagan ethical standards were in complete contrast to the rigidly moral conventionalism of my mother's teaching. This disequilibrium, which made my life a kind of endless disputation,
9225-547: The feelings of people in their circle who were still living. After Beauvoir's death, Sartre's adopted daughter and literary heir Arlette Elkaïm would not let many of Sartre's letters be published in unedited form. Most of Sartre's letters available today have Beauvoir's edits, which include a few omissions but mostly the use of pseudonyms. Beauvoir's adopted daughter and literary heir Sylvie Le Bon , unlike Elkaïm, published Beauvoir's unedited letters to both Sartre and Algren. Sylvie Le Bon-de Beauvoir and Simone de Beauvoir met in
9348-447: The feminist movement, especially the French women's liberation movement, and her beliefs in women's economic independence and equal education, Beauvoir was initially reluctant to call herself a feminist. However, after observing the resurgence of the feminist movement in the late 1960s and early 1970s, Beauvoir stated she no longer believed a socialist revolution to be enough to bring about women's liberation. She publicly declared herself
9471-497: The formation of the FLN and later during the Islamist movement . The Muslim population had been discriminated against at a constitutional level, as illustrated by the fact that French settlers formed up to 80% of the membership in three departmental councils in 1875; and at a local level, the metropolitan model composed of a major and municipal council only granted voting right to 5% of the adult male Muslim population until 1919, when
9594-430: The former ALN, which had returned largely unscathed from exile and was now organized as the country's armed forces ; added to this were regionally powerful guerrilla irregulars and others who jockeyed for influence in the party. In building his one-party regime, Ben Bella purged remaining dissidents (such as Ferhat Abbas ), but also quickly ran into opposition from Boumédiène as he tried to assert himself independently from
9717-427: The foundation of Algerian nationalism that would fit into Pan-Arabism. Albert Camus argued that Algerian nationalism was closely tied to Nasserism and Pan-Arabism in an essay titled 'Algeria 1958'. A prominent member of the Algerian independence movement, Abdel-Hamid ibn Badis (1889–1940), emphasized the Arab and Muslim character of Algeria through his Association of Algerian Muslim Ulema , and famously coined
9840-590: The global background of the Cuban Missile Crisis and the Cold War , Algeria was considered the entry point into the Third World in this ideological conflict; the FLN's ideologies under Ben Bella and Boumédiène were largely shaped by the fundamental needs of the country such as radical economic reforms, getting international aids and recognition, along with the domestic Islamic pressure. Facing
9963-504: The grave economic consequences of the Algerian War of Independence that included the destruction of 8,000 villages and millions of acres of land, a centralized authority, in this case, the FLN, was forced to act and redress the problem through a Leninist and corporatist framework. In response, Ben Bella also experimented the socialist autogestion among the Muslim workers who entered industrial and agricultural businesses that featured profit-sharing and equity. Ben Bella and his supporters in
10086-526: The journal's editorial meetings in her flat and contributed more than Sartre, whom she often had to force to offer his opinions. Published in 1954, The Mandarins won France's highest literary prize, the Prix Goncourt . It is a roman à clef set after the end of World War II and follows the personal lives of philosophers and friends among Sartre's and Beauvoir's intimate circle, including her relationship with American writer Nelson Algren , to whom
10209-458: The land may be Mohamed Mediène, known as Toufiq who has headed military intelligence for two decades". General Mohamed Mediène , the chief of military intelligence from 1990 to 2015 was known to be a leading décideur within le pouvior and for his secrecy with The Economist reporting on 21 September 2013: "Despite his leading role in defeating Islamic militants in a brutal civil war between 1991 and 2000, and his less public role as kingmaker in
10332-478: The magazine's Communist sympathies, becoming an editor at Le Figaro . At the time of the Korean War of 1950–1953, Merleau-Ponty resigned. Originally more supportive of Communism than Sartre, he moved progressively to the right as Sartre moved to the left. At the time, Sartre still endorsed Communism in his writings but in private expressed his reservations. Sartre disapproved of Camus for seeing both sides in
10455-494: The magazine. Sartre's contributions included "La nationalisation de la littérature" ("The Nationalisation of Literature"), "Matérialisme et révolution" ("Materialism and Revolution"), and "Qu'est-ce-que la littérature?" ("What is Literature?"). Simone de Beauvoir first published Le Deuxième Sexe ("The Second Sex") in Les Temps Modernes . In the preface to the first edition, Sartre stated the review's purpose: to publish littérature engagée . This philosophy of literature expresses
10578-407: The majority of Jews in Algeria decided to emigrate to France, with a small number of Jews deciding to emigrate to Israel and an even smaller number of Jews deciding to stay in Algeria under the rule of the FLN. Between 1961 and 1962, 130,000 out of Algeria's 140,000 Jews left for France, while around 10,000 immigrated to Israel . The FLN's ideology was primarily Algerian nationalist, understood as
10701-647: The marriage standards of the day. I think marriage is a very alienating institution, for men as well as for women. I think it's a very dangerous institution—dangerous for men, who find themselves trapped, saddled with a wife and children to support; dangerous for women, who aren't financially independent and end up by depending on men who can throw them out when they are 40; and very dangerous for children, because their parents vent all their frustrations and mutual hatred on them. The very words 'conjugal rights' are dreadful. Any institution which solders one person to another, obliging people to sleep together who no longer want to
10824-406: The mid- to late-1980s, Bendjedid reintroduced religiously conservative legislation in an attempt to appease growing Islamist opposition. During and after the Algerian Civil War , the party's position has remained that of claiming Algerian Islam as a main influence, while simultaneously arguing that this must be expressed as a progressive and modern faith, even if the party generally keeps in line with
10947-490: The military establishment, even while retaining the one-party system. Boumédiène held tight control over party leadership until his death in 1978, at which time the party reorganized again under the leadership of the military's next candidate, Col. Chadli Bendjedid . The military remained well-represented on the FLN Central Committee and is widely thought to have been the real power-broker in the country. During
11070-435: The military establishment. After internal power struggles and a leadership change, it returned to supporting the presidency. After formal democracy was restored, the FLN initially failed to regain its prominent position; in the 1997 parliamentary elections it emerged as the third-largest party, receiving 14% of the vote and winning 69 of the 231 seats. However, it won a landslide victory in the 2002 elections , winning 199 of
11193-537: The name implies, it viewed itself as a "front" composed of different social sectors and ideological trends, even if the concept of a monolithic Algerian polity gradually submerged this vision. A separate party ideology was not well developed at the time of independence, except insofar as it focused on the liberation of Algeria. This latter aspect led to the denial of or refusal to deal with the separate Berber identity held by Algerian Berbers who made up about 20% of Algeria, something which caused fierce opposition and led to
11316-532: The number increased to 25%. Therefore, its nationalist outlook was also closely interwoven with anti-Colonialism and anti-imperialism, something which would remain a lasting characteristic of Algerian foreign policy . Islamism pertained its dominance in Algerian politics because of the specific social contexts during different periods. The humiliating failure of the Mokrani Revolt in 1871 facilitated
11439-456: The often-cited phrase: "Islam is our religion, Algeria is our homeland, Arabic is our language", while his fellow 'alim Ahmad Tawfiq al-Madani (1889–1983) wrote extensive historical writings in Arabic celebrating the Muslim and Arab ancestors of Algeria. During the Algerian war of independence, the FLN emerged as the main socialist group after uniting with several smaller independence groups, and
11562-474: The popular masses, Algeria will engage itself in the promotion of the formulas of union, integration or fusion that may fully respond to the legitimate and deep aspirations of the Arab people". Like Ben Bella, Boumédiène imposed Arab socialism as the state ideology and declared Islam the state religion. He was more assertive than Ben Bella in carrying out Arabization, especially between 1970 and 1977. The year 1971
11685-532: The pro-Islamism sentiment in the society as people generally regarded Islam as the long-lasting and never-fading symbolic opposition towards the French rule; also the Italian invasion of Libya in 1911 provoked sympathy in the Muslim community and strengthened the Islamic cultural identity and these two events together consolidated the Islamism-Colonialism opposition rhetoric. The politicization of
11808-428: The relationship between the self and the other. In the novel, set just before the outbreak of World War II , Beauvoir creates one character from the complex relationships of Olga and Wanda. The fictionalised versions of Beauvoir and Sartre have a ménage à trois with the young woman. The novel also delves into Beauvoir and Sartre's complex relationship and how it was affected by the ménage à trois. She Came to Stay
11931-521: The rural guerrilla forces. These units were later to emerge under the leadership of army commander Colonel Houari Boumediene as a powerful opposition to the political cadres of the FLN's exile government , the GPRA , and they eventually came to dominate Algerian politics. The Algerian war resulted in between 300,000 and 400,000 deaths. The FLN is considered responsible for over 16,000 civilians killed and over 13,000 disappeared between 1954 and 1962. After
12054-592: The splintering of the movement immediately after independence, as Hocine Aït Ahmed set up the Berberist and pro-democracy Socialist Forces Front (FFS) in Tizi Ouzou and began a rebellion in Kabylia which was defeated by the government in 1965. Anti-Colonialism is widely considered as the core value in Algerian official discourse during its entire contemporary political and social history, especially during
12177-662: The summer. The FLN was established on 10 October 1954. It succeeded the CRUA which had been formed earlier in the year because the CRUA failed to provide unity within the MTLD Party. On 1 November 1954, the FLN launched the Algerian War after publishing the Declaration of 1 November 1954 written by journalist Mohamed Aïchaoui . Didouche was killed on 18 January 1955, whilst both Ben Boulaïd and Bitat were captured by
12300-501: The victim of an excessive sullenness that masks your internal problems. ... Sooner or later, someone would have told you, so it might as well be me.") Les Temps Modernes enjoyed its greatest influence in the 1960s. At this time, it had more than 20,000 subscribers. During the Algerian War (1954–1962) it strongly supported the National Liberation Front , the primary group in the ultimately successful battle against
12423-577: The world, where one chooses one's freedom. Chapters of The Second Sex were originally published in Les Temps modernes , in June 1949. The second volume came a few months after the first in France. It was published soon after in America due to the quick translation by Howard Parshley , as prompted by Blanche Knopf , wife of publisher Alfred A. Knopf . Because Parshley had only a basic familiarity with
12546-575: Was Messali Hadj 's Algerian National Movement (MNA). At this time the FLN reorganized into something like a provisional government, consisting of a five-man executive and legislative body, and was organized territorially into six wilayas , following the Ottoman -era administrative boundaries. The FLN's armed wing during the war was called the National Liberation Army (ALN). It was divided into guerrilla units fighting France and
12669-461: Was American author Nelson Algren . Beauvoir met Algren in Chicago in 1947, while she was on a four-month "exploration" trip of the United States using various means of transport: automobile, train, and Greyhound . She kept a detailed diary of the trip, which was published in France in 1948 with the title America Day by Day . She wrote to him across the Atlantic as "my beloved husband." Algren won
12792-521: Was also nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1961 , 1969 and 1973 . However, Beauvoir generated controversy when she briefly lost her teaching job after being accused of sexually abusing some of her students. She and her long-time lover, Jean-Paul Sartre , along with numerous other French intellectuals, campaigned for the release of people convicted of child sex offenses and signed
12915-433: Was always done in societies by the group higher in the hierarchy to the group lower in the hierarchy. She wrote that a similar kind of oppression by hierarchy also happened in other categories of identity, such as race, class, and religion, but she claimed that it was nowhere more true than with gender in which men stereotyped women and used it as an excuse to organize society into a patriarchy . Despite her contributions to
13038-618: Was born two years later, on June 6, 1910. The family struggled to maintain their bourgeois status after losing much of their fortune shortly after World War I , and Françoise insisted the two daughters be sent to a prestigious convent school. Beauvoir was intellectually precocious, fueled by her father's encouragement; he reportedly would boast, "Simone thinks like a man!" Because of her family's straitened circumstances, she could no longer rely on her dowry , and like other middle-class girls of her age, her marriage opportunities were put at risk. She took this opportunity to take steps towards earning
13161-408: Was considered the state religion and a crucial part of Algerian identity, as Boumédiènne himself took pride in his Quranic training. His predecessor Ahmed Ben Bella (1962–65) was more committed to the Islamic component of the regime, although always viewed as more of an Arab nationalist than an Islamic activist (and he remains far removed from what is today referred to as Algeria's Islamists). During
13284-531: Was declared the "year of Arabization". Chadli Bendjedid had talks with Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi in 1988 about forming an Algeria-Libya Arab union. Instead the Arab Maghreb Union was formed in 1989. A historical reference of socialist values is the implementation of the Warnier Law of 1873, which allowed the selling of community land at an individual base toppled the economic power of
13407-457: Was established in 1954 following a split in the Movement for the Triumph of Democratic Liberties from members of the Special Organisation paramilitary; its armed wing, the National Liberation Army , participated in the Algerian War from 1954 to 1962. After the Évian Accords of 1962, the party purged internal dissent and ruled Algeria as a one-party state . After the 1988 October Riots and
13530-574: Was followed by many others, including The Blood of Others , which explores the nature of individual responsibility, telling a love story between two young French students participating in the Resistance in World War II. In 1944, Beauvoir wrote her first philosophical essay, Pyrrhus et Cinéas , a discussion on existentialist ethics. She continued her exploration of existentialism through her second essay The Ethics of Ambiguity (1947); it
13653-497: Was generally rejected, even if several of the party's top ideologues were influenced to varying degrees by Marxist analysis. Borrowed Marxist terminology was instead commonly reinterpreted by party radicals in terms of the conflict with France, e.g. casting the colonizer in the role of economic exploiter-oppressor as well as national enemy, while the label of " bourgeoisie " was applied to uncooperative or pro-French elites. The FLN absorbed some communist activists into its ranks during
13776-660: Was lecturing with her chastised their "distinguished [Harvard] audience [because] every question asked about Sartre concerned his work, while all those asked about Beauvoir concerned her personal life." Sartre and Beauvoir always read each other's work. Debate continues about the extent to which they influenced each other in their existentialist works, such as Sartre's Being and Nothingness and Beauvoir's She Came to Stay and "Phenomenology and Intent". However, recent studies of Beauvoir's work focus on influences other than Sartre, including Hegel and Leibniz. The Neo-Hegelian revival led by Alexandre Kojève and Jean Hyppolite in
13899-524: Was not overtly secularist , contrary to widespread perception in the West, and Islamism was perhaps the most important mobilizing ideology during the Algerian War . Still, after independence, the party would in practice assume a strongly modernist interpretation of Islam, supported the social transformation of Algerian society, the emancipation of women, etc., and worked only through secular institutions. Before Col. Chadli Bendjedid came into power in 1971,
14022-514: Was published bimonthly. In 2019, following Lanzmann's death, Les Temps Modernes ceased publishing, after 74 years. Simone de Beauvoir Simone Lucie Ernestine Marie Bertrand de Beauvoir ( UK : / d ə ˈ b oʊ v w ɑːr / , US : / d ə b oʊ ˈ v w ɑːr / ; French: [simɔn də bovwaʁ] ; 9 January 1908 – 14 April 1986) was a French existentialist philosopher, writer, social theorist , and feminist activist. Though she did not consider herself
14145-498: Was raised in a Catholic household. In her youth, she was sent to convent schools. She was deeply religious as a child, at one point intending to become a nun. At age 14, Beauvoir questioned her faith as she saw many changes in the world after witnessing tragedies throughout her life. Consequently, she abandoned her faith in her early teens and remained an atheist for the rest of her life. To explain her atheist beliefs, Beauvoir stated, "Faith allows an evasion of those difficulties which
14268-409: Was referred to by the pseudonym Louise Védrine. In 1943, Beauvoir was suspended again from her teaching position when she was accused of seducing her 17-year-old lycée pupil Natalie Sorokine in 1939. Sorokine's parents laid formal charges against Beauvoir for debauching a minor (the age of consent in France at the time was 13 until 1945, when it became 15) and Beauvoir's licence to teach in France
14391-498: Was revoked, although it was subsequently reinstated. Beauvoir described in La Force de l'âge ( The Prime of Life ) a relationship of simple friendship with Nathalie Sorokine (in the book referred to as "Lise Oblanoff"). Natalie Sorokine, along with Bianca Lamblin and Olga Kosakiewicz , later stated that their relationships with de Beauvoir damaged them psychologically. Beauvoir wrote popular travel diaries about time spent in
14514-664: Was shut down by the authorities after the liberation of France because of its collaboration with the occupation . Les Temps Modernes was first published by Gallimard and was last published by Gallimard. In between, the magazine changed hands three times: Julliard (January 1949 to September 1965), Presses d'aujourd'hui (October 1964 to March 1985), Gallimard (from April 1985). Les Temps Modernes ceased publication in 2019, after 74 years. The first editorial board consisted of Sartre (director), Raymond Aron , Simone de Beauvoir , Michel Leiris , Maurice Merleau-Ponty , Albert Ollivier, and Jean Paulhan . All published many articles for
14637-579: Was strongly committed to Pan-Arabism. A major supporter of the Algerian independence movement was Gamal Abdel Nasser , whose mixture of Arab nationalism and revolution appealed to the Arabs in North Africa. He provided financial, diplomatic and military support to the FLN, and based the Algerian provisional government in Cairo . This played a major role in France's decision to wage war against him during
14760-415: Was the first priority of the country to reverse French colonization. Ben Bella was succeeded by Houari Boumédiène in 1965, who also pursued Arab socialist and Pan-Arabist policies. He drafted a new Algerian constitution in 1976 which declared "the unity of the Arab people is written in the community of the destinies of these people. When there will be the conditions for a unity based on the liberation of
14883-551: Was there a second translation, to mark the 60th anniversary of the original publication. Constance Borde and Sheila Malovany-Chevallier produced the first integral translation in 2010, reinstating a third of the original work. In the chapter "Woman: Myth and Reality" of The Second Sex , Beauvoir argued that men had made women the "Other" in society by the application of a false aura of "mystery" around them. She argued that men used this as an excuse not to understand women or their problems and not to help them, and that this stereotyping
15006-584: Was to use the victory in Europe to promote the independence of the country, which is reflected by the issuing of the Manifesto of the Algerian People by Ferhat Abbas . As this objective failed to materialize, a new party Movement for the Triumph of Democratic Liberties (MTDL) founded by the just-released Messali Hadj started to gain momentum and took the lead in the nationalist movement. However,
15129-479: Was while studying for it that she met École Normale students Jean-Paul Sartre , Paul Nizan , and René Maheu (who gave her the lasting nickname " Castor ", or "beaver"). The jury for the agrégation narrowly awarded Sartre first place instead of Beauvoir, who placed second and, at age 21, was the youngest person ever to pass the exam. Additionally, Beauvoir finished an exam for the certificate of "General Philosophy and Logic" second to Simone Weil . Her success as
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