Misplaced Pages

#667332

103-488: There is one source of acid mine drainage in the watershed of Little Nescopeck Creek: the Jeddo Tunnel. Major roads in the creek's watershed include Interstate 80, Pennsylvania Route 93, and Pennsylvania Route 309. Additionally, wetlands occur in the drainage basin. The watershed of the creek was inhabited by 8000 B.C.E. However, European settlers did not arrive until the 18th century. The Sugarloaf Massacre occurred near

206-579: A Gilman reagent . These can undergo substitution with alkyl halides to form coupling products ; as such, they are important in the field of organic synthesis . Copper(I) acetylide is highly shock-sensitive but is an intermediate in reactions such as the Cadiot–Chodkiewicz coupling and the Sonogashira coupling . Conjugate addition to enones and carbocupration of alkynes can also be achieved with organocopper compounds. Copper(I) forms

309-696: A covalent character and are relatively weak. This observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of copper. At the macroscopic scale, introduction of extended defects to the crystal lattice , such as grain boundaries, hinders flow of the material under applied stress, thereby increasing its hardness. For this reason, copper is usually supplied in a fine-grained polycrystalline form, which has greater strength than monocrystalline forms. The softness of copper partly explains its high electrical conductivity ( 59.6 × 10   S /m ) and high thermal conductivity, second highest (second only to silver) among pure metals at room temperature. This

412-643: A nickel ) consists of 75% copper and 25% nickel in homogeneous composition. Prior to the introduction of cupronickel, which was widely adopted by countries in the latter half of the 20th century, alloys of copper and silver were also used, with the United States using an alloy of 90% silver and 10% copper until 1965, when circulating silver was removed from all coins with the exception of the half dollar—these were debased to an alloy of 40% silver and 60% copper between 1965 and 1970. The alloy of 90% copper and 10% nickel, remarkable for its resistance to corrosion,

515-425: A spin of 3 ⁄ 2 . The other isotopes are radioactive , with the most stable being Cu with a half-life of 61.83 hours. Seven metastable isomers have been characterized; Cu is the longest-lived with a half-life of 3.8 minutes. Isotopes with a mass number above 64 decay by β , whereas those with a mass number below 64 decay by β . Cu , which has

618-598: A Lenni Lenape word meaning "deep black river". In 1995, a $ 50,000 grant was given to the Wildlands Conservancy to improve the water quality of Little Nescopeck Creek. Since the beginning of the 21st century, traffic in the Little Nescopeck Creek watershed has multiplied fourfold. The Environmental Protection Agency has established five sites along Little Nescopeck Creek. They are called LNESC5, LNESC6, LNESC7, and LNESC9. The last of these

721-399: A blast furnace. A potential source of copper is polymetallic nodules, which have an estimated concentration 1.3%. Like aluminium , copper is recyclable without any loss of quality, both from raw state and from manufactured products. In volume, copper is the third most recycled metal after iron and aluminium. An estimated 80% of all copper ever mined is still in use today. According to

824-464: A blue crystalline penta hydrate , the most familiar copper compound in the laboratory. It is used in a fungicide called the Bordeaux mixture . Polyols , compounds containing more than one alcohol functional group , generally interact with cupric salts. For example, copper salts are used to test for reducing sugars . Specifically, using Benedict's reagent and Fehling's solution the presence of

927-613: A few months later, and again in returns the following year, as substitutes (volunteers, not drafted) in Captain William Moyer's (father of Lieutenant John Moyer) company of militia and again a year later, in 1783. Peter Crum lived long enough to file a pension in 1833. It is likely that Van Etten did not know who had been killed (his company was spread over two dozen miles, east to west, along frontier forts in Northampton County) or these men had deserted after

1030-400: A few tenths of a mile before turning west-northwest as its valley broadens. The creek crosses Pennsylvania Route 309 before turning west-southwest after more than a mile. It then turns west-southwest for several miles, crossing Interstate 81 and entering Sugarloaf Township, where it flows along the base of Butler Mountain. In Sugarloaf Township, the creek turns northwest for several tenths of

1133-457: A green patina of compounds called verdigris . Copper is sometimes used in decorative art , both in its elemental metal form and in compounds as pigments. Copper compounds are used as bacteriostatic agents , fungicides , and wood preservatives . Copper is essential to all living organisms as a trace dietary mineral because it is a key constituent of the respiratory enzyme complex cytochrome c oxidase . In molluscs and crustaceans , copper

SECTION 10

#1732793589668

1236-505: A half-life of 12.7 hours, decays both ways. Cu and Cu have significant applications. Cu is used in Cu Cu-PTSM as a radioactive tracer for positron emission tomography . Copper is produced in massive stars and is present in the Earth's crust in a proportion of about 50 parts per million (ppm). In nature, copper occurs in

1339-687: A layer of brown-black copper oxide which, unlike the rust that forms on iron in moist air, protects the underlying metal from further corrosion ( passivation ). A green layer of verdigris (copper carbonate) can often be seen on old copper structures, such as the roofing of many older buildings and the Statue of Liberty . Copper tarnishes when exposed to some sulfur compounds, with which it reacts to form various copper sulfides . There are 29 isotopes of copper. Cu and Cu are stable, with Cu comprising approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper; both have

1442-402: A mile, passing through Conyngham before turning north. Several tenths of a mile further downstream, it reaches its confluence with Nescopeck Creek. Little Nescopeck Creek joins Nescopeck Creek 19.26 miles (31.00 km) upstream of its mouth. Before the Jeddo Tunnel was constructed, Little Nescopeck Creek was around ten feet wide. However the creek it is currently around 30 to 40 feet wide. This

1545-532: A natural color other than gray or silver. Pure copper is orange-red and acquires a reddish tarnish when exposed to air. This is due to the low plasma frequency of the metal, which lies in the red part of the visible spectrum, causing it to absorb the higher-frequency green and blue colors. As with other metals, if copper is put in contact with another metal in the presence of an electrolyte , galvanic corrosion will occur. Copper does not react with water, but it does slowly react with atmospheric oxygen to form

1648-429: A number of aquatic plants in Little Nescopeck Creek. These include bulrush , pondweed , duckweed , waterweed , and some types of algae , all of which are typical for a stream in the eastern United States. The forest around the creek's headwaters are composed mostly of oak and hickory. Little Nescopeck Creek's riparian zone has survived to date due to conservation efforts of the local community. The narrowest area of

1751-490: A number of non-metallic pollutants in the Little Nescopeck Creek watershed. Ammonia is one such pollutant, although the Jeddo Tunnel contributes little to the creek. There is also phosphorus and nitrite in the creek, but the tunnel does not contribute a measurable amount of such compounds. In three different sites on Little Nescopeck Creek downstream of the Jeddo Tunnel, the daily load of aluminum passing through ranges from 2,871 to 3,175 pounds (1,302 to 1,440 kg). In

1854-574: A number of trails in the watershed. Some of these date back to Native American times. There are also a number of outlooks in the creek's watershed. There is some kayak traffic on the creek during the spring. There is a 24-acre area of fields and woodlands known as the Bishop Tract; a portion of this tract is along Little Nescopeck Creek. 41°00′40″N 75°59′19″W  /  41.01121°N 75.98862°W  / 41.01121; -75.98862 Sugarloaf Massacre The Sugarloaf massacre

1957-407: A red-brown precipitate with copper(II) salts. Compounds that contain a carbon-copper bond are known as organocopper compounds. They are very reactive towards oxygen to form copper(I) oxide and have many uses in chemistry . They are synthesized by treating copper(I) compounds with Grignard reagents , terminal alkynes or organolithium reagents ; in particular, the last reaction described produces

2060-452: A restoration. Near the creek's headwaters there are sunfish , brook trout and brown trout and bass . The brown trout and brook trout are native. In 1998, a total of 56 fish over eight different taxa were discovered upstream of the Jeddo Tunnel. The most common species were creek chub and white sucker . One brook trout was discovered in the creek. Upstream of the Jeddo Tunnel, there are also turtle and salamander populations. There are

2163-451: A rich variety of compounds, usually with oxidation states +1 and +2, which are often called cuprous and cupric , respectively. Copper compounds promote or catalyse numerous chemical and biological processes. As with other elements, the simplest compounds of copper are binary compounds, i.e. those containing only two elements, the principal examples being oxides, sulfides, and halides . Both cuprous and cupric oxides are known. Among

SECTION 20

#1732793589668

2266-408: A total of 14 species of amphibians in the watershed. Of these, ten species breed in the watershed. There are also a total of eight species of reptiles in the watershed. They consist of two turtles and six snakes. Only the two turtles breed in the watershed. Additionally, there are more than 50 species of birds in the watershed. The most common large game animal in the Little Nescopeck Creek watershed

2369-424: A variety of minerals, including native copper , copper sulfides such as chalcopyrite , bornite , digenite , covellite , and chalcocite , copper sulfosalts such as tetrahedite-tennantite , and enargite , copper carbonates such as azurite and malachite , and as copper(I) or copper(II) oxides such as cuprite and tenorite , respectively. The largest mass of elemental copper discovered weighed 420 tonnes and

2472-436: A variety of weak complexes with alkenes and carbon monoxide , especially in the presence of amine ligands. Copper(III) is most often found in oxides. A simple example is potassium cuprate , KCuO 2 , a blue-black solid. The most extensively studied copper(III) compounds are the cuprate superconductors . Yttrium barium copper oxide (YBa 2 Cu 3 O 7 ) consists of both Cu(II) and Cu(III) centres. Like oxide, fluoride

2575-575: Is 2.6 pounds (1.2 kg). The elevation near the mouth of Little Nescopeck Creek is 860 feet (260 m) above sea level . The elevation of the creek's source is between 1,420 and 1,440 feet (430 and 440 m) above sea level. The creek is in the ridge and valley physiographic province. Little Nescopeck Creek is mostly situated on top of the Mauch Chunk Formation , a Mississippian period rock that consists of shale , conglomerate , and coarse gray sandstone . Areas containing

2678-603: Is a chemical element ; it has symbol Cu (from Latin cuprum ) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity . A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-orange color . Copper is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, as a building material , and as a constituent of various metal alloys , such as sterling silver used in jewelry , cupronickel used to make marine hardware and coins , and constantan used in strain gauges and thermocouples for temperature measurement. Copper

2781-583: Is a constituent of the blood pigment hemocyanin , replaced by the iron-complexed hemoglobin in fish and other vertebrates . In humans, copper is found mainly in the liver, muscle, and bone. The adult body contains between 1.4 and 2.1 mg of copper per kilogram of body weight. In the Roman era , copper was mined principally on Cyprus , the origin of the name of the metal, from aes cyprium (metal of Cyprus), later corrupted to cuprum (Latin). Coper ( Old English ) and copper were derived from this,

2884-405: Is a highly basic anion and is known to stabilize metal ions in high oxidation states. Both copper(III) and even copper(IV) fluorides are known, K 3 CuF 6 and Cs 2 CuF 6 , respectively. Some copper proteins form oxo complexes , which, in extensively studied synthetic analog systems, feature copper(III). With tetrapeptides , purple-colored copper(III) complexes are stabilized by

2987-455: Is also ten times wider than the creek was in the early 18th century. However, other factors besides the Jeddo Tunnel, such as discharges from sewage treatment plants and an increase in storm water runoff have also contributed to the widening of the creek. Plans to fix the pollution of Little Nescopeck Creek via the Jeddo Tunnel include reducing the tunnel's discharge and the construction of wetlands . Little Nescopeck Creek's discharge upstream of

3090-401: Is because the resistivity to electron transport in metals at room temperature originates primarily from scattering of electrons on thermal vibrations of the lattice, which are relatively weak in a soft metal. The maximum possible current density of copper in open air is approximately 3.1 × 10  A/m , above which it begins to heat excessively. Copper is one of a few metallic elements with

3193-511: Is difficult to confirm. The earliest and best source, Lieutenant Colonel Stephen Balliet, reported that ten men were buried. Samuel Rea, the County Lieutenant of Northampton County, indicated that Balliet's numbers were probably the most accurate: "Col. Baliort [Balliet] informs me that he had Given Council a relation of the killed and wounded he had found Burned near Neskipeki as he was at the place of action his Accts must be as near

Little Nescopeck Creek - Misplaced Pages Continue

3296-533: Is melted in a furnace and then reduced and cast into billets and ingots ; lower-purity scrap is refined by electroplating in a bath of sulfuric acid . The environmental cost of copper mining was estimated at 3.7 kg CO2eq per kg of copper in 2019. Codelco, a major producer in Chile, reported that in 2020 the company emitted 2.8t CO2eq per ton (2.8 kg CO2eq per kg) of fine copper. Greenhouse gas emissions primarily arise from electricity consumed by

3399-542: Is near where the creek turns northward, but there is also one not far from its headwaters. The watershed of Little Nescopeck Creek has an area of 14.0 square miles (36 km). The mouth of the creek is in the United States Geological Survey quadrangle of Sybertsville. The watershed extends over Sugarloaf Township , Butler Township, Conyngham , and an extremely small part of Hazle Township . The communities of Drums and Kis-Lyn are also in

3502-762: Is one of the few metals that can occur in nature in a directly usable metallic form ( native metals ). This led to very early human use in several regions, from c.  8000 BC . Thousands of years later, it was the first metal to be smelted from sulfide ores, c.  5000 BC ; the first metal to be cast into a shape in a mold, c.  4000 BC ; and the first metal to be purposely alloyed with another metal, tin , to create bronze , c.  3500 BC . Commonly encountered compounds are copper(II) salts, which often impart blue or green colors to such minerals as azurite , malachite , and turquoise , and have been used widely and historically as pigments. Copper used in buildings, usually for roofing, oxidizes to form

3605-444: Is one of the most important constituents of silver and karat gold solders used in the jewelry industry, modifying the color, hardness and melting point of the resulting alloys. Some lead-free solders consist of tin alloyed with a small proportion of copper and other metals. The alloy of copper and nickel , called cupronickel , is used in low-denomination coins, often for the outer cladding. The US five-cent coin (currently called

3708-437: Is recovered from mine tailings and heaps. A variety of methods are used including leaching with sulfuric acid, ammonia, ferric chloride. Biological methods are also used. A significant source of copper is from recycling. Recycling is facilitated because copper is usually deployed in its metallic state. In 2001, a typical automobile contained 20–30 kg of copper. Recycling usually begins with some melting process using

3811-566: Is the white-tailed deer . Cottontail rabbits are also common in the watershed, especially in the areas devoted to farming. Beavers , raccoons , and muskrats are the most common fur-bearing animals in the watershed. The macroinvertebrates in the area of Little Nescopeck Creek include five species of flies , five species of caddisflies , four species of mayflies , three species of stone flies , two species of alder flies , two species of beetles , one species of gastropod , and one species of sow bug . There are 30 species of butterflies on

3914-437: Is upstream of the Jeddo Tunnel, but the other sites are downstream of the tunnel. The drainage basin of Little Nescopeck Creek is designated as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery. However, downstream of the Jeddo Tunnel there is no aquatic life. Although there are plans to restore the fish population on the creek, such plans are impossible to carry out in the near future, due to the expense that would be required for such

4017-411: Is used for various objects exposed to seawater, though it is vulnerable to the sulfides sometimes found in polluted harbors and estuaries. Alloys of copper with aluminium (about 7%) have a golden color and are used in decorations. Shakudō is a Japanese decorative alloy of copper containing a low percentage of gold, typically 4–10%, that can be patinated to a dark blue or black color. Copper forms

4120-686: The British Geological Survey , in 2005, Chile was the top producer of copper with at least one-third of the world share followed by the United States, Indonesia and Peru. Copper can also be recovered through the in-situ leach process. Several sites in the state of Arizona are considered prime candidates for this method. The amount of copper in use is increasing and the quantity available is barely sufficient to allow all countries to reach developed world levels of usage. An alternative source of copper for collection currently being researched are polymetallic nodules , which are located at

4223-463: The Chesapeake Bay . The creek's watershed consists mostly of farmland and suburbs. However, there are also some woodlands and riparian buffers . The major highways in the Little Nescopeck Creek watershed are Interstate 80 , Pennsylvania Route 93 , and Pennsylvania Route 309 . There are a number of different types of wetlands in the Little Nescopeck Creek watershed. One type of wetland is

Little Nescopeck Creek - Misplaced Pages Continue

4326-607: The Great Lakes may have also been mining copper during this time, making it one of the oldest known examples of copper extraction in the world. There is evidence from prehistoric lead pollution from lakes in Michigan that people in the region began mining copper c.  6000 BC . Evidence suggests that utilitarian copper objects fell increasingly out of use in the Old Copper Complex of North America during

4429-553: The International Resource Panel 's Metal Stocks in Society report , the global per capita stock of copper in use in society is 35–55 kg. Much of this is in more-developed countries (140–300 kg per capita) rather than less-developed countries (30–40 kg per capita). The process of recycling copper is roughly the same as is used to extract copper but requires fewer steps. High-purity scrap copper

4532-726: The Neolithic period and the Bronze Age was formerly termed the Chalcolithic period (copper-stone), when copper tools were used with stone tools. The term has gradually fallen out of favor because in some parts of the world, the Chalcolithic and Neolithic are coterminous at both ends. Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, is of much more recent origin. It was known to the Greeks, but became a significant supplement to bronze during

4635-531: The Susquehanna River and went to Sugarloaf Valley in southwestern Luzerne County. The men of the volunteer detachment had just sat down to eat dinner on September 11, 1780, according to survivor Peter Crum, when the Loyalists and Natives started firing muskets at them. Ten militiamen were killed, according to Lieutenant Colonel Stephen Balliet, who had gone with a small force of 150 militia to bury

4738-525: The Vinča culture date to 4500 BC. Sumerian and Egyptian artifacts of copper and bronze alloys date to 3000 BC. Egyptian Blue , or cuprorivaite (calcium copper silicate) is a synthetic pigment that contains copper and started being used in ancient Egypt around 3250 BC. The manufacturing process of Egyptian blue was known to the Romans, but by the fourth century AD the pigment fell out of use and

4841-746: The mountain starwort , which is critically endangered in Pennsylvania. There are few opportunities for activities in Little Nescopeck Creek itself, such as swimming and boating. However, there are some golf courses , public parks , and rail-trails within the creek's watershed. The four golf courses are the Sugarloaf Golf Course, the Sand Springs Golf Course, the Edgewood in the Pines Golf Course, and

4944-548: The 9th or 10th century AD. Carbon dating has established mining at Alderley Edge in Cheshire , UK, at 2280 to 1890 BC. Ötzi the Iceman , a male dated from 3300 to 3200 BC, was found with an axe with a copper head 99.7% pure; high levels of arsenic in his hair suggest an involvement in copper smelting. Experience with copper has assisted the development of other metals; in particular, copper smelting likely led to

5047-781: The British during the American Revolutionary War , and a detachment of 41 of Van Etten's men headed to Northumberland to investigate these settlements in 1780. They were placed under the command of Lieutenants Moyer and Fish, and they left Northampton County in the beginning of September 1780 from Fort Allen and headed into Sugarloaf Valley to search for Loyalist sympathizers and spies. On September 6, approximately 250 to 300 Native warriors and Loyalist soldiers arrived at Fort Rice , near Chillisquaque Creek in Lewis Township, Northumberland County . They attacked

5150-517: The Bronze Age and a shift towards an increased production of ornamental copper objects occurred. Natural bronze, a type of copper made from ores rich in silicon, arsenic, and (rarely) tin, came into general use in the Balkans around 5500 BC. Alloying copper with tin to make bronze was first practiced about 4000 years after the discovery of copper smelting, and about 2000 years after "natural bronze" had come into general use. Bronze artifacts from

5253-749: The Iroquois and settlers was one of the contributing factors to the events of the Sugarloaf Massacre. In 1780, there were a large number of attacks by Natives in the vicinity where the massacre took place, including an attempted attack on Moses Van Campen . On June 15, 1780, a group of militia in Northampton were commissioned to serve for seven months, led by Captain Johannes Van Etten. The communities of Bloomsburg and Catawissa were home to large numbers of Loyalists who aided

SECTION 50

#1732793589668

5356-433: The Jeddo Tunnel but 519 micrograms per liter downstream of the tunnel. The calcium average concentration above the tunnel is 16.2 milligrams per liter. The average calcium concentration below the tunnel is 32.5 milligrams per liter. There are between 10 and 36 micrograms per liter of copper in nine different sites in and near Little Nescopeck Creek. There are between 1 and 3.3 micrograms per liter of lead at these sites on

5459-408: The Jeddo Tunnel is 2.18 cubic feet per second. Downstream of the tunnel, the discharge is 60.02 cubic feet per second. The creek's specific conductance upstream of the Jeddo Tunnel is 178.3 micromhos per centimeter. Downstream of the tunnel, the specific conductance is 446.13 micromhos per centimeter. The average level of precipitation in the Little Nescopeck Creek watershed between 1932 and 1998

5562-415: The Jeddo Tunnel, the manganese concentration of the water of Little Nescopeck Creek averages around 108 micrograms per liter. Downstream of the tunnel, the average manganese concentration is 3320 micrograms per liter. Upstream of the tunnel, the average aluminum concentration is under 200 micrograms per liter. Downstream of the tunnel, the average aluminum concentration is 7470 micrograms per liter. Upstream of

5665-607: The Loyalist and Native forces while burying the dead, as Balliet went on to report: "We also have great Reason to beleve that several of the Indians have been killed by our men, in Particular one by Col. Kern & an other by Capt. Moyer both of whome went Volunteers with this partie." Most of the militiamen escaped, with Lieutenant John Moyer, Ensign Scoby, and an unnamed private taken prisoner. Moyer managed to escape, but

5768-571: The Mauch Chunk Formation in the watershed include the bottom of the Little Nescopeck Creek valley and Nescopeck Mountain. The Pottsville Formation is another formation in the creek's watershed. It consists of coarse sandstone, gray quartz conglomerate, and shale with some coal . The Pottsville Formation is found in small amounts on Nescopeck Mountain. There is no coal in the watershed of Little Nescopeck Creek. The watershed has never been mined. There are several main types of soil in

5871-541: The Middle East; a copper pendant was found in northern Iraq that dates to 8700 BC. Evidence suggests that gold and meteoric iron (but not smelted iron) were the only metals used by humans before copper. The history of copper metallurgy is thought to follow this sequence: first, cold working of native copper, then annealing , smelting , and, finally, lost-wax casting . In southeastern Anatolia , all four of these techniques appear more or less simultaneously at

5974-484: The Ridge-and-Valley province. Resident deciduous trees in the watershed include five species of oak , one species of cherry , five species of maple , one species of walnut , two species of hickory , and four species of birch , two species of dogwood , and one species each of basswood , poplar , ash , and beech . All but four of these trees are found in the creek's riparian zone . Coniferous trees in

6077-521: The affected areas is highly acidic, with a pH range of 2.1–4.9, and shows elevated electrical conductivity levels between 280 and 1561 mS/cm. These changes in water chemistry make the environment inhospitable for fish, essentially rendering the water uninhabitable for aquatic life. Numerous copper alloys have been formulated, many with important uses. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc . Bronze usually refers to copper- tin alloys, but can refer to any alloy of copper such as aluminium bronze . Copper

6180-541: The atmosphere; 150 mg/kg in soil; 30 mg/kg in vegetation; 2 μg/L in freshwater and 0.5 μg/L in seawater. Most copper is mined or extracted as copper sulfides from large open pit mines in porphyry copper deposits that contain 0.4 to 1.0% copper. Sites include Chuquicamata , in Chile, Bingham Canyon Mine , in Utah, United States, and El Chino Mine , in New Mexico, United States. According to

6283-766: The beginning of the Neolithic c.  7500 BC . Copper smelting was independently invented in different places. The earliest evidence of lost-wax casting copper comes from an amulet found in Mehrgarh , Pakistan, and is dated to 4000 BC. Investment casting was invented in 4500–4000 BC in Southeast Asia Smelting was probably discovered in China before 2800 BC, in Central America around 600 AD, and in West Africa about

SECTION 60

#1732793589668

6386-531: The company, especially when sourced from fossil fuels, and from engines required for copper extraction and refinement. Companies that mine land often mismanage waste, rendering the area sterile for life. Additionally, nearby rivers and forests are also negatively impacted. The Philippines is an example of a region where land is overexploited by mining companies. Copper mining waste in Valea Şesei, Romania, has significantly altered nearby water properties. The water in

6489-466: The creek in 1780. Recreational opportunities in the watershed include swimming and boating, and there are golf courses, public parks, and rail-trails in within the watershed. The watershed of Little Nescopeck Creek is designated as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery. Several fish species inhabit the creek near its headwaters, but there is no aquatic life downstream of the Jeddo Tunnel. Fourteen amphibian species and eight reptile species also inhabit

6592-462: The creek's watershed. One type of soil that is also found in the Little Nescopeck Creek watershed is the Basher Series. Along the creek near Sybertsville, this type of soil is reddish-brown and sticky to a depth of six there inches (15 centimeters). From 6 to 18 inches (15 to 45 centimeters), the soil is reddish-brown with some areas of yellowish-red. From 18 to 24 inches (45 to 60 centimeters),

6695-419: The creek. There are between 10 and 621 micrograms per liter of zinc at these sites. The average concentration of sulfates upstream of the Jeddo Tunnel is below 10 milligrams per liter, but it is 257 milligrams per liter downstream of the tunnel. The average concentration of calcium carbonate upstream of the tunnel is 33 milligrams per liter, and downstream of it, it is 272 milligrams per liter. There are also

6798-661: The dead. He wrote in his report: "On the first notice of this unfortuned event the officers of the militia have Exerted themselves to get Volunteers out of their Respective Divissions to go up & Burry the Dead, their Labour Proved not in Vain we collected about 150 men & officers Included from the Colonels Kern, Giger & my own Battalions who would undergo the fatique & Danger to go their & pay that Respect to their slautered Brethren, Due to men who fell in support of

6901-522: The deprotonated amide ligands. Complexes of copper(III) are also found as intermediates in reactions of organocopper compounds, for example in the Kharasch–Sosnovsky reaction . A timeline of copper illustrates how this metal has advanced human civilization for the past 11,000 years. Copper occurs naturally as native metallic copper and was known to some of the oldest civilizations on record. The history of copper use dates to 9000 BC in

7004-461: The depths of the Pacific Ocean approximately 3000–6500 meters below sea level. These nodules contain other valuable metals such as cobalt and nickel . Copper has been in use for at least 10,000 years, but more than 95% of all copper ever mined and smelted has been extracted since 1900. As with many natural resources, the total amount of copper on Earth is vast, with around 10 tons in

7107-563: The discovery of iron smelting . Production in the Old Copper Complex in Michigan and Wisconsin is dated between 6500 and 3000 BC. A copper spearpoint found in Wisconsin has been dated to 6500 BC. Copper usage by the indigenous peoples of the Old Copper Complex from the Great Lakes region of North America has been radiometrically dated to as far back as 7500 BC. Indigenous peoples of North America around

7210-545: The fastest water exchange rate (speed of water ligands attaching and detaching) for any transition metal aquo complex . Adding aqueous sodium hydroxide causes the precipitation of light blue solid copper(II) hydroxide . A simplified equation is: Aqueous ammonia results in the same precipitate. Upon adding excess ammonia, the precipitate dissolves, forming tetraamminecopper(II) : Many other oxyanions form complexes; these include copper(II) acetate , copper(II) nitrate , and copper(II) carbonate . Copper(II) sulfate forms

7313-483: The fort and the surrounding residences, but Colonel Hunter sent some troops from Fort Jenkins to their aid. Approximately 200 men arrived at Fort Rice, and the Loyalists and Natives dispersed. Upon retreating, these people went over Knob Mountain and a group of 30 to 40 of them went down the stream known as Cabin Run to Fort Jenkins, which they burned down, along with numerous buildings in the fort's vicinity. They then crossed

7416-516: The freedom of their Country. On the 15th we took up our line of march (want of amunation prevented us from going Sooner) on the 17th we arrived at the place of action, where we found Ten of our Soldiers Dead, Scalped, Striped Naked, & in a most cruel & Barborous manner Tomehawked, their throads Cut, &c. &c. whom we Buried & Returned without even seeing any of these Black alies, & Bloody executors of British Tirany." Balliet's burial detail apparently skirmished with some scouts from

7519-511: The later spelling first used around 1530. Copper, silver , and gold are in group 11 of the periodic table; these three metals have one s-orbital electron on top of a filled d- electron shell and are characterized by high ductility , and electrical and thermal conductivity. The filled d-shells in these elements contribute little to interatomic interactions, which are dominated by the s-electrons through metallic bonds . Unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in copper are lacking

7622-419: The level of <1% Cu. Concentration of the ore is required, which begins with comminution followed by froth flotation . The remaining concentrate is the smelted, which can be described with two simplified equations: Cuprous oxide reacts with cuprous sulfide to convert to blister copper upon heating This roasting gives matte copper, roughly 50% Cu by weight, which is purified by electrolysis. Depending on

7725-466: The massacre and returned to their farms. The number commonly believed, 15, is not sustainable according to the evidence. Thus the plaque at the site listing that many names is inaccurate. Rogan Moore asserts that a Captain Daniel Klader commanded a detachment at of 41 men at Sugarloaf. However, Thomas Verenna asserts that no historical evidence exists which places a man named Daniel Klader at

7828-718: The massacre spread the news as far as the Delaware River . In 1933, the Pennsylvania Historical Commission , the Wyoming Historical and Genealogical Society, and the Sugarloaf Commemorative Committee built a memorial near the location of the massacre. In 1947, a historical marker was installed on Pennsylvania Route 93 , near Conyngham . The number of militiamen killed in action at the skirmish

7931-463: The middle of the 1700s. The construction of the Susquehanna and Lehigh Turnpike also helped to increase the population of the Little Nescopeck Creek watershed. The Sugarloaf Massacre occurred near Little Nescopeck Creek on September 11, 1780. In 1809, Redmond Conyngham built a sawmill on M. Beishline's land on Little Nescopeck Creek in southwestern Butler Township. In 1810, a carding mill

8034-472: The modern world. The price of copper is volatile . After a peak in 2022 the price unexpectedly fell. The global market for copper is one of the most commodified and financialized of the commodity markets , and has been so for decades. The great majority of copper ores are sulfides. Common ores are the sulfides chalcopyrite (CuFeS 2 ), bornite (Cu 5 FeS 4 ) and, to a lesser extent, covellite (CuS) and chalcocite (Cu 2 S). These ores occur at

8137-470: The northwestern portion of the watershed there are palustrine unconsolidated bottom and palustrine forested broad-leaved deciduous wetlands. The area in the vicinity of Little Nescopeck Creek was inhabited by Native Americans as early as 8000 B.C. Some of the earliest people to settle in the Little Nescopeck Creek watershed were the Lenni Lenape . European occupation of the creek's watershed began at

8240-516: The numerous copper sulfides , important examples include copper(I) sulfide ( Cu 2 S ) and copper monosulfide ( CuS ). Cuprous halides with fluorine , chlorine , bromine , and iodine are known, as are cupric halides with fluorine , chlorine , and bromine . Attempts to prepare copper(II) iodide yield only copper(I) iodide and iodine. Copper forms coordination complexes with ligands . In aqueous solution, copper(II) exists as [Cu(H 2 O) 6 ] . This complex exhibits

8343-428: The ore, sometimes other metals are obtained during the electrolysis including platinum and gold. Aside from sulfides, another family of ores are oxides. Approximately 15% of the world's copper supply derives from these oxides. The beneficiation process for oxides involves extraction with sulfuric acid solutions followed by electrolysis. In parallel with the above method for "concentrated" sulfide and oxide ores, copper

8446-469: The other two men were taken to Niagara . Moyer traveled to Fort Wyoming , which he reached on September 14. After the skirmish, the Loyalist and Native war party searched the surrounding area for several hours. The next day, they took their prisoners down Nescopeck Creek and towards the Susquehanna River before turning towards Berwick and Catawissa, Pennsylvania . The soldiers who escaped

8549-652: The private Valley Country Club. There are three recreational sites in the creek's watershed. One is the Butler Recreation Complex in the eastern part of the watershed. The other two are the Whispering Willow Park and the Historic Brainard Church in the western part of the watershed. In 1998, there were plans to convert abandoned railroad beds in the Little Nescopeck Creek watershed to rail-trails. There are already

8652-495: The riparian zone is zero feet in a pasture one mile upstream of the Jeddo Tunnel. The widest area of the riparian zone is 500 feet (150 m) on the Keystone Jobs Corps Center property. At Little Nescopeck Creek's confluence with Nescopeck Creek, the riparian zone is 100 feet (30 m) wide or more. There are a total of five species of special concern in the Little Nescopeck Creek watershed. These include

8755-406: The same sites, the daily load of iron ranges between 859 and 1,126 pounds (390 and 511 kg). The daily load of manganese at the sites ranges from 1,350 to 1,432 pounds (612 to 650 kg). At one site upstream of the Jeddo Tunnel, these values are much lower. The daily load of aluminum is 2.8 pounds (1.3 kg), the daily load of iron is 11.3 pounds (5.1 kg), and the daily load of manganese

8858-509: The scene. No correspondence or militia returns mention his name. No birth record, marriage record, or death record for him exists. No survivor mentions his name or his death in their depositions and no surviving pension file from any of the Volunteers indicate that they served under a Daniel Klader of any kind. 41°00′40″N 75°59′20″W  /  41.011°N 75.989°W  / 41.011; -75.989 Copper Copper

8961-750: The secret to its manufacturing process became lost. The Romans said the blue pigment was made from copper, silica, lime and natron and was known to them as caeruleum . The Bronze Age began in Southeastern Europe around 3700–3300 BC, in Northwestern Europe about 2500 BC. It ended with the beginning of the Iron Age, 2000–1000 BC in the Near East, and 600 BC in Northern Europe. The transition between

9064-492: The soil is reddish-brown with pinkish-gray areas and is a sandy loam . From 24 to 37 inches (60 to 93 centimeters), the soil is reddish-brown with pinkish-gray areas and is a sandy loam. From 37 to 47 inches (93 to 118 centimeters), the soil is reddish-brown with light gray and yellowish-red areas, and is a coarse sandy loam. From 47 to 53 inches (118 to 133 centimeters), the soil is a reddish-gray sandy loam with some yellowish-red areas. From 53 to 62 inches (133 to 156 centimeters),

9167-450: The soil is reddish-gray and contains sand and gravel. The creek's river valley is steep and narrow. Nescopeck Mountain is in the northern part of the watershed and Buck Mountain is in the southern part. The elevation in the watershed ranges from between 850 and 1800 feet. There is very little limestone near the creek, thus making it very acidic. There are several floodplains in the watershed of Little Nescopeck Creek. The largest of them

9270-438: The sugar is signaled by a color change from blue Cu(II) to reddish copper(I) oxide. Schweizer's reagent and related complexes with ethylenediamine and other amines dissolve cellulose . Amino acids such as cystine form very stable chelate complexes with copper(II) including in the form of metal-organic biohybrids (MOBs). Many wet-chemical tests for copper ions exist, one involving potassium ferricyanide , which gives

9373-399: The top kilometer of Earth's crust, which is about 5 million years' worth at the current rate of extraction. However, only a tiny fraction of these reserves is economically viable with present-day prices and technologies. Estimates of copper reserves available for mining vary from 25 to 60 years, depending on core assumptions such as the growth rate. Recycling is a major source of copper in

9476-644: The truth as any I could procure..." Lieutenant Moyer, upon his return, said he had seen thirteen scalps on the belts of his captors, but it is hard to believe that they let him count the scalps while he was detained. Captain Van Etten did take a return at the end of the Volunteer's tour of duty, in January, 1781. He indicates that 14 men were killed on September 11, 1780. But at least three of these men—George Schellhammer, Peter Crum, and Baltzar Snyder—show up on

9579-437: The tunnel, the average iron concentration is 380 micrograms per liter. Downstream of the tunnel, the average iron concentration is 1947 micrograms per liter. Upstream of the tunnel, the average nickel concentration is below 50 micrograms per liter. The average nickel concentration for the whole watershed is almost three times higher, at 144 micrograms per liter. The average zinc concentration is under 10 micrograms per liter above

9682-403: The various palustrine , which is scattered in small areas along the creek. The palustrine forested wetland is the type of wetland that makes up the largest patch of wetland in the creek's watershed. This patch's dimensions are 1 mile (1.6 km) by 0.1 miles (0.16 km). In the northeastern part of the watershed there are palustrine shrub-scrub, deciduous , broad-leaved evergreen wetlands. In

9785-408: The watershed include three species of pine , two species of spruce , and one species of hemlock . Four of these species are found in the creek's riparian zone. There are also 16 species of legumes, grasses, and weeds , seven species of bushes, and six species of perennials . All of the bushes and perennials, and seven of the grasses are found in Little Nescopeck Creek's riparian zone. There are also

9888-437: The watershed of Little Nescopeck Creek. Of these, seven breed in the creek's watershed. The creek's watershed is also home to seven species of dragonflies and damselflies . Of these, three species breed in the creek's watershed. Common plants in the Little Nescopeck Creek watershed include conifer and hardwood trees, herbs , legumes , and grasses . The plants in the Little Nescopeck Creek watershed are fairly typical for

9991-540: The watershed of Little Nescopeck Creek. Two of them are the Arnot Series and the Alluvial land. The Arnot Series soil is shallow and drained well. It ranges between close to flat and steep. The Alluvial land ranges between close to flat and moderately sloping. It contains gravel and stones and is found along flood plains within the watershed. A large number of other types of soils are found in very small amounts in

10094-530: The watershed. The Little Nescopeck Creek watershed is bordered by the Black Creek watershed to the south and the main stem of Nescopeck Creek to the north. The Little Nescopeck Creek watershed is affected by pollution from the Jeddo Tunnel . However this is the only source of acid mine drainage in the watershed. The pollution of the Jeddo Tunnel affects Nescopeck Creek, the Susquehanna River , and

10197-487: The watershed; some of them breed there as well. Dozens of species of insects and macroinvertebrates live in the creek's drainage basin. Common mammals include white-tailed deer, cottontail rabbits, and others. Plants inhabiting the watershed include conifer and hardwood trees, herbs, legumes, and grasses. Little Nescopeck Creek begins in a valley near Prospect Rock in Butler Township. It flows west-southwest for

10300-694: Was 49 inches per year. Near Little Nescopeck Creek's confluence with Nescopeck Creek, there are white-water rapids that are rated as Class III . Some areas of the creek are also rated Class IV. Little Nescopeck Creek is one of the main sources of flooding in Conyngham. Between 1996 and 1998, the average pH of Little Nescopeck Creek was 4.6. During the same period, the waters of the creek contained an average of 130.87 milligrams per liter of sulfate , 4.03 milligrams per liter of aluminum , 2.01 milligrams per liter of iron , 1.83 milligrams per liter of manganese , and 0.31 milligrams per liter of zinc . Upstream of

10403-422: Was a skirmish which occurred on September 11, 1780, in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania when a number of Natives and a handful of Loyalists attacked a small detachment of militia from Northampton County . According to pension files and witness depositions, the militia detachment was led by Lieutenants John Moyer and John Fish of Captain Johannes Van Etten's company of volunteers. Previous violence between

10506-457: Was built on the creek in what was then known as the community of Ashville. Redmond Conyngham also built a gristmill across the creek from the sawmill in 1814. Phillip Drum built a woolen mill near the carding mill in 1835. The creek flooded during Hurricane Agnes in 1972. There are a number of historical sites in the Little Nescopeck Creek watershed. Most of them are devoted to the anthracite industry. Little Nescopeck Creek's name comes from

10609-527: Was found in 1857 on the Keweenaw Peninsula in Michigan, US. Native copper is a polycrystal , with the largest single crystal ever described measuring 4.4 × 3.2 × 3.2 cm . Copper is the 26th most abundant element in Earth's crust , representing 50 ppm compared with 75 ppm for zinc , and 14 ppm for lead . Typical background concentrations of copper do not exceed 1 ng/m in

#667332