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64-515: Misnagdim ( מתנגדים ‎, "Opponents"; Sephardi pronunciation : Mitnagdim ; singular misnaged / mitnaged ) was a religious movement among the Jews of Eastern Europe which resisted the rise of Hasidism in the 18th and 19th centuries. The Misnagdim were particularly concentrated in Lithuania , where Vilnius served as the bastion of the movement, but anti-Hasidic activity was undertaken by

128-427: A breach of communal unity. In addition, they faced criticism for neglecting the halakhic times for prayer. Hasidic Jews also added some halakhic stringencies on kashrut (the laws of keeping kosher). They made certain changes in how livestock were slaughtered and in who was considered a reliable mashgiach (supervisor of kashrut). The result was that they essentially considered some kosher food as less kosher. This

192-529: A concerted effort by opposing rabbis to halt its spread. In late 1772, after uniting the scholars of Brisk , Minsk and other Belarusian and Lithuanian communities, the Vilna Gaon then issued the first of many polemical letters against the nascent Hasidic movement, which was included in the anti-Hasidic anthology, Zemir aritsim ve-ḥarvot tsurim (1772). The letters published in the anthology included pronouncements of excommunication against Hasidic leaders on

256-413: A famous letter that was published under the title Alim li-Terufah, Minsk , 1836. The Vilna Gaon was a copious annotator, producing many marginal glosses, notes, and brief commentaries, which were mostly dictated to his pupils. Many maintain that it was his disciples who recorded his comments, if not his editorial notes. However, nothing of his was published in his lifetime. The "Gra" was very precise in

320-664: A modified form by the Kimhi family; the current Sephardic pronunciation largely reflects the system that it laid down. By then, the Tiberian notation was universally used though it was not always reflected in pronunciation. The Spanish grammarians accepted the rules laid down by the Tiberian Masoretes, with the following variations: There are further differences: When Eliezer ben Yehuda drafted his Standard Hebrew language , he based it on Sephardi Hebrew, both because this

384-679: A sizable minority of Greater Lithuanian Jews belong(ed) to Hasidic groups, including Chabad , Slonim , Karlin-Stolin ( Pinsk ), Amdur and Koidanov . The first documented opposition to the Hasidic movement was from the Jewish community in Shklow , Lithuania in the year 1772. Rabbis and community leaders voiced concerns about the Hasidim because they were making their way to Lithuania. The rabbis sent letters forbidding Hasidic prayer houses, urging

448-523: A vowel (or continuant ) and [b] otherwise (such as after a pause). There is also a difference in the pronunciation of tau raphe ( ת ‎, tau without dagesh ): Closely related to the Sephardi pronunciation is the Italian pronunciation of Hebrew , which may be regarded as a variant. In communities from Italy, Greece and Turkey, he is not realized as [h] but as a silent letter because of

512-621: Is also found in Mizrahi Hebrew , but is not found in Israeli Hebrew . It is represented in the transliteration of proper names in the Authorised Version , such as "Naomi", "Aholah" and "Aholibamah". Consonants Vowels Sephardim differ on the pronunciation of bet raphe ( ב ‎, bet without dagesh ). Persian, Moroccan, Greek, Turkish, Balkan and Jerusalem Sephardim usually pronounce it as [v] , which

576-461: Is inherited from the old Palestinian vowel notation . In formal liturgical use, however, many Sephardim are careful to make some distinction between these vowels to reflect the Tiberian notation. (That can be compared to the attempts of some Ashkenazim to use the pharyngeal sounds of ḥet and ayin in formal contexts, such as reading the Torah.) In brief, Sephardi Hebrew appears to be a descendant of

640-474: Is made according to purely phonetic rules, without regard to etymology, which occasionally leads to spelling pronunciations at variance with the rules laid down in Biblical Hebrew grammar books. For example, כָל (all), when unhyphenated, is pronounced "kal", rather than "kol" (in "kal 'atsmotai" and " Kal Nidre "), and צָהֳרַיִם (noon) is pronounced "tsahorayim", rather than "tsohorayim". This feature

704-612: Is properly an Acharon —many later authorities hold him as possessing halachic authority in the same class as the Rishonim (rabbinic authorities of the Middle Ages). His main student Rabbi Chaim Volozhin , founded the first yeshiva in his home town of Volozhin , Belarus . The results of this move is claimed to have revolutionized Torah study , by departing from the centuries of 'informal' study. Youth and scholars would congregate in local synagogues and study freely, although it

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768-697: Is reflected in Modern Hebrew. Spanish and Portuguese Jews traditionally pronounced it as [b ~ β] (as do most Mizrahi Jews ), but that is declining under the influence of Israeli Hebrew. That may reflect changes in the pronunciation of Spanish . In Medieval Spanish (and in Judaeo-Spanish ), b and v were separate, with b representing a voiced bilabial stop and v realized as a bilabial fricative [β]. However, in Renaissance and modern Spanish, both are pronounced [β] (bilabial v) after

832-460: Is to be grasped in erotic terms, then—Misnagdim feared—Hasidim might feel justified in neglecting legal distinctions between the holy and the profane, and in engaging in inappropriate sexual activities. The Misnagdim were seen as using yeshivas and scholarship as the center of learning while Hasidim had learning centered around the rebbe tied in with what they considered emotional displays of piety. The stress of Jewish prayer over Torah study and

896-792: The Babylonian Talmud and Shulchan Aruch are known as Bi'urei ha-Gra ("Elaborations by the Gra"). His running commentary on the Mishnah is titled Shenoth Eliyahu ("The Years of Elijah"). Various Kabbalistic works have commentaries in his name. His insights on the Pentateuch are titled Adereth Eliyahu ("The Splendor of Elijah"). Commentaries on the Proverbs and other books of the Tanakh were written later on in his life. The Gaon

960-587: The Bank of Lithuania issued a limited-edition silver commemorative 10- euro coin in October 2020; this is the first euro coin with Hebrew letters. The Vilna Gaon's brother Avraham authored the revered work "Maalot Hatorah". His son Abraham was also a scholar of note. The Vilna Gaon died in 1797, aged 77, and was subsequently buried in the Šnipiškės cemetery in Vilnius, now in Žirmūnai elderate . The cemetery

1024-466: The Gaon of Vilna and Chaim of Volozhin , were deeply immersed in kabbalah . Their difference with the Hasidim was their opposition to involving mystical teachings and considerations in the public life, outside the elitist circles which studied and practiced kabbalah . The Hasidic leaders' inclination to rule in legal matters, binding for the whole community (as opposed to strictures voluntarily adopted by

1088-645: The Hasidic movement. The Gaon once started on a trip to the Land of Israel , but for unknown reasons did not get beyond Germany . (In the early nineteenth century, three groups of his students, known as Perushim , under the leadership of Rabbi Menachem Mendel of Shklov, made their way to what was then Ottoman Palestine, settling first in Safed and later also in Jerusalem ). While at Königsberg he wrote to his family

1152-758: The Middle Ages . Although he is chronologically one of the Acharonim , some have considered him one of the Rishonim . Large groups of people, including many yeshivas , uphold the set of Jewish customs and rites ( minhag ), the " minhag ha-Gra ", named after him, and which is also considered by many to be the prevailing Ashkenazi minhag in Jerusalem . Born in Sielec in the Brest Litovsk Voivodeship (today Syalyets , Belarus),

1216-441: The Pentateuch entitled Adereth Eliyahu ("The Cloak of Elijah"), published by his son. Various Kabbalistic works have commentaries in his name, and he wrote commentaries on the Proverbs and other books of the Tanakh later on in his life. None of his manuscripts were published in his lifetime. When Hasidic Judaism became influential in his native town, the Vilna Gaon joined the "opposers" or Misnagdim , rabbis and heads of

1280-590: The Sabbateans and the Frankists , followers of the messianic claimants Sabbatai Zevi (1626–1676) and Jacob Frank (1726–1791). Many rabbis suspected Hasidism of an intimate connection with these movements. Hasidism's founder was Rabbi Israel ben Eliezer ( c. 1700–1760), known as the Baal Shem Tov ("master of a good name" usually applied to a saintly Jew who was also a wonder-worker), or simply by

1344-569: The Talmud and rabbinic literature, making an attempt toward a critical examination of the text. The Gaon devoted much time to the study of the Torah and Hebrew grammar , and was knowledgeable in scientific pursuits of the time. When Hasidic Judaism became influential in Vilna , the Vilna Gaon joined rabbis and heads of the Polish communities, to speak against Hasidic influence. In 1781, when

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1408-461: The acronym Besht ( Hebrew : בעש"ט ); he taught that man's relationship with God depended on immediate religious experience, in addition to knowledge and observance of the details of the Torah and Talmud . The characteristically misnagdic approach to Judaism was marked by a concentration on highly intellectual Talmud study; however, it by no means rejected mysticism. The movement's leaders, like

1472-579: The Divine." The term Misnagdim ("opponents") is somewhat outdated since the former opposition between the two groups has lost much of its salience, so the other terms are more common. Sephardi pronunciation There is some variation between the various forms of Sephardi Hebrew, but the following generalisations may be made: This last difference is the standard shibboleth for distinguishing Sephardi from Ashkenazi, Yemenite, and Tiberian Hebrew. The differentiation between kamatz gadol and kamatz katan

1536-501: The Gaon displayed extraordinary talent while still a child. By the time he was twenty years old, rabbis were submitting their most difficult halakhic problems to him for legal rulings. He was a prolific author, writing such works as glosses on the Babylonian Talmud and Shulchan Aruch known as Bi'urei ha-Gra ("Elaborations by the Gra"), a running commentary on the Mishnah , Shenoth Eliyahu ("The Years of Elijah"), and insights on

1600-483: The Gaon had committed the Tanakh to memory by the age of four, and at the age of seven, he was taught Talmud by Moses Margalit , future rabbi of Kėdainiai and the author of a commentary to the Jerusalem Talmud , entitled Pnei Moshe ("The Face of Moses"). He possessed a photographic memory . By eight, he was studying astronomy during his free time. From the age of ten he continued his studies without

1664-489: The Hasidic approach to Kabbalah , mainly as expressed by Isaac Luria (1534–1572) and his disciples, particularly Hayyim ben Joseph Vital (1543–1620). Luria greatly influenced both misnagdim and Hasidim, but the legalistic Misnagdim feared what they perceived as disturbing parallels in Hasidism to the heretical Sabbateans . An example of such an idea was that God entirely nullifies the universe. Depending on how this idea

1728-413: The Hasidic reinterpretation of Torah l'shma (Torah study for its own sake), was seen as a rejection of traditional Judaism. Hasidim did not follow the traditional Ashkenazi prayer rite and instead used a combination of Ashkenazi and Sephardi rites based upon Lurianic Kabbalistic concepts.. This was seen as a rejection of the traditional liturgy and, due to the resulting need for separate synagogues ,

1792-403: The Hasidim renewed their proselytizing work under the leadership of their Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi (the "Ba'al Ha'tanya"), the Gaon excommunicated them again, declaring them to be heretics with whom no pious Jew might intermarry. Except for the conflict with the Hasidim, the Vilna Gaon rarely engaged in public affairs and, so far as is known, did not preside over any school in Vilna . He

1856-640: The Jerusalem neighborhood of Mea Shearim , and were instrumental in rebuilding the Yehudah HeChassid Synagogue (also known as the Hurba Synagogue , or "The Ruins"), which had lain in ruins for 140 years. A statue of the Vilna Gaon and a street named after him are in Vilnius, the place of both his birth and his death. Lithuania's parliament declared 2020 as the year of the Vilna Gaon and Lithuanian Jewish History. In his honour,

1920-459: The Jewish people, especially following the Chmelnitzki pogroms (1648–1654) and the aftermath of disillusionment in the Jewish masses following the millennial excitement heightened by the failed messianic claims of Sabbatai Zevi and Jacob Frank . Opponents of Hasidim held that Hasidim viewed their rebbes in an idolatrous fashion. Most of the changes made by the Hasidim were the product of

1984-662: The Palestinian tradition, partially adapted to accommodate the Tiberian notation and further influenced by the pronunciation of Judeo-Arabic dialects and Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino). The origins of the different Hebrew reading traditions reflect older differences between the pronunciations of Hebrew and Middle Aramaic current in different parts of the Fertile Crescent : Judea , the Galilee , Greater Syria , Upper Mesopotamia , and Lower Mesopotamia ("Babylonia"). In

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2048-482: The Polish communities, to curb Hasidic influence. While he advocated studying branches of secular education such as mathematics in order to better understand rabbinic texts, he harshly condemned the study of philosophy and metaphysics . The Vilna Gaon was born in Sialiec , Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth on April 23, 1720, as Elijah Ben Solomon Zalman to a well known rabbinical family. According to legend,

2112-490: The absolutist state to change Jewish education and culture, which both Misnagdim and Hasidim perceived as a greater threat to religion than they represented to each other. In the modern era, Misnagdim continue to thrive, but they are more commonly called "Litvishe" or " Yeshivish ." Litvishe is a Yiddish word that refers to Haredi Jews who are not Hasidim (and not Hardalim or Sephardic Haredim ). It literally means Lithuanian. While Litvishe functions as an adjective,

2176-466: The aid of a teacher, and by the age of eleven he had committed the entire Talmud to memory. Later , the Gaon decided to go into "exile" and he wandered in various parts of Europe including Poland and Germany . By the time he was twenty years old, rabbis were submitting their most difficult halakhic problems to him. He returned to his native city in 1748, having by then acquired considerable renown. The Gaon applied rigorous philological methods to

2240-524: The basis of their worship and habits, all of which were seen as unorthodox by the Misnagdim . This included but was not limited to unsanctioned places of worship and ecstatic prayers, as well as charges of smoking, dancing, and the drinking of alcohol. In total, this was seen to be a radical departure from the Misnagdic norm of asceticism, scholarship, and stoic demeanor in worship and general conduct, and

2304-453: The burning of Hasidic texts, and humiliating prominent Hasidic leaders. The rabbis imprisoned the Hasidic leaders in an attempt to isolate them from coming into contact with their followers. The bans of excommunication against Hasidic Jews in 1772 were accompanied by the public ripping up of several early Hasidic pamphlets. The Vilna Gaon , Elijah ben Solomon Zalman, a prominent rabbi, galvanized opposition to Hasidic Judaism . He believed that

2368-451: The claims of miracles and visions made by Hasidic Jews were lies and delusions. A key point of opposition was that the Vilna Gaon maintained that greatness in Torah and observance must come through natural human efforts at Torah study without relying on any external "miracles" and "wonders". On the other hand, the Ba'al Shem Tov was more focused on bringing encouragement and raising the morale of

2432-405: The country of that name today, but to the historic Grand Duchy of Lithuania , which also included all of modern-day Belarus and, until Union of Lublin , most of Ukraine.) Litvishe Jews largely identify with the Misnagdim , who "objected to what they saw as Hasidic denigration of Torah study and normative Jewish law in favor of undue emphasis on emotionality and religious fellowship as pathways to

2496-489: The death of the Vilna Gaon in 1797 and the partitions of Poland in 1793 and 1795, the regions of Poland where there were disputes between Misnagdim and Hasidim came under the control of governments that did not want to take sides in intra-Jewish conflicts, but that wanted instead to abolish Jewish autonomy. In 1804 Hasidism was legalized by the Imperial Russian government, and efforts by the Misnagdim to contain

2560-525: The disciples moved to Jerusalem. Their arrival in Jerusalem, which for over 100 years had been mainly Sephardi , revived the presence of Ashkenazi Jewry in Jerusalem, and resulted in a dominance of the customs of the Vilna Gaon. The impact of the Perushim is still apparent today in the religious practices of the Israeli Jewish community, even among non-Ashkenazim. For example, the institution of

2624-475: The elderly Menachem Mendel of Vitebsk and Chaim Chaykl of Amdur ). The disciples of the Vilna Gaon, known as Perushim due to how they isolated themselves from worldly concerns to study Torah, originally settled in Safed because the Muslim authorities in Jerusalem prevented Ashkenazi Jews from settling there. However, after numerous devastating calamities in the region, including plague and earthquake, most of

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2688-447: The establishment in many locales. The most severe clashes between the factions took place in the latter third of the 18th century; the failure to contain Hasidism led the Misnagdim to develop distinct religious philosophies and communal institutions, which were not merely a perpetuation of the old status quo but often innovative. The most notable results of these efforts, pioneered by Chaim of Volozhin and continued by his disciples, were

2752-405: The few), based on mystical considerations, greatly angered the Misnagdim . On another, theoretical level, Chaim of Volozhin and his disciples did not share Hasidism's basic notion that man could grasp the immanence of God's presence in the created universe, thus being able to transcend ordinary reality and potentially infuse common actions with spiritual meaning. However, Volozhin's exact position on

2816-676: The influence of Italian, Judaeo-Spanish and (to a lesser extent) Modern Greek , all of which lack the sound. That was also the case in early transliterations of Spanish-Portuguese manuscripts ( Ashkibenu , as opposed to Hashkibenu ), but he is now consistently pronounced in those communities. Basilectal Modern Hebrew also shares that characteristic, but it is considered substandard. In addition to ethnic and geographical distinctions, there are some distinctions of register. Popular Sephardic pronunciation, such as for Spanish and Portuguese Jews , makes no distinction between pataḥ and qameṣ gadol [a], or between segol , ṣere and shewa na [e]: that

2880-425: The issue is subject to debate among researchers. Some believe that the differences between the two schools of thought were almost semantic, while others regard their understanding of key doctrines as starkly different. Lithuania became the heartland of the traditionalist opposition to Hasidism, to the extent that in popular perception "Lithuanian" and "misnaged" became virtually interchangeable terms. In fact, however,

2944-465: The modern, independent yeshiva and the Musar movement . Since the late 19th century, tensions with the Hasidim largely subsided, and the heirs of Misnagdim adopted the epithet Litvishe or Litvaks . The rapid spread of Hasidism in the second half of the 18th century greatly troubled many traditional rabbis ; many saw it as heretical. Much of Judaism was still fearful of the messianic movements of

3008-454: The now-widespread Hasidim were stymied. By the mid-19th century most of non-Hasidic Judaism had discontinued its struggle with Hasidism and had reconciled itself to the establishment of the latter as a fact. One reason for the reconciliation between the Hasidim and the Misnagdim was the rise of the Haskalah movement. While many followers of this movement were observant, it was also used by

3072-431: The philosophy of their movement. As for the Vilna Gaon's own community, in accordance with the Vilna Gaon's wishes, three groups of his disciples and their families, numbering over 500, made aliyah to the Land of Israel between 1808 and 1812. This immigration was one of the first modern Jewish migrations to Palestine, although Hasidic immigration was already active in the 1780s (even by the rebbes themselves, such as

3136-456: The plural noun form often used is Litvaks . The Hebrew plural noun form which is used with the same meaning is Lita'im . Other expressions are Yeshivishe and Misnagdim . It has been equated with the term "Yeshiva world". The words Litvishe , Lita'im , and Litvaks are all somewhat misleading, because there are also Hasidic Jews from Lithuania , and many Lithuanian Jews who are not Haredim. (The reference to Lithuania does not refer to

3200-624: The popularisation of the Tiberian notation. The Sephardi traditions are ultimately related to the medieval Palestinian pronunciation tradition which is represented by the Palestinian vocalization and the Palestino-Tiberian vocalization systems. [...] The Palestinian pronunciation was transferred to Europe, North Africa and most of the Middle Eastern communities. In Iraq and Iran it replaced the Babylonian pronunciation, which

3264-667: The priestly blessing by the Kohanim known as duchaning during the weekdays (rather than only during festivals, as practiced in the Diaspora), and the accepted time for the onset of Shabbat in Jerusalem and other cities can both be traced to the custom of the Vilna Gaon. However, the teachings and traditions of the Vilna Gaon have been passed down most directly to the Litvaks in Israel. The Perushim also set up several Kollels , founded

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3328-743: The scholars of his time. He laid special stress on the study of the Jerusalem Talmud , which had been almost entirely neglected for centuries. The Gaon encouraged his chief pupil, Rabbi Chaim of Volozhin , to found a yeshiva (rabbinic academy) in which rabbinic literature should be taught. Rabbi Chaim Volozhin opened the Volozhin yeshiva in 1803, a few years after the Gaon's death, and revolutionized Torah study, with resulting impact on all of Orthodox Jewry . The Vilna Gaon led an ascetic life, being called by some of his contemporaries "the Hasid ". This term meaning "pious person", and has no relevance to

3392-734: The time of the Masoretes (8th-10th centuries), there were three distinct notations for denoting vowels and other details of pronunciation in biblical and liturgical texts. One was the Babylonian ; another was the Palestinian ; still another was Tiberian Hebrew , which eventually superseded the other two and is still in use today. By the time of Saadia Gaon and Jacob Qirqisani , Palestinian Hebrew had come to be regarded as standard, even in Babylonia. That development roughly coincided with

3456-505: The wording of his commentaries, because he maintained that he was obligated by Torah Law that only the " Torah shebichtav " (the written law) is permitted to be written down - the rest of " Torah sheb'al peh " (oral law) cannot be, unless circumstances require. (This further supports the view that it was his disciples who wrote his comments.) So the Vilna Gaon abided by this view of law by reducing his extensive explanations that are largely inscrutable to any but advanced talmudists. Glosses on

3520-452: Was a Lithuanian Jewish Talmudist , halakhist , kabbalist , and the foremost leader of misnagdic (non- hasidic ) Jewry of the past few centuries. He is commonly referred to in Hebrew as ha-Gaon mi-Vilna , "the genius from Vilnius". Through his annotations and emendations of Talmudic and other texts, he became one of the most familiar and influential figures in rabbinic study since

3584-769: Was customary to migrate to towns possessing great scholars as the local rabbi. The Volozhin Yeshivah created a formal structure of the study, by providing qualified faculty, meals, and accommodation. The results of this process are currently the norm in Orthodox Jewry . Somewhat ironically, viewed from a traditional light, the leaders of the Haskalah movement used the study methods of the Vilna Gaon to gain adherents to their movement. Maskilim valued and adapted his emphasis on peshat over pilpul , his engagement with and mastery of Hebrew grammar and Bible, and his interest in textual criticism of rabbinic texts, further developing

3648-455: Was preached and interpreted, it could give rise to pantheism , universally acknowledged as heresy, or lead to immoral behavior, since elements of Kabbalah can be misconstrued to de-emphasize ritual and glorify sexual metaphors as a more profound means of grasping some inner hidden notions in the Torah based on the Jews' intimate relationship with God. If God is present in everything, and if divinity

3712-705: Was rare in Ashkenazi Hebrew, in which uvular realizations were more commonly a trill or tap, and in which alveolar trills or taps were also common. Vilna Gaon Elijah ben Solomon Zalman , ( Hebrew : ר' אליהו בן שלמה זלמן Rabbi Eliyahu ben Shlomo Zalman ), also known as the Vilna Gaon ( Yiddish : דער װילנער גאון Der Vilner Goen ; Polish : Gaon z Wilna, Gaon Wileński ; or Elijah of Vilna , or by his Hebrew acronym Gra (" G aon R abbenu E liyahu": "Our great teacher Elijah"; Sialiec , April 23, 1720 – Vilnius October 9, 1797),

3776-578: Was satisfied with lecturing in his bet ha-midrash to a few chosen pupils, whom he initiated into his methods. He taught them Hebrew grammar , Hebrew Bible , and Mishna , subjects that were largely neglected by the Talmudists of that time. He was especially anxious to introduce them to the study of midrash literature, and the Minor Treatises of the Talmud, which were very little known by

3840-430: Was seen as a change of traditional Judaism, and an over stringency of halakha, and, again, a breach of communal unity. With the rise of what would become known as Hasidism in the late 18th century, established conservative rabbinic authorities actively worked to stem its growth. Whereas before the breakaway Hasidic synagogues were occasionally opposed but largely checked, its spread into Lithuania and Belarus prompted

3904-417: Was the de facto spoken form as a lingua franca in the land of Israel and because he believed it to be the most beautiful of the Hebrew dialects. However, the phonology of Modern Hebrew is in some respects constrained to that of Ashkenazi Hebrew , including the elimination of pharyngeal articulation and the conversion of /r/ from an alveolar tap to a voiced uvular fricative , though this latter sound

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3968-798: Was used in these regions during the Middle Ages. It is possible that it was disseminated in the Middle East by Sephardi teachers who settled in the East after the expulsions from Spain and Portugal in the 15th century. According to Morag (1963, 288–289; 2003) there is evidence that the Babylonian pronunciation was in use in Spain in the early Middle Ages, brought there, it seems, by teachers from Babylonia. The accepted rules of Hebrew grammar were laid down in medieval Spain by grammarians such as Judah ben David Hayyuj and Jonah ibn Janah and later restated in

4032-528: Was viewed as a development that needed to be suppressed. Between 1772 and 1791, other Misnagdic tracts of this type would follow, all targeting the Hasidim in an effort to contain and eradicate them from Jewish communities. The harshest of these denouncements came between 1785 and 1815 combined with petitioning of the Russian government to outlaw the Hasidim on the grounds of their being spies, traitors, and subversives. However, this would not be realized. After

4096-414: Was well versed in the mathematical works of Euclid (4th century BC) and encouraged his pupil Rabbi Baruch Schick of Shklov to translate these works into Hebrew. The Gaon is said to have written a concise mathematical work called Ayil Meshulash , which was an introductory primer to basic mathematics. The Gaon was one of the most influential rabbinic authorities since the Middle Ages , and—although he

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