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107-530: Liu Yao's father Liu Lü (劉綠) died early, and he was raised by Liu Lü's cousin Liu Yuan . When he was young, Liu Yuan became impressed with his intelligence and strength. As he grew, he became known for his archery skills and his studiousness—although his studies were described to be surveys rather than careful readings, except for books on military strategy, which he spent much of his time on. He often deprecated Wu Han and Deng Yu , instead comparing himself to

214-503: A royal court where physical access to the ruler could wield great influence. Seemingly lowly domestic functions—such as making the ruler's bed, bathing him, cutting his hair, carrying him in his litter , or even relaying messages—could, in theory, give a eunuch "the ruler's ear" and impart de facto power on the formally humble but trusted servant. Similar instances are reflected in the humble origins and etymology of many high offices. Eunuchs supposedly did not generally have loyalties to

321-557: A Han descendant, he would succeed to the Han throne, and therefore claimed the title of the King of Han—deliberately choosing a title that had been previously held by the Han dynasty's founder, Liu Bang (Emperor Gao). He reestablished the worship of eight Han emperors—Emperor Gao, Emperor Wen , Emperor Wu , Emperor Xuan , Emperor Guangwu , Emperor Ming , Emperor Zhang , and Liu Bei (Emperor Zhaolie). He created his wife Lady Huyan (likely

428-687: A campaign against the Di chief of Chouchi , Yang Nandi , Liu Yao was stricken by a communicable disease, and while he was still able to force Yang to submit, his general Chen An , a former subordinate of Sima Bao, mistakenly thought that Liu Yao had already died, and therefore declared independence as the Prince of Liang, controlling most of Qin Province (秦州, modern eastern Gansu ). In 323, Liu Yao, having recovered, personally attacked Chen's headquarters at Shanggui (上邽, in modern Tianshui , Gansu ). Chen fled but

535-505: A coalition of Han Chinese and tribal rebels in northern China. Though he would not live long to see it, his family and generals would eventually drive the Jin dynasty out of the north. According to official history, Liu Yuan was a member of Xiongnu nobility, as a descendant of the first great chanyu in Xiongnu history, Modu Chanyu , who, along with their people, had long been loyal vassals to

642-448: A desirable commodity for tributes . Eunuchs were the only males outside the royal family allowed to stay inside the palace overnight. Court records going back to 1392 indicate that the average lifespan of eunuchs was 70.0 ± 1.76 years, which was 14.4–19.1 years longer than the lifespan of non-castrated men of similar socioeconomic status. The Vietnamese adopted the eunuch system and castration techniques from China . Records show that

749-564: A letter to Liu Xi and Liu Yin, ordering them to surrender. Instead, Liu Yao wrote a letter that stated: "Protect the empire with your officials. Do not care about me." Shi saw the letter and grew angry, and eventually executed Liu Yao. Late in 329, Shi Hu would capture and execute Liu Xi and Liu Yin, ending the Han-Zhao dynasty. In the Book of Jin , Liu Yao was described as a tall man (approximately 2.28 metres) and that he had greyish eyebrows and

856-480: A linkage with the Han dynasty —to which he claimed he was a descendant, through a princess, but Liu Yao felt that it was time to end the linkage with Han and explicitly restore the linkage to the great Xiongnu chanyu Maodun , and therefore decided to change the name of the state. However, this was not a break from Liu Yuan, as he continued to honor Liu Yuan and Liu Cong posthumously. In winter 319, Shi declared himself

963-463: A living by going uninvited to large ceremonies such as weddings, births, new shop openings and other major family events, and singing until they are paid or given gifts to go away. The ceremony is supposed to bring good luck and fertility, while the curse of an unappeased hijra is feared by many. Hijra often engage in prostitution and begging to earn money, with begging typically accompanied by singing and dancing. Some Indian provincial officials have used

1070-526: A major battle near Luoyang (which the two, as well as Jin, had fought over for months), and after some initial Former Zhao successes, Later Zhao's general Shi Hu decisively defeated and captured Former Zhao's general Liu Yue (劉岳), after Liu Yao himself encountered difficulties with his army discipline and could not come to Liu Yue's aid. Later Zhao took this opportunity to effectively take the modern central Henan , northern Jiangsu , and western Shandong under its control. Later in 325, Liu Yao created Liu Yin

1177-546: A means of gaining employment in the imperial service. Certain eunuchs, such as the Ming dynasty official Zheng He , gained immense power that occasionally superseded that of even the Grand Secretaries . Self-castration was a common practice, although it was not always performed completely, which led to it being made illegal. It is said that the justification for the employment of eunuchs as high-ranking civil servants

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1284-400: A particular lover of fine food having "consumed his estate dining lavishly and at leisure every day on tuna and garlic-honey cheese paté like a Lampsacene eunoukhos. " The earliest surviving etymology of the word is from late antiquity . The 5th century (CE) Etymologicon by Orion of Thebes offers two alternative origins for the word eunuch: first, to tēn eunēn ekhein , "guarding

1391-401: A personal characteristic), Vossius ultimately sums up his argument in a different way, saying that the word "originally signified continent men" to whom the care of women was entrusted, and later came to refer to castration because "among foreigners" that role was performed "by those with mutilated bodies". Modern etymologists have followed Orion's first option. In an influential 1925 essay on

1498-423: A preceding example in the life of Muhammad himself, who used the eunuch Mabur as a servant in the house of his own slave concubine Maria al-Qibtiyya ; both of them slaves from Egypt. Eunuchs were for a long time used in relatively small numbers, exclusively inside harems, but the use of eunuchs expanded significantly when eunuchs started being used also for other offices within service and administration outside of

1605-434: A relative of his mother) princess. (The name of Liu's state was therefore "Han," but is often referred to as "Han-Zhao" or "Former Zhao" because his nephew Liu Yao , who took the throne in 318, changed the name of the state to Zhao in 319.) For those impressed with Liu's abilities previously, however, his reign was somewhat of a let down. He spent great energy on trying to restore the Han system of government, but he himself

1712-722: A smaller horse, and during battle Shi made a surprise attack, and the horse, unable to bear his weight, fell, and he was thrown off the horse. Later Zhao soldiers inflicted many wounds on him before capturing him and taking them to the general Shi Kan (石堪). Shi Le then ordered his army to stop engagement and allow the Former Zhao forces to retreat. Shi Kan delivered Liu Yao to Shi Le. Shi ordered that Liu's wounds be treated, and he then took Liu Yao to Xiangguo. He put Liu Yao under heavy guard but supplied him with women, and also permitted his previously captured generals Liu Yue and Liu Zhen (劉震) to visit him. Shi then ordered Liu Yao to write

1819-615: A sparse long beard . Liu Yuan (Han Zhao) Liu Yuan (劉淵) (died 19 August 310), courtesy name Yuanhai (元海), also known by his posthumous name as the Emperor Guangwen of Han (Zhao) (漢(趙)光文帝) was the founding emperor of the Xiongnu -led Han-Zhao dynasty of China during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Due to Tang dynasty naming taboo , he is referred to by his courtesy name as Liu Yuanhai (劉元海) in

1926-686: A specific social function. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 2nd millennium BCE. Over the millennia since, they have performed a wide variety of functions in many different cultures: courtiers or equivalent domestics , for espionage or clandestine operations , castrato singers, concubines or sexual partners, religious specialists, soldiers, royal guards, government officials, and guardians of women or harem servants. Eunuchs would usually be servants or slaves who had been castrated to make them less threatening servants of

2033-458: A title that has been translated as Book of the Guide to [Divine] Benefits and Averting of [Divine] Vengeance and also as Book of Tutor of Graces and Annihilator of Misfortunes . In a chapter dedicated to eunuchs, Al-Subki made "the clear implication that 'eunuchness' is itself an office," Shaun Marmon explained, adding that al-Subki had specified occupational subgroups for the tawashiya [eunuchs]:

2140-591: A wide range of men who were seen to be physically unable to procreate . Hippocrates describes the Scythians as being afflicted with high rates of erectile dysfunction and thus "the most eunuchoid of all nations" (Airs Waters Places 22). In the Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary , the term literally used for impotent males is spado but may also be used for eunuchs. Some men have falsified

2247-458: Is not clear where Heiniyuju was or why Liu Yin waited until Chen's defeat to reveal his identity to the chief; it could have been that Heiniyuju was initially a Chen ally, and while Chen was, prior to his rebellion, nominally a Former Zhao general, Liu Yin might have been concerned about being detained by Chen as a bargaining chip.) Liu Yao considered making Liu Yin his crown prince instead (since Liu Yin had previously been his heir), but, not having

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2354-696: The Book of Jin . With the dissolution of the Southern Xiongnu in 216, the last vestiges of their power were divided into Five Divisions in Bing province around modern-day Shanxi . Liu Yuan was born into the aristocracy of the Five Divisions and was sent to the Chinese capital, Luoyang as a hostage during his youth, where he became highly sinicized and later held several government offices under

2461-402: The Han dynasty and to its successor states Cao Wei and Jin . In late Wei or early Jin times, the Xiongnu nobles claimed that they descended from the Han dynasty's ruling Liu clan also — through a princess who had married Modu Chanyu – and therefore changed their family name to Liu. Liu Yuan's father, Liu Bao , was a son of one of the last Southern Xiongnu chanyus, Yufuluo , and the nephew of

2568-627: The Prophet's Tomb , maintaining borders between males and females where needed, and keeping order in the sacred spaces. They were highly respected in their time and remained there throughout the Ottoman Empire's control of the area and afterward. In the present day, it is reported that only a few remain. Eunuchs were an active component in the slave market of the Islamic world until the early 20th-century for service in harem as well as in

2675-801: The Trans-Saharan slave trade , the Red Sea slave trade or the Indian Ocean slave trade , who served the concubines and officials in the Harem together with chamber maidens of low rank. The white eunuchs were slaves from the Balkans or the Caucasus , either purchased in the slave markets or taken as boys from Christian families in the Balkans who were unable to pay the jizya tax. They served

2782-455: The Wei River . When his official You Ziyuan (游子遠) tried to persuaded him against these actions, he threw You into jail. Aggravated, Di and Qiang tribes declared independence in a state named Qin (秦). Subsequently, he released You and commissioned You with a force to suppression the rebellion, and You was able to persuade most of the rebels to surrender and defeat the rest. In 322, while on

2889-808: The Western Jin dynasty . As the War of the Eight Princes weakened Jin authority in northern China, Liu Yuan was called upon by the Five Divisions to lead their rebellion, and in 304, he declared independence from the Jin and founded the Han-Zhao dynasty , one of the first of the Sixteen Kingdoms. His declaration, along with the founding of the Cheng-Han dynasty in Sichuan that same year, marked

2996-583: The Xianbei rebel Tufa Shujineng . Eventually, even Emperor Wu's brother Sima You the Prince of Qi, impressed and fearful of Liu's abilities, encouraged Emperor Wu to have Liu executed, but Wang Hun persuaded Emperor Wu that it would be wrong. When Liu Bao died in 279, Emperor Wu permitted Liu Yuan to take over command of the Left Tribe. In 289, he was transferred to Commander of the North Tribe. As

3103-545: The zimam watched over women, and the muqaddam al-mamalik over adolescent boys. Edmund Andrews of Northwestern University , in an 1898 article called "Oriental Eunuchs" in The American Journal of Medicine , refers to Coptic priests in "Abou Gerhè in Upper Egypt" castrating slave boys. Coptic castration of slaves was discussed by Peter Charles Remondino , in his book History of Circumcision from

3210-556: The Byzantine Empire, Imperial China, the Ottoman Empire, and various Middle Eastern cultures. They often held significant power and influence in these societies, particularly in royal courts and harems. Eunuch comes from the Ancient Greek word εὐνοῦχος ( eunoûkhos ), first attested in a fragment of Hipponax , the 6th century BCE comic poet and prolific inventor of compound words. The acerbic poet describes

3317-695: The Chinese general Wang Mi and the Jie general Shi Le (both of whom declared loyalty to Han in 307), who generally only nominally submitted to Liu's orders while maintaining separate power structures but who also did appear to genuinely respect and fear Liu. As for troops under his own control, Liu largely entrusted them to his son Liu Cong the Prince of Chu and his nephew Liu Yao the Prince of Shi'an. The four generals, while not being able to hold cities, were generally able to rove throughout northern and central China unimpeded by Jin forces, defeating most Jin generals who opposed them. In 308, Wang's troops advanced on

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3424-568: The Chuge in the 250s. It is likely that Liu Yuan and Han-Zhao historians fabricated his ties to the Luandi clan for more legitimacy by presenting his rule as both a continuation of the Southern Xiongnu chanyus and a restoration of the Han dynasty. Consort and their respective issue(s): Eunuch A eunuch ( / ˈ juː n ə k / YOO -nək ) is a male who has been castrated . Throughout history, castration often served

3531-518: The Earliest Times to the Present , published in 1900. He refers to the "Abou-Gerghè" monastery in a place he calls "Mount Ghebel-Eter". He adds details not mentioned by Andrews such as the insertion of bamboo into the victim. Bamboo was used with Chinese eunuchs. Andrews states his information is derived from an earlier work, Les Femmes, les eunuques, et les guerriers du Soudan , published by

3638-416: The Five Divisions nobles, led by the commander of the North Tribe, Liu Xuan , tired of the Jin misrule and secretly plotted reindependence from Jin. They sent a messenger to secretly offer Liu Yuan the title of Grand Chanyu. Liu Yuan then told Sima Ying, who was then concerned about an attack from Wang Jun , whose troops were reinforced with Xianbei and Wuhuan soldiers, that he would be willing to mobilize

3745-630: The Former Liang leader Zhang Mao (then carrying the Jin-created title Duke of Xiping) into submission. Zhang was indeed intimidated and submitted to Former Zhao suzerainty . Liu Yao created him the Prince of Liang. Later that year, Liu Yao's son Liu Yin, who had been a slave with the Heiniyuju tribe, because Chen had been defeated, revealed his identity to the chief, who was surprised and respectfully delivered Liu Yin back to Liu Yao. (It

3852-684: The Jin capital Luoyang, but was repelled. That year, after capturing more territory, Liu Yuan moved his capital to Puzi (蒲子, in modern Linfen , Shanxi ) and declared himself emperor, signifying an even more complete break from Jin. In 309, he moved the capital once more to Pingyang (平陽, also in modern Linfen). By this time, Liu Cong and Wang Mi had eventually been able to control all of southern Shanxi for Han, and they again attacked Luoyang, but were again repelled. In 310, Liu Yuan grew ill, and he created his second wife Lady Dan empress and his oldest son Liu He (by his first wife Empress Huyan —who appeared to have died by this point, although her death

3959-457: The King's court of advisers. Hijra, a Hindi term traditionally translated into English as "eunuch", actually refers to what modern Westerners would call transvestites or transgender women (although some of them reportedly identify as belonging to a third gender ). The history of this third sex is mentioned in the ancient Kama Sutra , which refers to people of a "third sex" ( tritiya-prakriti ). Some of them undergo ritual castration, but

4066-572: The Pingyang massacre offered the throne to Liu Yao, who accepted. He offered to not only spare Jin Zhun's life but continue to grant him power if Jin would surrender. However, when Jin Zhun was subsequently assassinated and succeeded by his cousin Jin Ming (靳明), who then surrendered to Liu Yao, Liu Yao massacred the Jin clan. As Pingyang was in ruins after the coup and the subsequent war, Liu Yao moved

4173-585: The Prince of Han in 304, creating the Han state and effectively declaring independence and war on (Western) Jin, he made Liu Yao a major general. Liu Yao was probably created the Prince of Shi'an in 306, when Liu Yuan declared himself the emperor. During Liu Yuan's reign, Liu Yao engaged in many campaigns against Jin forces and often was victorious, although he, like other Han generals, had difficulty permanently holding cities that he captured. In 309, along with his cousin Liu Cong and Wang Mi , he attacked Luoyang, but

4280-478: The Prince of Nanyang and further bestowed on him the title of Grand Chanyu, putting Wu Hu tribal forces under his command. He also created a second empress, Empress Liu . In 326, Empress Liu died, and according to her wishes, Liu Yao married her cousin Liu Fang as empress. In 327, believing that Former Zhao had been weakened by its defeat at Later Zhao's hands, Zhang Jun , Zhang Mao's nephew and successor as

4387-443: The Prince of Zhao, thus establishing his own state of Zhao. Historiographers distinguish the two states by referring to Liu Yao's state as Former Zhao and Shi Le's state as Later Zhao . Liu Yao's impulsiveness led to a major Di and Qiang rebellion in 320. After a conspiracy involving two Di chiefs, Ju Xu (句徐) and Ku Peng (庫彭) was discovered, Liu Yao executed not only Ju and Ku but also 50 other Di chiefs, throwing their bodies into

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4494-532: The Southern Xiongnu chanyus, with Tang in particularly presenting three reasons. Firstly, Liu Bao's lifespan was unusually long, as he was serving as Tuqi King in 195 and died after Tufa Shujineng rebelled , which should be after 274. Secondly, the Leader (or Commander) of the Left Tribe in 272 was Li Ke (李恪) and not Liu Bao according to Emperor Wu's entry in the Jinshu , but Liu Yuan's entry states that he inherited

4601-487: The Vietnamese performed castration in a painful procedure by removing the entire genitalia with both penis and testicles being cut off with a sharp knife or metal blade. The procedure was agonizing since the entire penis was cut off. The young man's thighs and abdomen would be tied and others would pin him down on a table. The genitals would be washed with pepper water and then cut off. A tube would be then inserted into

4708-439: The Xiongnu, he was given the title of North Chanyu rather than the vacant title of South Chanyu, which was held by his supposed ancestors. Tang hypothesized that these discrepancies were due to Liu Yuan actually being from the Chuge tribe (屠各; also known as Xiuchuge (休屠各)), which is supported by the fact that he and his family members are referred to as "Chuge" in several passages from relevant records. The Chuge are theorized to be

4815-674: The Zou version of Confucius ' Spring and Autumn Annals and of the military strategies of Sun Tzu and Wu Qi . The key Jin official Wang Hun (one of the lead generals who later participated in conquering Eastern Wu ) became impressed with him, and Wang Hun's son Wang Ji (王濟) became a close friend of Liu Yuan's. Wang Hun believed Liu to be general material and repeatedly recommended Liu Yuan to Emperor Wu , but Kong Xun (孔恂) and Empress Yang Zhi 's uncle Yang Ji (楊濟) suspected Liu for his Xiongnu ancestry and persuaded Emperor Wu against giving Liu military commands during campaigns against Eastern Wu and

4922-500: The assistance of hijras to collect taxes in the same fashion—they knock on the doors of shopkeepers, while dancing and singing, embarrassing them into paying. Recently, hijras have started to found organizations to improve their social condition and fight discrimination, such as the Shemale Foundation Pakistan. The eunuchs of Korea, called Korean : 내시, 內侍 , romanized :  naesi , were officials to

5029-753: The bed", a derivation inferred from eunuchs' established role at the time as "bedchamber attendants" in the imperial palace, and second, to eu tou nou ekhein , "being good with respect to the mind", which Orion explains based on their "being deprived of intercourse ( esterēmenou tou misgesthai ), the things that the ancients used to call irrational ( anoēta , literally: 'mindless')". Orion's second option reflects well-established idioms in Ancient Greek, as shown by entries for transl.  grc  – transl.  noos , eunoos and ekhein in Liddell and Scott 's Greek-English Lexicon, while

5136-483: The caliph resulted in his assassination in 1000 CE on the orders of al-Hakim. Since imams during this period ruled over a majority non-Shi'a population, the court eunuchs served an important informal role as ambassadors of the caliph, promoting loyalty and devotion to the Shi'a sect and the imam-caliph himself. The multicultural, multilingual eunuchs were able to connect to the commoners through shared cultural ground. During

5243-506: The capital to Chang'an. As emperor, Liu Yao showed flashes of brilliance, both at governance and military matters, at times, as well as willingness to listen to contrary opinions. However, he was also often impulsive and quick to anger, and toward the end of his reign appeared to develop alcoholism , which impaired his judgment. His first sign of impulsiveness might have contributed to the formal division of Han into two. In 319, when Shi Le sent messengers to offer tribute to Liu Yao, Liu Yao

5350-427: The commander of the tribes, Liu became known for his fair administration of laws and willingness to listen to ideas, and also for his willingness to spread his wealth. Therefore, the ambitious people in his region, not only of the Five Divisions but of many Han clans, flocked to him. After Emperor Wu's death and succession by Emperor Hui , the regent Yang Jun made Liu the commander of all Five Divisions, but toward

5457-888: The corps of mostly African eunuchs, known as the Aghawat , who guarded the Prophet Muhammad's tomb in Medina and the Kaʿba in Mecca. Most slaves trafficked to Hijaz came there via the Red Sea slave trade . Small African boys were castrated before they were trafficked to the Hijaz, where they were bought at the slave market by the Chief Agha to become eunuch novices. It was noted that boys from Africa were still openly bought to become eunuch novices to serve at Medina in 1895. In Medina there

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5564-540: The court in Thailand and advise them on court ritual since they held them in high regard. In Imperial China, eunuchs managed the imperial household and were involved in state affairs, often wielding significant political power. Sir Henry Yule saw many Muslims serving as eunuchs during the Konbaung dynasty period of Burma (modern Myanmar ) while on a diplomatic mission. In China, castration included removal of

5671-490: The deceased Emperor Hui 's wife, Yang Xianrong , as his own wife. Later that year, after Liu Cong's son Liu Can captured Chang'an , Liu Yao was put in charge of the Chang'an region, although he subsequently lost that city to Jin forces under Qu Yun (麴允), allowing the Jin prince Sima Ye (Emperor Huai's nephew) to occupy that city and subsequently declare himself emperor (as Emperor Min of Jin ) in 313 after Liu Cong executed

5778-655: The descendants of King Xiutu's tribe, who surrendered to the Han dynasty much earlier than the Southern Xiongnu in 121 BC. From the Hexi Corridor , the Chuge spread out throughout northern China and became the most powerful and prestigious tribe among the Xiongnu within China. In 188 AD, they killed the Southern Xiongnu chanyu, Qiangqu and exiled his son Yufuluo . After the Southern Xiongnu were divided into five divisions in Bingzhou , they were all annexed by Liu Bao of

5885-425: The end of the subsequent regency of Emperor Hui's wife Empress Jia Nanfeng , Liu was removed from that position due to his inability to stop one of his countrymen's rebellions. Later, when Sima Ying the Prince of Chengdu became the military commander at Yecheng , he invited Liu to be one of his subordinate military commanders, and Liu accepted the invitation. In the midst of the War of the Eight Princes , in 304,

5992-594: The entry from Orion, but stands by the first option, while attributing the second option to what "some say". In the late 12th century, Eustathius of Thessalonica ( Commentaries on Homer 1256.30, 1643.16) offered an original derivation of the word from eunis + okheuein , "deprived of mating". In translations of the Bible into modern European languages, such as the Luther Bible or the King James Bible ,

6099-549: The first option is not listed as an idiom under eunē in that standard reference work. However, the first option was cited by the late 9th century Byzantine emperor Leo VI in his New Constitution 98 banning the marriage of eunuchs, in which he noted eunuchs' reputation as trustworthy guardians of the marriage bed ( eunē ) and claimed that the very word eunuch attested to this kind of employment. The emperor also goes further than Orion by attributing eunuchs' lack of male–female intercourse specifically to castration, which he said

6206-608: The formal end of the Western Jin's brief unification of China following the Three Kingdoms period. Liu Yuan proclaimed himself a direct descendant of the Southern Xiongnu chanyus and, by extension, the Han dynasty , since his ancestors had married Han princesses through the practice of heqin . His state of Han (renamed Zhao in 319) was initially depicted as a restoration of the Han dynasty, and as anti-Jin sentiment continued to grow, Liu Yuan soon found himself leading

6313-462: The former Jin emperor. In 312, while fighting Liu Kun the Jin governor of Bing Province (并州, modern central and northern Shanxi ) and his ally Tuoba Yilu the Duke of Dai in conjunction with Liu Can, Liu Yao suffered a serious injury and was almost captured or killed by Jin forces, but was able to escape after the general Fu Hu (傅虎) yielded his own horse and sacrificed his own life in doing so. For

6420-471: The great Warring States general Le Yi , the great Han dynasty prime minister Xiao He , and the Han general and official Cao Can (曹參). When people heard these remarks, they often criticized him for being overly arrogant, but Liu Yuan's son Liu Cong respected him and remarked, "Yongming should be compared to Shizu (the temple name of Emperor Guangwu of Han ) and Emperor Wu of Wei ( Cao Cao ); Le, Xiao, and Cao Can cannot be compared to him." When Liu Yao

6527-533: The greater title of Prince of Qin. Late in Liu Cong's reign, Liu Cong grew increasingly cruel and extravagant, as well as increasingly trusting eunuchs and the treacherous official Jin Zhun . In 318, as Liu Cong grew ill, he summoned Liu Yao and Shi Le to be regents for his son Liu Can, but both Liu Yao and Shi declined, perhaps not wishing to contest the authorities of Jin Zhun, whose daughters had sway with Liu Cong and Liu Can as their wives. Subsequently, when Liu Cong died later that year and Liu Can succeeded to

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6634-960: The harem, a use which expanded gradually during the Umayyad Caliphate and had its breakthrough during the Abbasid Caliphate . During the Abbasid period, eunuchs became a permanent institution inside the Islamic harems after the model of the Abbasid harem , such as in the Fatimid harem , Safavid harem and the Qajar harem . For several centuries, Muslim Eunuchs were tasked with honored roles in Medina and Mecca . They are thought to have been instituted in their role there by Saladin , but perhaps earlier. Their tasks included caring for

6741-632: The head of Former Liang, declared himself again a Jin vassal and pillaged Former Zhao's Qin Province. Liu Yin led an army and defeated Former Liang's forces, even crossing the Yellow River, but eventually settling for capturing Former Liang's remaining territory east of the Yellow River. In fall 328, Shi Hu attacked Former Zhao's Hedong Commandery (roughly modern Yuncheng , Shanxi ). Liu Yao personally led an army and defeated Shi Hu, and then headed south and surrounded Luoyang, capturing several commanderies around it. This greatly shocked Shi Le, as he

6848-514: The heart to depose Liu Xi, the son of Empress Yang (who died earlier that year), and particularly because Liu Yin personally declined and did not wish to replace his brother, Liu Yao left Liu Xi as crown prince and created Liu Yin the Prince of Yong'an with special honors. In 324, the first real battle between Later Zhao and Former Zhao occurred at Xin'an (新安, in modern Luoyang , Henan ), ushering an era in which Later Zhao and Former Zhao would continuously battle for years. In 325, their armies fought

6955-511: The institution of slavery in the Fatimid Caliphate . These eunuchs were normally purchased from slave auctions and typically came from a variety of Arab and non-Arab minority ethnic groups. In some cases, they were purchased from various noble families in the empire, which would then connect those families to the caliph. Generally, though, foreign slaves were preferred, described as the "ideal servants". Once enslaved, eunuchs were often placed into positions of significant power in one of four areas:

7062-500: The king and other royalty in traditional Korean society. The first recorded appearance of a Korean eunuch was in Goryeosa ("History of Goryeo"), a compilation about the Goryeo dynasty period. In 1392, with the founding of the Joseon dynasty , the naesi system was revised, and the department was renamed the "Department of Naesi ". The naesi system included two ranks, those of Korean : 상선, 尙膳 , romanized :  Sangseon , lit.   'Chief of Naesi', who held

7169-514: The military, the aristocracy, or a family of their own (having neither offspring nor in-laws, at the very least). They were thus seen as more trustworthy and less interested in establishing a private dynasty. Because their condition usually lowered their social status, they could also be easily replaced or killed without repercussion. In cultures that had both harems and eunuchs, eunuchs were sometimes used as harem servants. Eunuchs have been documented in several ancient and medieval societies, including

7276-543: The most powerful Chief Eunuchs was Beshir Agha in the 1730s, who played a crucial role in establishing the Ottoman version of Hanafi Islam throughout the Empire by founding libraries and schools. In the 16th century, an Englishman, Samson Rowlie , was captured and castrated to serve the Ottoman governor in Algiers. In the 14th century, the Muslim Egyptian religious scholar Taj-al-Din Abu Nasr 'Abdal-Wahhab al-Subki discussed eunuchs in his book Kitab Mu'id al-Ni'am wa Mubid al-Niqam ( Arabic : كتاب معيد النعم ومبيد النقم ),

7383-415: The news, he became angry and was resolved to declare himself independent of Han. Later in 319, Liu Yao created Princess Yang—the former Jin empress—empress, making her the only person in Chinese history to serve as empress for two emperors and two empires. He created her son Liu Xi crown prince . He also changed the name of the state from Han to Zhao. Liu Yuan had declared the empire's name Han to create

7490-401: The next few years, Liu Yao fought largely inconclusive battles against Jin forces, both those directly under Emperor Min and those under Sima Bao the Prince of Nanyang. However, in 316, after Emperor Min's forces collapsed and Sima Bao failed to come to his aid, Liu Yao captured Chang'an and Emperor Min (whom Liu Cong subsequently executed in 318). For this accomplishment, Liu Cong created him

7597-424: The official title of senior second rank, and Korean : 내관, 內官 , romanized :  Naegwan , lit.   'Common official naesi', both of which held rank as officers. A total of 140 naesi served the palace in the Joseon dynasty period. They also took the exam on Confucianism every month. The naesi system was repealed in 1894 following Gabo reform . During the Yuan dynasty , eunuchs became

7704-651: The ones in direct service to the caliph and the royal household as chamberlains, treasurers, governors, and attendants. Their direct proximity to the caliph and his household afforded them a great amount of political sway. One eunuch, Jawdhar , became hujja to Imam-Caliph al-Qa'im , a sacred role in Shia Islam entrusted with the imam's choice of successor upon his death. There were several other eunuchs of high regard in Fatimid history, mainly being Abu'l-Fadi Rifq al-Khadim and Abu'l-Futuh Barjawan al-Ustadh . Rifq

7811-576: The penis as well as the testicles (see emasculation ). Both organs were cut off with a knife at the same time. Eunuchs existed in China from about 4,000 years ago, were imperial servants by 3,000 years ago, and were common as civil servants by the time of the Qin dynasty . From those ancient times until the Sui dynasty , castration was both a traditional punishment (one of the Five Punishments ) and

7918-643: The period of slavery in the Ottoman Empire , eunuchs were typically slaves imported from outside their domains. A fair proportion of male slaves were imported as eunuchs. The Ottoman court harem —within the Topkapı Palace (1465–1853) and later the Dolmabahçe Palace (1853–1909) in Istanbul —was under the administration of the eunuchs. These were of two categories: black eunuchs and white eunuchs. Black eunuchs were slaves from sub-Saharan Africa via

8025-608: The personal will of the Emperor, while the officials represented the alternative political will of the bureaucracy . The clash between them would thus have been a clash of ideologies or political agenda. The number of eunuchs in imperial employ fell to 470 by 1912, when the practice of using them ceased. The last imperial eunuch, Sun Yaoting , died in December 1996. Eunuchs were frequently employed in imperial palaces by some Muslim rulers as servants for female royalty, as guards of

8132-441: The position from his father. Thirdly, Liu Yuan was from Xinxing Commandery (新興郡; north of present-day Xinzhou , Shanxi ), which would have placed him in the North Tribe (北部), so for him and his father to hold command over the Left Tribe is suspect. Furthermore, the Jinshu states that after becoming Leader of the Left Tribe, he was later transferred to become Commander of the North Tribe, and when Sima Ying permitted him to return to

8239-703: The recruits at the Palace School and were from 1582 prohibited from entering the Harem. An important figure in the Ottoman court was the Chief Black Eunuch ( Kızlar Ağası or Darüssaade Ağası ). In control of both the harem and a net of spies among the black eunuchs, the Chief Eunuch was involved in almost every palace intrigue and thereby could gain power over either the sultan or one of his viziers, ministers, or other court officials. One of

8346-581: The royal harem, and as sexual mates for the nobles. Some of them attained high-status positions in society. An early example of such a high-ranking eunuch was Malik Kafur . Eunuchs in imperial palaces were organized in a hierarchy, often with a senior or Chief Eunuch (Urdu: Khwaja Saras ), directing junior eunuchs below him. Eunuchs were highly valued for their strength and trustworthiness, allowing them to live amongst women with fewer worries. This enabled eunuchs to serve as messengers, watchmen, attendants and guards for palaces. Often, eunuchs also doubled as part of

8453-437: The service of the emperor and virtuous Confucian officials is a familiar theme in Chinese history. In his History of Government , Samuel Finer points out that reality was not always that clear-cut. There were instances of very capable eunuchs who were valuable advisers to their emperor, and the resistance of the "virtuous" officials often stemmed from jealousy on their part. Ray Huang argues that in reality, eunuchs represented

8560-422: The service of the male members of the court; the service of the Fatimid harem , or female members of the court; administrative and clerical positions; and military service. For example, during the Fatimid occupation of Cairo, Egyptian eunuchs controlled military garrisons ( shurta ) and marketplaces ( hisba ), two positions beneath only the city magistrate in power. However, the most influential Fatimid eunuchs were

8667-622: The soldiers of the Five Divisions to support Sima Ying's cause. Sima Ying agreed and allowed Liu Yuan to return to the Five Divisions. Once Liu Yuan returned to his people, he gathered 50,000 men quickly and was readying himself to rush to Sima Ying's aid, but he also publicly accepted the title of Grand Chanyu. (Previously, Sima Ying had bestowed the title of North Chanyu on him.) However, he then heard that Sima Ying's forces had collapsed in fear of Wang's troops and that Sima Ying had, against his prior advice, fled to Luoyang. He then declared his people independent from Jin and further declared that, as

8774-628: The status of their castration to gain entrance into the palace. Chinese eunuch Lao Ai , for instance, became the lover of the mother of Qin Shi Huang , who bore him two sons, before Lao Ai and his sons were executed after participating in a rebellion against Qin Shi Huang. In Siam (modern Thailand) Indian Muslims from the Coromandel Coast served as eunuchs in the Thai palace and court. The Thai at times asked eunuchs from China to visit

8881-599: The throne, Jin Zhun became powerful and overthrew Liu Can, slaughtering all members of the imperial Liu clan in the capital Pingyang (平陽, in modern Linfen , Shanxi ). In the massacre, Liu Yao lost his mother Lady Hu, brother, and (he thought at the time) his son and heir Liu Yin . (However, unknown to his father, Liu Yin fled but was captured by or sold to a tribe named Heiniyuju (黑匿郁鞠) as a slave.) Upon hearing news of Jin Zhun's coup, Liu Yao and Shi each led their armies against Jin, catching him trapped between their forces. Meanwhile, senior Han princes and officials who escaped

8988-640: The throne, as it seems to be the case for the Syro-Hittite state of Carchemish . Political eunuchism became a fully established institution among the Achaemenid Empire . Eunuchs (called Imperial Aramaic : סריס , romanized:  səris , an Assyrian loanword) held powerful positions in the Achaemenid court. The eunuch Bagoas (not to be confused with Alexander's Bagoas ) was the vizier of Artaxerxes III and Artaxerxes IV , and

9095-541: The urethra to allow urination during healing. Many Vietnamese eunuchs were products of self castration to gain access to the palaces and power. In other cases they might be paid to become eunuchs. They served in many capacities, from supervising public works, to investigating crimes, to reading public proclamations. The four-thousand-year-old Egyptian Execration Texts threaten enemies in Nubia and Asia, specifically referencing "all males, all eunuchs, all women." Castration

9202-528: The vast majority do not. They usually dress in saris or shalwar kameez (traditional garbs worn by women in South Asia) and wear heavy make-up. They typically live on the margins of society and face discrimination. Hijra tend to have few options for earning a wage, with many turning to sex work and others performing ritualistic songs and dances. They are integral to several Hindu ceremonies, such as dance programs at marriage ceremonies. They may also earn

9309-405: The very last Southern Xiongnu chanyu Huchuquan (before Cao Cao abolished the office in 216 and divided the Xiongnu into Five Divisions ( bu , 部)); Liu Bao had the command of the Left Tribe (左部). Liu Yuan's mother Lady Huyan (呼延) appeared to be from a noble family, and was in probability Liu Bao's wife, not concubine. As all Five Divisions settled down in Bingzhou (modern southern Shanxi ), that

9416-572: The word eunuchs as found in the Latin Vulgate is usually rendered as an officer, official or chamberlain, consistent with the idea that the original meaning of eunuch was bed-keeper (Orion's first option). Modern religious scholars have been disinclined to assume that the courts of Israel and Judah included castrated men, even though the original translation of the Bible into Greek used the word eunoukhos . The early 17th-century scholar and theologian Gerardus Vossius therefore explains that

9523-496: The word eunuch and related terms, Ernst Maass suggested that Eustathius's derivation "can or must be laid to rest", and he affirmed the derivation from eunē and ekhein ("guardian of the bed"), without mentioning the other derivation from eunoos and ekhein ("having a well-disposed state of mind"). In Latin, the words eunuchus , spado (Greek: σπάδων spadon ), and castratus were used to denote eunuchs. The term eunuch has sometimes figuratively been used for

9630-516: The word originally designated an office, and he affirms the view that it was derived from eunē and ekhein (i.e. "bed-keeper"). He says the word came to be applied to castrated men in general because such men were the usual holders of that office. Still, Vossius notes the alternative etymologies offered by Eustathius ("deprived of mating") and others ("having the mind in a good state"), calling these analyses "quite subtle". Then, after having previously declared that eunuch designated an office (i.e., not

9737-594: Was a European eunuch during late Fatimid rule who gained power through his military and political savvy which brought peace between them and the Byzantine empire. Moreover, he squashed revolts in the Libya and the Levant. Given his reputation and power in the court and military he took the reins of the caliphate from his then student al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ; then ruled as the de facto Regent 997 CE. His usurpation of power from

9844-576: Was a part of town named Harat al-Aghawat (Neighborhood of the Aghas). The Red Sea slave trade became gradually more suppressed during the 20th-century, and Slavery in Saudi Arabia was abolished in 1962. In 1979, the last Agha was appointed. In 1990 seventeen eunuchs remained. In the Isma'ili Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171 CE), eunuchs played major roles in the politics of the caliphate's court within

9951-524: Was an African eunuch general who served as governor of the Damascus until he led an army of 30,000 men in a campaign to expand Fatimid control northeast to the city of Aleppo, Syria. He was noted for being able to unite a diverse group of Africans, Arabs, Bedouins, Berbers, and Turks into one coherent fighting force which was able to successfully combat the Mirdasids , Bedouins , and Byzantines. Barjawan

10058-441: Was due to the trust that certain jealous and suspicious foreign rulers placed in the loyalty of their eunuchized servants. Theophylact of Ohrid in a dialogue In Defence of Eunuchs also stated that the origin of the word was from eupnoeic and ekhein , "to have, hold", since they were always "well-disposed" toward the master who "held" or owned them. The 12th century Etymologicum Magnum (s.v. eunoukhos ) essentially repeats

10165-484: Was eventually captured and killed. Qin Province was once again Former Zhao domain. After his victory over Chen, Liu Yao continued west and attacked the Jin vassal Former Liang , crushing all bases that Former Liang had east of the Yellow River . He declared that he would next cross the Yellow River and head for the Former Liang capital Guzang (姑臧, in modern Wuwei , Gansu ), but instead was intending to intimidate

10272-468: Was initially very happy, as Shi was effectively the master of the eastern half of the empire and his submission therefore showed that his throne was secure. He created Shi the Prince of Zhao and granted him a number of imperial privileges. However, when one junior member of Shi's delegation, who wished to stay in Chang'an, thereafter submitted a report that Shi was in fact plotting an attack, Liu became angry and slaughtered Shi's delegation. When Shi received

10379-430: Was likely where Liu Yuan was born and raised. As powerful nobles from the Five Divisions were usually encouraged or pressured by Cao Wei and Jin authorities to send their sons to the capital Luoyang (both to encourage them to further sinicization and as collateral for their loyalty), Liu Yuan was sent to Luoyang to reside and to study traditional Chinese literature. He became well known for his studies, particularly of

10486-466: Was not mentioned in history) crown prince . When he died later that year, Liu He became emperor. However, only a week later, he was overthrown and killed by Liu Cong , who then became emperor. In the Book of Wei , Chinese author Wei Shou notes that Liu Yuan was over six feet tall and that he had strands of red hair in his long beard . Some modern Chinese academics, such as Tang Changru (唐长孺) and Chen Yong (陈勇), cast doubt on Liu Yuan's lineage from

10593-535: Was performed with the intention "that they will no longer do the things that males do, or at least to extinguish whatever has to do with desire for the female sex". The 11th century Byzantine monk Nikon of the Black Mountain , opting instead for Orion's second alternative, stated that the word came from eunoein ( eu "good" + nous "mind"), thus meaning "to be well-minded, well-inclined, well-disposed or favorable", but unlike Orion he argued that this

10700-533: Was repelled. After Liu Yuan's death in 310, Liu Cong overthrew his older brother and Liu Yuan's successor Liu He (after Liu He had tried to have him and the other brothers killed and successfully killed two) and succeeded to the throne himself as Emperor Zhaowu. He trusted Liu Yao greatly and commissioned him with a large force, and Liu Yao served his cousin faithfully. In 311, Liu Yao, in conjunction with Wang, Shi Le , and Huyan Yan , captured Luoyang and Emperor Huai of Jin . He took Emperor Huai's sister-in-law,

10807-688: Was sometimes punitive; under Assyrian law , homosexual acts were punishable by castration. Eunuchs were familiar figures in the Neo-Assyrian Empire ( Akkadian : ša rēš šarri izuzzū "the one who stands by the head of the king", often abbreviated as ša rēš ; c.  850 until 622 BCE) and in the court of the Egyptian pharaohs (down to the Lagid dynasty known as Ptolemies, ending with Cleopatra VII , 30 BCE). Eunuchs sometimes were used as regents for underage heirs to

10914-429: Was that, since they were incapable of having children, they would not be tempted to seize power and start a dynasty. In many cases, eunuchs were considered more reliable than the scholar-officials. As a symbolic assignment of heavenly authority to the palace system, a constellation of stars was designated as the Emperor's, and, to the west of it, four stars were identified as his "eunuchs." The tension between eunuchs in

11021-408: Was the primary power behind the throne during their reigns until he was killed by Darius III . Marmon (1995) writes " Mamluk biographies of the eunuchs often praise their appearance with adjectives such as jamil (beautiful), wasim (handsome), and ahsan (the best, most beautiful) or akmal (the most perfect)." The custom of using eunuchs as servants for women inside the Islamic harems had

11128-563: Was unable to quickly expand his sphere of influence. He set his capital at Lishi (離石, in modern Lüliang , Shanxi ), but his control of territory became limited to that local region. His forces were often able to achieve victories over Jin forces but unable to hold cities. In 305, after a famine, he relocated to Liting (黎亭, in modern Changzhi , Shanxi). As years went by, however, the various agrarian rebel generals who were resisting Jin rule, whether ethnically Wu Hu or Han, often chose to come under Liu Yuan's Han banner. Chief among these were

11235-469: Was uttered the only phrase in the Jie language which has survived to modern times, recorded phonetically in the Chinese annals, glossed with a Chinese translation. The phrase has since been analyzed and translated in numerous publications. Around the new year 329, the armies engaged in battle. Before the battle, Liu Yao, who had taken to drinking in his late reign, drank a large amount of liquor. His usual horse had suffered leg spasms, and so he had to ride

11342-413: Was worried that Liu Yao would next attack his capital Xiangguo (襄國, in modern Xintai , Hebei ). In winter 328, Shi Le personally led a relief force to Luoyang. Meanwhile, during the siege of Luoyang, Liu Yao took no precautious to cut off Chenggao Pass (in modern Zhengzhou , Henan ), and Shi was able to pass through it and arrive at Luoyang. In connection with this war by Shi Le against Liu Yao in 328 CE

11449-488: Was young, he, along with his cousin Liu Cong, were studying in the Jin capital Luoyang , when on one occasion he committed an unspecified crime punishable by death. He therefore fled to Chaoxian (朝鮮, near modern Pyeongyang , North Korea —not, in this case, a generic geographic term for Korea ). Later, after a general pardon , he returned, but decided to live in the mountains away from trouble. After Liu Yuan declared himself

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