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43-657: The Lhop or Doya people ( Dzongkha : ལྷོབ་ ་ཡང་ན་ དྲོ་ཡ) are a little-known tribe of southwest Bhutan . The Bhutanese believe them to be the aboriginal inhabitants of the country. The Lhop are found in the low valleys of Dorokha Gewog and near Phuntsholing in the Duars . The dress of the Lhop resembles the Lepcha , but they bear little similarity with the Bhutia in the North and

86-555: A close linguistic relationship to J'umowa, which is spoken in the Chumbi Valley of Southern Tibet . It has a much more distant relationship to Standard Tibetan . Spoken Dzongkha and Tibetan are around 50% to 80% mutually intelligible, with the literary forms of both highly influenced by the liturgical (clerical) Classical Tibetan language, known in Bhutan as Chöke, which has been used for centuries by Buddhist monks . Chöke

129-645: A distinct set of rules." The following is a sample vocabulary: The following is a sample text in Dzongkha of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights : འགྲོ་ ’Gro- བ་ ba- མི་ mi- རིགས་ rigs- ག་ ga- ར་ ra- དབང་ dbaṅ- ཆ་ cha- འདྲ་ ’dra- མཏམ་ mtam- འབད་ ’bad- སྒྱེཝ་ sgyew- ལས་ las- ག་ ga- ར་ ra- གིས་ gis- གཅིག་ Phonation The term phonation has slightly different meanings depending on

172-633: A more distant relationship to Standard Tibetan . Spoken Dzongkha and Tibetan are around 50 to 80 percent mutually intelligible . Dzongkha and its dialects are the native tongue of eight western districts of Bhutan ( viz. Wangdue Phodrang , Punakha , Thimphu , Gasa , Paro , Ha , Dagana and Chukha ). There are also some native speakers near the Indian town of Kalimpong , once part of Bhutan but now in North Bengal , and in Sikkim . Dzongkha

215-448: A partially lax phonation called breathy voice or murmured voice (transcribed in IPA with a subscript umlaut ◌̤ ), while Burmese has vowels with a partially tense phonation called creaky voice or laryngealized voice (transcribed in IPA with a subscript tilde ◌̰ ). The Jalapa dialect of Mazatec is unusual in contrasting both with modal voice in a three-way distinction. (Mazatec

258-455: A voiceless one. For the pairs of English stops , however, the distinction is better specified as voice onset time rather than simply voice: In initial position, /b d g/ are only partially voiced (voicing begins during the hold of the consonant), and /p t k/ are aspirated (voicing begins only well after its release). Certain English morphemes have voiced and voiceless allomorphs , such as:

301-408: Is voiceless phonation, and is extremely common with obstruents . If the arytenoids are pressed together for glottal closure , the vocal cords block the airstream, producing stop sounds such as the glottal stop . In between there is a sweet spot of maximum vibration. Also, the existence of an optimal glottal shape for ease of phonation has been shown, at which the lung pressure required to initiate

344-513: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Dzongkha The word dzongkha means "the language of the fortress", from dzong "fortress" and kha "language". As of 2013 , Dzongkha had 171,080 native speakers and about 640,000 total speakers. Dzongkha is a South Tibetic language . It is closely related to Laya and Lunana and partially intelligible with Sikkimese , and to some other Bhutanese languages such as Chocha Ngacha , Brokpa , Brokkat and Lakha . It has

387-551: Is a tonal language, so the glottis is making several tonal distinctions simultaneously with the phonation distinctions.) Javanese does not have modal voice in its stops , but contrasts two other points along the phonation scale, with more moderate departures from modal voice, called slack voice and stiff voice . The "muddy" consonants in Shanghainese are slack voice; they contrast with tenuis and aspirated consonants. Although each language may be somewhat different, it

430-482: Is also affected by the pressure drop across the larynx, which is mostly affected by the pressure in the lungs, and will also vary with the distance between the vocal folds. Variation in fundamental frequency is used linguistically to produce intonation and tone . There are currently two main theories as to how vibration of the vocal folds is initiated: the myoelastic theory and the aerodynamic theory . These two theories are not in contention with one another and it

473-456: Is based on the Bernoulli energy law in fluids . The theory states that when a stream of breath is flowing through the glottis while the arytenoid cartilages are held together (by the action of the interarytenoid muscles), a push-pull effect is created on the vocal fold tissues that maintains self-sustained oscillation. The push occurs during glottal opening, when the glottis is convergent, and

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516-408: Is called the phonation threshold pressure (PTP), and for humans with normal vocal folds, it is approximately 2–3 cm H 2 O. The motion of the vocal folds during oscillation is mostly lateral, though there is also some superior component as well. However, there is almost no motion along the length of the vocal folds. The oscillation of the vocal folds serves to modulate the pressure and flow of

559-565: Is common; indeed, in Australian languages it is nearly universal. In phonology , a register is a combination of tone and vowel phonation into a single phonological parameter. For example, among its vowels, Burmese combines modal voice with low tone, breathy voice with falling tone, creaky voice with high tone, and glottal closure with high tone. These four registers contrast with each other, but no other combination of phonation (modal, breath, creak, closed) and tone (high, low, falling)

602-406: Is convenient to classify these degrees of phonation into discrete categories. A series of seven alveolar stops, with phonations ranging from an open/lax to a closed/tense glottis, are: The IPA diacritics under-ring and subscript wedge , commonly called "voiceless" and "voiced", are sometimes added to the symbol for a voiced sound to indicate more lax/open (slack) and tense/closed (stiff) states of

645-411: Is found. Among vocal pedagogues and speech pathologists, a vocal register also refers to a particular phonation limited to a particular range of pitch , which possesses a characteristic sound quality. The term "register" may be used for several distinct aspects of the human voice: Four combinations of these elements are identified in speech pathology: the vocal fry register , the modal register ,

688-785: Is heard in many productions of French oui! , and the "voiceless" vowels of many North American languages are actually whispered. It has long been noted that in many languages, both phonologically and historically, the glottal consonants [ʔ, ɦ, h] do not behave like other consonants. Phonetically, they have no manner or place of articulation other than the state of the glottis: glottal closure for [ʔ] , breathy voice for [ɦ] , and open airstream for [h] . Some phoneticians have described these sounds as neither glottal nor consonantal, but instead as instances of pure phonation, at least in many European languages. However, in Semitic languages they do appear to be true glottal consonants. In

731-434: Is no phonation during its occurrence. In speech, voiceless phones are associated with vocal folds that are elongated, highly tensed, and placed laterally (abducted) when compared to vocal folds during phonation. Fundamental frequency, the main acoustic cue for the percept pitch , can be varied through a variety of means. Large scale changes are accomplished by increasing the tension in the vocal folds through contraction of

774-471: Is often elided and results in the preceding vowel nasalized and prolonged, especially word-finally. Syllable-final /k/ is most often omitted when word-final as well, unless in formal speech. In literary pronunciation, liquids /r/ and /l/ may also end a syllable. Though rare, /ɕ/ is also found in syllable-final positions. No other consonants are found in syllable-final positions. Many words in Dzongkha are monosyllabic . Syllables usually take

817-412: Is quite possible that both theories are true and operating simultaneously to initiate and maintain vibration. A third theory, the neurochronaxic theory , was in considerable vogue in the 1950s, but has since been largely discredited. The myoelastic theory states that when the vocal cords are brought together and breath pressure is applied to them, the cords remain closed until the pressure beneath them,

860-500: Is still poorly understood. However, at least two supra-glottal phonations appear to be widespread in the world's languages. These are harsh voice ('ventricular' or 'pressed' voice), which involves overall constriction of the larynx, and faucalized voice ('hollow' or 'yawny' voice), which involves overall expansion of the larynx. The Bor dialect of Dinka has contrastive modal, breathy, faucalized, and harsh voice in its vowels, as well as three tones. The ad hoc diacritics employed in

903-400: Is usually a trill [ r ] or a fricative trill [ r̝ ] , and is voiceless in the onsets of high-tone syllables. /t, tʰ, ts, tsʰ, s/ are dental . Descriptions of the palatal affricates and fricatives vary from alveolo-palatal to plain palatal. Only a few consonants are found in syllable-final positions. Most common among them are /m, n, p/ . Syllable-final /ŋ/

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946-587: Is usually written in Bhutanese forms of the Uchen script , forms of the Tibetan script known as Jôyi "cursive longhand" and Jôtshum "formal longhand". The print form is known simply as Tshûm . There are various systems of romanization and transliteration for Dzongkha, but none accurately represents its phonetic sound. The Bhutanese government adopted a transcription system known as Roman Dzongkha , devised by

989-505: The Toto in the west. The Doya trace their descent matrilineally , marry their cross cousins , and embalm the deceased who are then placed in a foetal position in a circular sarcophagus above the ground. They follow a blend of Tibetan Buddhism mixed with animism . This article about Bhutan is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article about an ethnic group in Asia

1032-405: The cricothyroid muscle . Smaller changes in tension can be effected by contraction of the thyroarytenoid muscle or changes in the relative position of the thyroid and cricoid cartilages , as may occur when the larynx is lowered or raised, either volitionally or through movement of the tongue to which the larynx is attached via the hyoid bone. In addition to tension changes, fundamental frequency

1075-438: The larynx that modifies the airstream, of which voicing is just one example. Voiceless and supra-glottal phonations are included under this definition. The phonatory process, or voicing, occurs when air is expelled from the lungs through the glottis , creating a pressure drop across the larynx. When this drop becomes sufficiently large, the vocal folds start to oscillate. The minimum pressure drop required to achieve phonation

1118-419: The source–filter theory , the resulting sound excites the resonance chamber that is the vocal tract to produce the individual speech sounds. The vocal folds will not oscillate if they are not sufficiently close to one another, are not under sufficient tension or under too much tension, or if the pressure drop across the larynx is not sufficiently large. In linguistics, a phone is called voiceless if there

1161-408: The air through the larynx, and this modulated airflow is the main component of the sound of most voiced phones . The sound that the larynx produces is a harmonic series . In other words, it consists of a fundamental tone (called the fundamental frequency, the main acoustic cue for the percept pitch ) accompanied by harmonic overtones, which are multiples of the fundamental frequency. According to

1204-523: The folds apart and the flow starts up again, causing the cycles to repeat. The textbook entitled Myoelastic Aerodynamic Theory of Phonation by Ingo Titze credits Janwillem van den Berg as the originator of the theory and provides detailed mathematical development of the theory. This theory states that the frequency of the vocal fold vibration is determined by the chronaxie of the recurrent nerve, and not by breath pressure or muscular tension. Advocates of this theory thought that every single vibration of

1247-486: The form of CVC, CV, or VC. Syllables with complex onsets are also found, but such an onset must be a combination of an unaspirated bilabial stop and a palatal affricate. The bilabial stops in complex onsets are often omitted in colloquial speech. Dzongkha is considered a South Tibetic language . It is closely related to and partially intelligible with Sikkimese , and to some other Bhutanese languages such as Chocha Ngacha , Brokpa , Brokkat and Lakha . Dzongkha bears

1290-620: The glottis, respectively. (Ironically, adding the 'voicing' diacritic to the symbol for a voiced consonant indicates less modal voicing, not more, because a modally voiced sound is already fully voiced, at its sweet spot, and any further tension in the vocal cords dampens their vibration.) Alsatian , like several Germanic languages, has a typologically unusual phonation in its stops. The consonants transcribed /b̥/, /d̥/, /ɡ̊/ (ambiguously called "lenis") are partially voiced: The vocal cords are positioned as for voicing, but do not actually vibrate. That is, they are technically voiceless, but without

1333-416: The last few decades it has become apparent that phonation may involve the entire larynx, with as many as six valves and muscles working either independently or together. From the glottis upward, these articulations are: Until the development of fiber-optic laryngoscopy , the full involvement of the larynx during speech production was not observable, and the interactions among the six laryngeal articulators

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1376-479: The linguist George van Driem , as its standard in 1991. Dzongkha is a tonal language and has two register tones: high and low. The tone of a syllable determines the allophone of the onset and the phonation type of the nuclear vowel. All consonants may begin a syllable. In the onsets of low-tone syllables, consonants are voiced . Aspirated consonants (indicated by the superscript h ), /ɬ/ , and /h/ are not found in low-tone syllables. The rhotic /r/

1419-1030: The literature are a subscript double quotation mark for faucalized voice, [a͈] , and underlining for harsh voice, [a̠] . Examples are, Other languages with these contrasts are Bai (modal, breathy, and harsh voice), Kabiye (faucalized and harsh voice, previously seen as ±ATR ), Somali (breathy and harsh voice). Elements of laryngeal articulation or phonation may occur widely in the world's languages as phonetic detail even when not phonemically contrastive. For example, simultaneous glottal, ventricular, and arytenoid activity (for something other than epiglottal consonants ) has been observed in Tibetan , Korean , Nuuchahnulth , Nlaka'pamux , Thai , Sui , Amis , Pame , Arabic , Tigrinya , Cantonese , and Yi . In languages such as French and Portuguese , all obstruents occur in pairs, one modally voiced and one voiceless: [b] [d] [g] [v] [z] [ʒ] → [p] [t] [k] [f] [s] [ʃ]. In English , every voiced fricative corresponds to

1462-492: The open glottis usually associated with voiceless stops. They contrast with both modally voiced /b, d, ɡ/ and modally voiceless /p, t, k/ in French borrowings, as well as aspirated /kʰ/ word initially. If the arytenoid cartiledges are parted to admit turbulent airflow, the result is whisper phonation if the vocal folds are adducted, and whispery voice phonation (murmur) if the vocal folds vibrate modally. Whisper phonation

1505-408: The plural, verbal, and possessive endings spelled -s (voiced in kids /kɪdz/ but voiceless in kits /kɪts/ ), and the past-tense ending spelled -ed (voiced in buzzed /bʌzd/ but voiceless in fished /fɪʃt/ ). A few European languages, such as Finnish , have no phonemically voiced obstruents but pairs of long and short consonants instead. Outside Europe, the lack of voicing distinctions

1548-416: The pull occurs during glottal closing, when the glottis is divergent. Such an effect causes a transfer of energy from the airflow to the vocal fold tissues which overcomes losses by dissipation and sustain the oscillation. The amount of lung pressure needed to begin phonation is defined by Titze as the oscillation threshold pressure. During glottal closure, the air flow is cut off until breath pressure pushes

1591-458: The subfield of phonetics . Among some phoneticians, phonation is the process by which the vocal folds produce certain sounds through quasi-periodic vibration. This is the definition used among those who study laryngeal anatomy and physiology and speech production in general. Phoneticians in other subfields, such as linguistic phonetics, call this process voicing , and use the term phonation to refer to any oscillatory state of any part of

1634-437: The subglottic pressure, is sufficient to push them apart, allowing air to escape and reducing the pressure enough for the muscle tension recoil to pull the folds back together again. The pressure builds up once again until the cords are pushed apart, and the whole cycle keeps repeating itself. The rate at which the cords open and close, the number of cycles per second, determines the pitch of the phonation. The aerodynamic theory

1677-446: The vocal cord vibration is minimum. This is modal voice , and is the normal state for vowels and sonorants in all the world's languages. However, the aperture of the arytenoid cartilages, and therefore the tension in the vocal cords, is one of degree between the end points of open and closed, and there are several intermediate situations utilized by various languages to make contrasting sounds. For example, Gujarati has vowels with

1720-643: The vocal folds was due to an impulse from the recurrent laryngeal nerves and that the acoustic center in the brain regulated the speed of vocal fold vibration. Speech and voice scientists have long since abandoned this theory as the muscles have been shown to not be able to contract fast enough to accomplish the vibration. In addition, persons with paralyzed vocal folds can produce phonation, which would not be possible according to this theory. Phonation occurring in excised larynges would also not be possible according to this theory. In linguistic phonetic treatments of phonation, such as those of Peter Ladefoged , phonation

1763-426: Was considered to be a matter of points on a continuum of tension and closure of the vocal cords. More intricate mechanisms were occasionally described, but they were difficult to investigate, and until recently the state of the glottis and phonation were considered to be nearly synonymous. If the vocal cords are completely relaxed, with the arytenoid cartilages apart for maximum airflow, the cords do not vibrate. This

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1806-522: Was declared the national language of Bhutan in 1971. Dzongkha study is mandatory in all schools, and the language is the lingua franca in the districts to the south and east where it is not the mother tongue. The Bhutanese films Travellers and Magicians (2003) and Lunana: A Yak in the Classroom (2019) are in Dzongkha. The Tibetan script used to write Dzongkha has thirty basic letters , sometimes known as "radicals", for consonants . Dzongkha

1849-439: Was used as the language of education in Bhutan until the early 1960s when it was replaced by Dzongkha in public schools. Although descended from Classical Tibetan, Dzongkha shows a great many irregularities in sound changes that make the official spelling and standard pronunciation more distant from each other than is the case with Standard Tibetan. "Traditional orthography and modern phonology are two distinct systems operating by

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