Livable Rotterdam ( Dutch : Leefbaar Rotterdam ) is a local political party in the municipality of Rotterdam in the Netherlands , which was founded by Ronald Sørensen in 2001.
128-469: Livable Rotterdam won the council elections of March 2002 due to the charismatic leadership of Pim Fortuyn who had been selected to lead the party. This made it the city's largest political party, a position which for the previous thirty years had been held by the Labour Party . Livable Rotterdam started as a spin-off of the national party Livable Netherlands but is commonly seen as the local party of
256-558: A monarchy . In the 1920s the German sociologist Max Weber expanded the definition to include any system of administration conducted by trained professionals according to fixed rules. Weber saw bureaucracy as a relatively positive development; however, by 1944 the Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises opined in the context of his experience in the Nazi regime that the term bureaucracy
384-572: A parish priest from The Hague , accompanying him in some of his last TV appearances. According to The New York Times , Berger had become his "friend and confessor " during the last weeks of his life. Fortuyn was initially buried in Driehuis in the Netherlands. He was re-interred on 20 July 2002, at San Giorgio della Richinvelda , in the province of Pordenone in Italy, where he had owned
512-416: A "polar night of icy darkness", in which increasing rationalization of human life traps individuals in a soulless " iron cage " of bureaucratic, rule-based, rational control. Weber's critical study of the bureaucratization of society became one of the most enduring parts of his work. Many aspects of modern public administration are based on his work, and a classic, hierarchically organized civil service of
640-428: A centralized, bureaucratic government. The form of government created by the first emperor and his advisors was used by later dynasties to structure their own government. Under this system, the government thrived, as talented individuals could be more easily identified in the transformed society. The Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) established a complicated bureaucracy based on the teachings of Confucius , who emphasized
768-626: A coalition with PvdA and several members even declared that, irrespective of the coalition, they would leave the council if PvdA would become the biggest party (which has happened). After the municipal elections of 3 March 2010 the Public Prosecutor in Rotterdam launched an investigation into how proxy votes were solicited by the party, after an e-mail emerged in which one of the party’s councillors gives tips on how to accumulate these. Ronald Buijt wrote that he had 50 reliable citizens of
896-627: A consultant for, or even creating his own list . Livable Netherlands founder Jan Nagel subsequently invited him to run as party leader and Fortuyn was elected " lijsttrekker " ( lead candidate ) by a large majority of party members at the LN conference on 26 November 2001, prior to the Dutch general election of 2002 . In his leadership bid and general election campaign, Fortuyn attacked the mainstream parties on multiculturalism, immigration and law & order. He also called for less government interference and for
1024-611: A disjuncture: either the toppling of the ruling bureaucracy by means of a political revolution, or capitalist restoration led by the bureaucracy: The fall of the present bureaucratic dictatorship, if it were not replaced by a new socialist power, would thus mean a return to capitalist relations with a catastrophic decline of industry and culture. Writing in the early 1860s, political scientist John Stuart Mill theorized that successful monarchies were essentially bureaucracies, and found evidence of their existence in Imperial China ,
1152-426: A familiar public figure for his charismatic and flamboyant speaking style. In 1994 he began hosting his own radio program on RTV Rijnmond and often appeared on the political debate show Buitenhof and later as a commentator on the business current affairs program Business Class on RTL Nederland . Fortuyn was openly gay, and said in a 2002 interview that he was Catholic. Fortuyn began his political career on
1280-557: A house. When asked about his opposition to Muslim immigration, Fortuyn explained that, "I have no desire to go through the emancipation of women and homosexuals all over again." In August 2001, Fortuyn was quoted in the Rotterdams Dagblad newspaper saying, "I am also in favour of a cold war with Islam. I see Islam as an extraordinary threat, as a hostile religion." In the TV program Business class , Fortuyn said that Muslims in
1408-536: A large group of illegal immigrants. He said that he did not intend to "unload our Moroccan hooligans" onto the Moroccan King Hassan . Hassan had died three years earlier. He considered Article 7 of the constitution, which asserts freedom of speech , of more importance than Article 1, which forbids discrimination on the basis of religion, life principles, political inclination, race, or sexual preference. Fortuyn distanced himself from Hans Janmaat of
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#17327806893711536-453: A local level. At the apex of this system was the Shah, with total power over the state, legitimized by his bloodline as a sayyid , or descendant of Muhammad . To ensure transparency and avoid decisions being made that circumvented the Shah, a complex system of bureaucracy and departmental procedures had been put in place that prevented fraud. Every office had a deputy or superintendent, whose job
1664-558: A moral leadership, explicitly promoting and defending the new values of modern Western society, constantly recreating the Dutch identity. Fortuyn consistently retained a liberal stance on matters such as LGBT rights throughout his political career. Adopting the philosophical analysis by Carl Schmitt , it was assumed that such an identity could only be defined in antithesis to some actually existing concrete enemy. Inspired by Samuel Huntington 's The Clash of Civilizations , Dutch ethnicity
1792-623: A multitude of inferior officers lay heavy on each territory." After the Empire split, the Byzantine Empire developed a notoriously complicated administrative hierarchy , and in the 20th century the term Byzantine came to refer to any complex bureaucratic structure. Uzun Hasan's conquest of most of mainland Iran shifted the seat of power to the east, where the Aq Qoyunlu adopted Iranian customs for administration and culture. In
1920-602: A national academy where officials would select candidates to take part in an examination of the Confucian classics , from which Emperor Wu would select officials. In the Sui dynasty (581–618) and the subsequent Tang dynasty (618–907) the shi class would begin to present itself by means of the fully standardized civil service examination system , of partial recruitment of those who passed standard exams and earned an official degree. Yet recruitment by recommendations to office
2048-404: A new coalition with VVD, D66 and Denk Pim Fortuyn Wilhelmus Simon Petrus Fortuijn , known as Pim Fortuyn ( Dutch: [ˈpɪɱ fɔrˈtœyn] ; 19 February 1948 – 6 May 2002), was a Dutch politician, author, civil servant, businessman, sociologist and academic who founded the party Pim Fortuyn List (Lijst Pim Fortuyn or LPF) in 2002. Fortuyn worked as a professor at
2176-405: A one-time amnesty for those asylum seekers who had resided in the Netherlands for an extended period. In 2004, in a TV show, Fortuyn was chosen as De Grootste Nederlander ("Greatest Dutchman of all-time"), followed closely by William of Orange , the leader of the independence war that established the precursor to the present-day Netherlands. The election was not considered representative, as it
2304-404: A professor at Bryn Mawr College , Woodrow Wilson 's essay The Study of Administration argued for bureaucracy as a professional cadre, devoid of allegiance to fleeting politics. Wilson advocated a bureaucracy that: ...is a part of political life only as the methods of the counting house are a part of the life of society; only as machinery is part of the manufactured product. But it is, at
2432-683: A progressive new class would have promoted multiculturalism, founding an anti-racist civil religion on article 1 of the Dutch constitution, forbidding discrimination. Whereas in the early 1990s Fortuyn had held liberal views on immigration, this changed under the influence of Schoo. Dutch neocons understood that in the evermore secularising Netherlands a change on the lines of the Reagan Revolution had become highly improbable. Women's rights, gay rights, abortion and euthanasia had been generally accepted. In his 1995 book De verweesde samenleving ("The orphaned society"), Fortuyn claimed that
2560-579: A reform of the Dutch public health and education systems. He concluded his acceptance speech by saying the words in English that would become his slogan; "At your service!" Support for LN rose dramatically during Fortuyn's brief leadership, climbing from 2% in opinion polls to about 17%. On 9 February 2002, Fortuyn gave an interview to Volkskrant , a Dutch newspaper (see below) regarding his beliefs on immigration and Islam. His statements were considered so controversial that LN dismissed him as lijsttrekker
2688-441: A right-wing extremist), have objected to what they think is a harsher political and social climate, especially towards immigrants and Muslims. However, other commentators such as Ayaan Hirsi Ali , David Starkey and Douglas Murray have retrospectively defended some of Fortuyn's beliefs. Former Dutch Prime Minister Jan Peter Balkenende also stated that he later agreed with some of Fortuyn's criticisms of multiculturalism and
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#17327806893712816-474: A social democrat, and Democratic U.S. president John F. Kennedy . Fortuyn also criticised the polder model and the policies of the outgoing government of Wim Kok and repeatedly described himself and LPF 's ideology as pragmatic and not populistic . In March 2002, his newly created LPF became the largest party in Fortuyn's hometown Rotterdam during the Dutch municipal elections held that year. Fortuyn
2944-616: A solid general education to enable inter-departmental transfers, and promotion should be through achievement rather than "preferment, patronage, or purchase". This led to implementation of His Majesty's Civil Service as a systematic, meritocratic civil service bureaucracy. In the British civil service, just as it was in China, entrance to the civil service was usually based on a general education in ancient classics, which similarly gave bureaucrats greater prestige. The Cambridge-Oxford ideal of
3072-427: A substantial amount of influence to preserve the current political system because they are primarily focused on defending the country and the state from threats from both within and beyond. Since these institutions frequently operate independently and are mostly shielded from politics, they frequently have no affiliation with any particular political party or group. For instance, loyal British civil officials work for both
3200-498: Is awarded to opinion makers, politicians or commentators who best convey the ideas of Pim Fortuyn. Winners have included Ebru Umar and John van den Heuvel . Bureaucracy Bureaucracy ( / b j ʊəˈr ɒ k r ə s i / ; bure- OK -rə-see ) is a system of organization where decisions are made by a body of non-elected officials. Historically, a bureaucracy was a government administration managed by departments staffed with non-elected officials. Today, bureaucracy
3328-563: Is characterized by: Weber listed several preconditions for the emergence of bureaucracy, including an increase in the amount of space and population being administered, an increase in the complexity of the administrative tasks being carried out, and the existence of a monetary economy requiring a more efficient administrative system. Development of communication and transportation technologies make more efficient administration possible, and democratization and rationalization of culture results in demands for equal treatment . Although he
3456-604: Is mainly a centralized form of management and tends to be differentiated from adhocracy , in which management tends more to decentralization . Although the term bureaucracy first originated in the mid-18th century, organized and consistent administrative systems existed much earlier. The development of writing ( c. 3500 BC) and the use of documents was a critical component of such systems. The first definitive example of bureaucracy occurred in ancient Sumer , where an emergent class of scribes used clay tablets to document and carry out various administrative functions, such as
3584-456: Is often called Fortuynism . Observers variously saw him as a political protest targeting the alleged elitism and bureaucratic style of the Dutch purple coalitions or as offering an appealing political style. The style was characterized variously as one "of openness, directness and clearness", populism or simply as charisma. Another school holds Fortuynism as a distinct ideology, with an alternative vision of society. Some argued that Fortuynism
3712-760: Is the administrative system governing any large institution, whether publicly owned or privately owned. The public administration in many jurisdictions is an example of bureaucracy, as is any centralized hierarchical structure of an institution, including corporations , societies , nonprofit organisations , and clubs . There are two key dilemmas in bureaucracy. The first dilemma revolves around whether bureaucrats should be autonomous or directly accountable to their political masters. The second dilemma revolves around bureaucrats' responsibility to follow preset rules, and what degree of latitude they may have to determine appropriate solutions for circumstances that are unaccounted for in advance. Various commentators have argued for
3840-683: Is the state which has really made itself into civil society." Leon Trotsky developed a critical theory of the emerging Soviet bureaucracy during the early years of the Soviet Union. According to political scientist Thomas M. Twiss, Trotsky associated bureaucratism with authoritarianism , excessive centralism and conservatism . Social theorist Martin Krygier had noted the impact of Trotsky's post-1923 writings in shaping receptive views of bureaucracy among later Marxists and many non-Marxists. Twiss argued that Trotsky's theory of Soviet bureaucracy
3968-490: The Volkskrant . He said that the Netherlands, with a population of 16 million, had enough inhabitants, and the practice of allowing as many as 40,000 asylum-seekers into the country each year had to be stopped. The actual number for 2001 was 27,000, down slightly on the previous year. He claimed that if he became part of the next government, he would pursue a restrictive immigration policy while also granting citizenship to
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4096-742: The Ashanti Empire was built upon a sophisticated bureaucracy in Kumasi , with separate ministries which saw to the handling of state affairs. Ashanti's Foreign Office was based in Kumasi. Despite the small size of the office, it allowed the state to pursue complex negotiations with foreign powers. The Office was divided into departments that handled Ashanti relations separately with the British , French , Dutch , and Arabs . Scholars of Ashanti history, such as Larry Yarak and Ivor Wilkes , disagree over
4224-633: The Biotic Baking Brigade in The Hague. As a result, Fortuyn began to express a fear of being injured or assassinated and accused members of the Dutch political establishment of encouraging violence against him. On 6 May 2002, at age 54, Fortuyn was assassinated by gunshot in Hilversum , North Holland , by Volkert van der Graaf . The attack took place in a car park outside a radio studio where Fortuyn had just given an interview. This
4352-608: The Centrum Democraten , who in the 1980s wanted to remove all foreigners from the country and was repeatedly convicted for discrimination and hate speech . Fortuyn proposed that all people who already resided in the Netherlands would be allowed to stay, provided the immigrants adopted the Dutch society's consensus on human rights as their own. He stated: "not integrating means leaving" and "the borders have to be hermetically closed". He said "If it were legally possible, I'd say no more Muslims will get in here", claiming that
4480-597: The Enlightenment values. These should not yet be imposed on the Dutch population as a whole, with the exception of immigrants. Whereas American neoconservatives promoted hard power policies in relation to the Muslim world, Dutch neocons favoured a soft power approach. Shortly before the September 11 attacks , Fortuyn called for a Cold War against Islam, meaning a non-military defensive enmity. The attacks and
4608-629: The Erasmus University of Rotterdam before branching into a business career and was an advisor to the Dutch government on social infrastructure. He then became prominent in the Netherlands as a press columnist, writer and media commentator. Initially a Marxist who was sympathetic to the Communist Party of the Netherlands , and later a member of the Dutch Labour Party in the 1970s, Fortuyn's beliefs began to shift to
4736-670: The Qing dynasty collapsed, marking the end of China's traditional bureaucratic system. A hierarchy of regional proconsuls and their deputies administered the Roman Empire . The reforms of Diocletian (Emperor from 284 to 305) doubled the number of administrative districts and led to a large-scale expansion of Roman bureaucracy. The early Christian author Lactantius ( c. 250 – c. 325) claimed that Diocletian's reforms led to widespread economic stagnation, since "the provinces were divided into minute portions, and many presidents and
4864-537: The Russian Empire , and the regimes of Europe . Mill referred to bureaucracy as a distinct form of government, separate from representative democracy. He believed bureaucracies had certain advantages, most importantly the accumulation of experience in those who actually conduct the affairs. Nevertheless, he believed this form of governance compared poorly to representative government, as it relied on appointment rather than direct election. Mill wrote that ultimately
4992-777: The University of Amsterdam and transferred after a few months to the Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam. In 1971 he ended his study with the Academic degree Doctorandus . In 1981 he received a doctorate in sociology at the University of Groningen as a Doctor of Philosophy. Fortuyn worked as a lecturer at the Nyenrode Business Universiteit and as an associate professor at the University of Groningen , where he taught Marxist sociology. He
5120-583: The War on Terror made Islam a main issue in Dutch politics for the first time. Fortuyn announced his intention to run for parliament in a television interview with EenVandaag in 2001, although he did not specify which party he would seek to stand as a candidate with. Although he was already in contact with the newly formed Livable Netherlands (LN) party, he also considered running for the Christian Democratic Appeal which he had worked as
5248-410: The mohrdar , who affixed the state seal; and the marakur ' stable master ' , who supervised the royal court. Through the use of his increasing revenue, Uzun Hasan was able to buy the approval of the ulama (clergy) and the mainly Iranian urban elite, while also taking care of the impoverished rural inhabitants. The Safavid state was one of checks and balance, both within the government and on
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5376-585: The social democratic Labour Party (whose parliamentary group was halved in size); both parties replaced their leaders shortly after their losses. The election winners were the Pim Fortuyn List , and the Christian democratic Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA) whose leader Jan Peter Balkenende went on to become prime minister. Some commentators in the mainstream political class speculated that Fortuyn's perceived martyrdom created greater support for
5504-423: The 1970s he joined the Labour Party and became a social democrat . In 1986, his views shifted towards neoliberalism in the hope that the free market would lead to further individual emancipation, ending a perceived oppression by state bureaucracy . In 1991, he proposed firing half of all civil servants and promoted privatisation and decentralisation . In 1992, Fortuyn wrote Aan het volk van Nederland ("To
5632-431: The 1990s became a member of the centre-right VVD and was briefly a political consultant to the Christian Democratic Appeal in the early 2000s. Though on economic matters Fortuyn would largely remain a neoliberal, culturally he soon became strongly influenced by the neoconservative political philosopher and chief editor of the weekly Elsevier Hendrik Jan Schoo who made him a columnist in 1993. Schoo deplored that
5760-534: The British model also took personal physique and character into account. Like the British, the development of French bureaucracy was influenced by the Chinese system. Under Louis XIV of France , the old nobility had neither power nor political influence, their only privilege being exemption from taxes. The dissatisfied noblemen complained about this "unnatural" state of affairs, and discovered similarities between absolute monarchy and bureaucratic despotism . With
5888-464: The Catholic Church, he pointed out that bureaucracy is only appropriate for an organization whose code of conduct is not subject to change. He then went on to argue that complaints about bureaucratization usually refer not to the criticism of the bureaucratic methods themselves, but to "the intrusion of bureaucracy into all spheres of human life." Mises saw bureaucratic processes at work in both
6016-498: The Chinese. The governments of China, Egypt, Peru and Empress Catherine II were regarded as models of Enlightened Despotism, admired by such figures as Diderot, D'Alembert and Voltaire. Napoleonic France adopted this meritocracy system and soon saw a rapid and dramatic expansion of government, accompanied by the rise of the French civil service and its complex systems of bureaucracy. This phenomenon became known as "bureaumania". In
6144-461: The Continental type is called a "Weberian civil service" or a "Weberian bureaucracy". Social scientists debate whether Weberian bureaucracy contributes to economic growth . Political scientist Jan Vogler challenges Max Weber's characterization of modern bureaucracies. Whereas Weber describes bureaucracies as entailing strict merit recruitment, clearly delineated career-paths for bureaucrats,
6272-752: The Dutch financial contribution to the European Union . He was labelled a far-right populist by his opponents and in the media, but he fiercely rejected this label. Fortuyn was openly gay and a supporter of gay rights. Fortuyn explicitly distanced himself from "far-right" politicians such as the Belgian Filip Dewinter , Austrian Jörg Haider , or Frenchman Jean-Marie Le Pen whenever compared to them. While he compared his own politics to centre-right politicians such as Silvio Berlusconi of Italy and Edmund Stoiber of Germany, he also admired former Dutch Prime Minister Joop den Uyl ,
6400-535: The Dutch people. In the run-up to the 2002 election, GroenLinks leader Paul Rosenmöller claimed Fortuyn's policies were "not just right but extreme right ". Fortuyn often responded to criticism by stating that his views were misunderstood or distorted by the media, and in turn rejected comparisons and expressed his personal distaste for radical far-right politicians in other European countries. He explicitly distanced himself from Jean-Marie Le Pen and criticised some of his policies, including Le Pen's downplaying of
6528-438: The Dutch talk show Jensen! that was broadcast shortly before his death, Fortuyn accused members of the Dutch government and political establishment of putting his life in danger through repeatedly demonizing him and his beliefs. Fortuyn changed the Dutch political landscape. The 2002 elections, only weeks after Fortuyn's death, were marked by large losses for the liberal People's Party for Freedom and Democracy and especially
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#17327806893716656-581: The Holocaust. In domestic politics, Fortuyn also distanced his views from hard-right Dutch politicians such as Hans Janmaat and Joop Glimmerveen (who called for the mass expulsion of foreigners from the Netherlands) by maintaining that if he came to power, he would pardon existing illegal immigrants if they had lived in the Netherlands for over five years and offer them a path to citizenship if they could be assimilated into society. In an interview on
6784-555: The House of Representatives Geert Wilders who in 2006 formed the Party for Freedom (which became the largest party in the House of Representatives in 2023 ) and Thierry Baudet , leader of the Forum for Democracy party. These politicians often focus on the debate over cultural assimilation and integration . Supporters of Fortuyn went on to set up the annual Pim Fortuyn Prize which
6912-555: The Iranian areas, Uzun Hasan preserved the previous bureaucratic structure along with its secretaries, who belonged to families that had in a number of instances served under different dynasties for several generations. The four top civil posts of the Aq Qoyunlu were all occupied by Iranians, which under Uzun Hasan included: the vizier, who led the great council ( divan ); the mostawfi al-mamalek , high-ranking financial accountants;
7040-556: The LPF ( Pim Fortuyn List ), the national party of Pim Fortuyn which was founded just after Pim Fortuyn was fired as lijsttrekker of the Livable Netherlands party in spring 2002. Both Livable Rotterdam and the LPF are considered to have similar policy ideas. The party consists of numerous members that are new to politics and were attracted to Fortuyn's dreams of political change. The party attracts attention and criticism for
7168-466: The LPF was able to form a coalition with the Christian Democratic Appeal and the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy , it was bereft with internal strife and quickly lost steam. The coalition cabinet of Jan Peter Balkenende fell within three months, due to infighting within the LPF. In the following elections, the LPF was left with only eight seats in parliament (out of 150) and was not included in
7296-556: The LPF, hence that party's brief surge to 17% of the electoral vote and 26 of the 150 seats in the Dutch Parliament. Others opined that voters who would have otherwise supported the LPF had Fortuyn not been murdered voted for the CDA as Balkenende had not joined in with other party leaders in attacking Fortuyn. Balkenende later claimed to have shared some of Fortuyn's opinions and pledged to implement some of his policy ideas. Although
7424-427: The Muslim people, but it takes two to tango ." Fortuyn also maintained that he did not object to Muslim immigrants because of their race or ethnicity, and was not against a multi-racial society, but opposed what he saw as lack of integration and unwillingness to adapt to Dutch standards of modernity and social liberalism within Muslim communities. On 9 February 2002, additional statements made by him were carried in
7552-400: The Netherlands did not accept Dutch society; he believed that the religion of Islam was fundamentally intolerant and incompatible with Western values. He said that Muslims in the Netherlands needed to accept living together with the Dutch, and that if this was unacceptable for them, then they were free to leave. His concluding words in the TV program were "... I want to live together with
7680-628: The Penal Code, incitement to hatred). Having been rejected by Livable Netherlands, Fortuyn founded his own party Pim Fortuyn List (LPF) on 11 February 2002, taking many former LN members and supporters with him. Heading the list of the Livable Rotterdam party, considered to be the local counterpart of the LPF, he achieved a major victory in the Rotterdam municipal council elections in early March 2002. The new party won about 36% of
7808-450: The PvdA only beat Livable Rotterdam by a mere 650 votes, yet both parties had 14 seats in the city council. Joost Eerdmans was elected lijsttrekker of Livable Rotterdam on 6 October 2013. Under his leadership, the party won the 2014 municipal election , retaining its fourteen seats. Since 8 May 2014, Livable Rotterdam leads a coalition with CDA and D66 . As of 2022, the party leads
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#17327806893717936-483: The apparatus used by the British government to subjugate Ireland as "the Bureaucratie, or office tyranny, by which Ireland has so long been governed". By the mid-19th century the word appeared in a more neutral sense, referring to a system of public administration in which offices were held by unelected career officials. In this context bureaucracy was seen as a distinct form of management , often subservient to
8064-441: The associated bureaucracy. Politicians like Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan gained power by promising to eliminate government regulatory bureaucracies, which they saw as overbearing, and return economic production to a more purely capitalistic mode, which they saw as more efficient. In the business world, managers like Jack Welch gained fortune and renown by eliminating bureaucratic structures inside corporations. Still, in
8192-669: The bureaucracy stifles the mind, and that "a bureaucracy always tends to become a pedantocracy." The fully developed bureaucratic apparatus compares with other organisations exactly as does the machine with the non-mechanical modes of production. –Max Weber The German sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920) was the first to study bureaucracy formally, and his works led to the popularization of this term. In his essay Bureaucracy , published in his magnum opus , Economy and Society in 1921, Weber described many ideal-typical forms of public administration , government, and business . His ideal-typical bureaucracy, whether public or private,
8320-451: The city who could take the proxy votes to the polling stations. The electoral council said this went against the spirit of proxy voting, which should only be used at the initiative of the voter. This irregularity was added to a litany of complaints against the poll in Rotterdam in these elections (many of which were caused by the PvdA), which resulted in a recount of all the votes cast. Back then
8448-469: The civil service was identical to the Confucian ideal of a general education in world affairs through humanism. Well into the 20th century, classics, literature, history and language remained heavily favoured in British civil service examinations. In the period of 1925–1935, 67 percent of British civil service entrants consisted of such graduates. Like the Chinese model's consideration of personal values,
8576-405: The current political system in the Netherlands and was used as his political agenda for the upcoming general election . Purple is the colour to indicate a coalition government consisting of left parties (red) and conservative-liberal parties (blue). The Netherlands had been governed by such a coalition for eight years at that time. On 14 March 2002, Fortuyn was pied by a left-wing activist from
8704-502: The discovery of a universal and uniform underlying structure of managerial or work levels in the bureaucratic hierarchy for any type of employment systems. Jaques argues and presents evidence that for the bureaucracy to provide a valuable contribution to the open society some of the following conditions must be met: Like every modern state, a liberal democracy is highly bureaucratized, with numerous sizable organizations filled with career civil servants . Some of those bureaucracies have
8832-589: The earlier Chinese model. By the mid-19th century, bureaucratic forms of administration were firmly in place across the industrialized world. Thinkers like John Stuart Mill and Karl Marx began to theorize about the economic functions and power-structures of bureaucracy in contemporary life. Max Weber was the first to endorse bureaucracy as a necessary feature of modernity, and by the late 19th century bureaucratic forms had begun their spread from government to other large-scale institutions. Within capitalist systems, informal bureaucratic structures began to appear in
8960-409: The early 19th century, Napoleon attempted to reform the bureaucracies of France and other territories under his control by the imposition of the standardized Napoleonic Code . But paradoxically, that led to even further growth of the bureaucracy. French civil service examinations adopted in the late 19th century were also heavily based on general cultural studies. These features have been likened to
9088-694: The forces of change brought on by the Industrial Revolution propelled many countries, especially in Europe, to significant social changes. However, due to the conservative nature of the Tsarist regime and its desire to maintain power and control, social change in Russia lagged behind that of Europe. Russian-speakers referred to bureaucrats as chinovniki ( чиновники ) because of the rank or chin ( чин ) which they held. The government of
9216-528: The form of corporate power hierarchies, as detailed in mid-century works like The Organization Man and The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit . Meanwhile, in the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc nations, a powerful class of bureaucratic administrators termed nomenklatura governed nearly all aspects of public life. The 1980s brought a backlash against perceptions of "big government" and
9344-638: The full separation of bureaucratic operations from politics, and mutually exclusive spheres of competence for government agencies, Vogler argues that the overwhelming majority of existing public administrative systems are not like this. Instead, modern bureaucracies require only "minimal competence" from candidates for bureaucratic offices, leaving space for biases in recruitment processes that give preferential treatment to members of specific social, economic, or ethnic groups, which are observed in many real-world bureaucratic systems. Bureaucracies are also not strictly separated from politics. Writing as an academic while
9472-478: The good government which consists in the advancement of men of talent and merit only", and that the British must reform their civil service by making the institution meritocratic . Influenced by the ancient Chinese imperial examination , the Northcote–Trevelyan Report of 1854 recommended that recruitment should be on the basis of merit determined through competitive examination, candidates should have
9600-456: The government decided not to postpone the elections. As Dutch law did not permit modifying the ballots, Fortuyn became a posthumous candidate. The LPF made an unprecedented debut in the House of Representatives by winning 26 seats (17% of the 150 seats in the house). The LPF joined a cabinet with the Christian Democratic Appeal and the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy , but conflicts in
9728-426: The importance of ritual in family, relationships, and politics. With each subsequent dynasty, the bureaucracy evolved. In 165 BC, Emperor Wen introduced the first method of recruitment to civil service through examinations. Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BC) cemented the ideology of Confucius into mainstream governance by installing a system of recommendation and nomination in government service known as xiaolian , and
9856-421: The influx of Muslims would threaten freedoms in the liberal Dutch society. He thought Muslim culture had never undergone a process of modernisation and therefore still lacked acceptance of democracy and women's, gays', lesbians' and minorities' rights. When asked by the Dutch newspaper Volkskrant whether he hated Islam, he replied: I don't hate Islam. I consider it a backward culture. I have travelled much in
9984-579: The late 18th century, the ratio of fiscal bureaucracy to population in Britain was approximately 1 in 1300, almost four times larger than the second most heavily bureaucratized nation, France. Thomas Taylor Meadows , Britain's consul in Guangzhou , argued in his Desultory Notes on the Government and People of China (1847) that "the long duration of the Chinese empire is solely and altogether owing to
10112-510: The latter makes for progress and improvement." American sociologist Robert K. Merton expanded on Weber's theories of bureaucracy in his work Social Theory and Social Structure , published in 1957. While Merton agreed with certain aspects of Weber's analysis, he also noted the dysfunctional aspects of bureaucracy, which he attributed to a "trained incapacity" resulting from "over conformity". He believed that bureaucrats are more likely to defend their own entrenched interests than to act to benefit
10240-473: The left and was initially a Marxist due to an aversion to the Dutch political establishment which he described as dominated by pillarization and a " regent mentality." He was sympathetic to the Dutch Communist Party but chose not to become a member due to personal disagreements with the party leadership and self-identified as a Marxist without becoming active in any communist organisations. In
10368-510: The management of taxes, workers, and public goods/resources like granaries. Similarly, Ancient Egypt had a hereditary class of scribes that administered a civil-service bureaucracy. In China , when the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) unified China under the Legalist system, the emperor assigned administration to dedicated officials rather than nobility, ending feudalism in China, replacing it with
10496-520: The mid-18th century. Gournay never wrote the term down but a letter from a contemporary later quoted him: The late M. de Gournay... sometimes used to say: "We have an illness in France which bids fair to play havoc with us; this illness is called bureaumania." Sometimes he used to invent a fourth or fifth form of government under the heading of "bureaucracy." The first known English-language use dates to 1818 with Irish novelist Lady Morgan referring to
10624-464: The modern world, most organized institutions rely on bureaucratic systems to manage information, process records, and administer complex systems, although the decline of paperwork and the widespread use of electronic databases is transforming the way bureaucracies function. Karl Marx theorized about the role and function of bureaucracy in his Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right , published in 1843. In Philosophy of Right , Hegel had supported
10752-434: The necessity of bureaucracies in modern society. The German sociologist Max Weber argued that bureaucracy constitutes the most efficient and rational way in which human activity can be organized and that systematic processes and organized hierarchies are necessary to maintain order, maximize efficiency , and eliminate favoritism. On the other hand, Weber also saw unfettered bureaucracy as a threat to individual freedom , with
10880-404: The new government. Many of the LPF's successive leaders were not regarded as charismatic as Fortuyn and as the next cabinet under Balkenende continued many of the former coalition's policies, it became harder for the LPF to present an alternative image to the government. However, political commentators speculated that discontented voters might vote for a non-traditional party, if a viable alternative
11008-446: The next day. Against the advice of his campaign team, Fortuyn said in the interview that he favoured closing borders to Muslim immigrants and if possible he would abolish the "peculiar article" of the Dutch constitution forbidding discrimination (at the time it was generally assumed that he referred to Article 1, the equality before the law ; it has been argued, however, that Fortuyn and the interviewer had confused this with Article 137 of
11136-437: The organization as a whole but that pride in their craft makes them resistant to changes in established routines. Merton stated that bureaucrats emphasize formality over interpersonal relationships, and have been trained to ignore the special circumstances of particular cases, causing them to come across as "arrogant" and "haughty". In his book A General Theory of Bureaucracy , first published in 1976, Elliott Jaques describes
11264-468: The people of the Netherlands"), in which he declared himself to be the spiritual successor of the charismatic but controversial 18th-century Dutch patriot politician Joan Derk van der Capellen tot den Pol . The book urges the already culturally emancipated citizen to use the free market to also liberate himself economically, from the welfare state . In 1989, Fortuyn left the Labour Party and during
11392-510: The potential of trapping individuals in an impersonal " iron cage " of rule-based, rational control. The term bureaucracy originated in the French language : it combines the French word bureau – ' desk ' or ' office ' – with the Greek word κράτος ( kratos ) – ' rule ' or ' political power '. The French economist Jacques Claude Marie Vincent de Gournay coined the word in
11520-559: The power of this sophisticated bureaucracy in comparison to the Asantehene . However, both scholars agree that it was a sign of a highly developed government with a complex system of checks and balances . Instead of the inefficient and often corrupt system of tax farming that prevailed in absolutist states such as France, the Exchequer was able to exert control over the entire system of tax revenue and government expenditure. By
11648-492: The pressure of being under surveillance and had to make sure they governed in the best interest of their leader, and not merely their own. The Ottomans adopted Persian bureaucratic traditions and culture. Defunct The Russian autocracy survived the Time of Troubles and the rule of weak or corrupt tsars because of the strength of the government's central bureaucracy. Government functionaries continued to serve, regardless of
11776-459: The private and public spheres; however, he believed that bureaucratization in the private sphere could only occur as a consequence of government interference. According to him, "What must be realized is only that the strait jacket of bureaucratic organization paralyzes the individual's initiative, while within the capitalist market society an innovator still has a chance to succeed. The former makes for stagnation and preservation of inveterate methods,
11904-429: The progressive movement of the 1960s had eroded traditional norms and values. Both the roles of the "symbolic father" and the "caring mother" had been lost, leaving an orphaned population without guidance, to live out a meaningless decadent existence. However, Fortuyn did not propose a return to old socially conservative or Dutch Calvinist and iconoclastic values and argued that the media, schools and artists should provide
12032-443: The purple coalition under Wim Kok . Contemporary Dutch politics is more polarized than it has been in recent years, especially on the issues for which Fortuyn was best known. People debate the success of their multicultural society , and whether they need to better assimilate newcomers. The government's decision in 2004 to more strictly expel asylum seekers whose applications had failed was controversial. Fortuyn had advocated for
12160-429: The right in the 1990s, especially related to the immigration policies of the Netherlands. Fortuyn criticised multiculturalism , immigration and Islam in the Netherlands . He called Islam "a backward culture", and was quoted as saying that if it were legally possible, he would close the borders for Muslim immigrants. Fortuyn also supported tougher measures against crime and opposed state bureaucracy , wanting to reduce
12288-408: The role of specialized officials in public administration , although he never used the term bureaucracy himself. By contrast, Marx was opposed to bureaucracy. Marx posited that while corporate and government bureaucracy seem to operate in opposition, in actuality they mutually rely on one another to exist. He wrote that "The Corporation is civil society's attempt to become state; but the bureaucracy
12416-488: The rudderless LPF quickly collapsed the cabinet, forcing new elections. By the following year, the party had lost support, winning only eight seats in the 2003 elections . It won no seats in the 2006 elections , by which time the Party for Freedom , led by Geert Wilders , had emerged as a successor. During the last months of his life, Fortuyn had become closer to the Catholic Church. To the surprise of many commentators and Dutch TV hosts, Fortuyn insisted on Fr. Louis Berger,
12544-399: The ruler's legitimacy or the boyar faction controlling the throne. In the 17th century, the bureaucracy expanded dramatically. The number of government departments ( prikazy ; sing., prikaz ) increased from twenty-two in 1613 to eighty by mid-century. Although the departments often had overlapping and conflicting jurisdictions , the central government, through provincial governors,
12672-405: The same time, raised very far above the dull level of mere technical detail by the fact that through its greater principles it is directly connected with the lasting maxims of political wisdom, the permanent truths of political progress. Wilson did not advocate a replacement of rule by the governed, he simply advised that, "Administrative questions are not political questions. Although politics sets
12800-500: The seats, making it the largest party in the council. For the first time since the Second World War , the Labour Party was out of power in Rotterdam . Fortuyn's victory made him the subject of hundreds of interviews during the next three months, and he made many statements about his political ideology . In March he released his book The Mess of Eight Purple Years ( De puinhopen van acht jaar Paars ), which criticised
12928-413: The service in question cannot be subjected to economic calculation, bureaucratic management is necessary. He did not oppose universally bureaucratic management; on the contrary, he argued that bureaucracy is an indispensable method for social organization, for it is the only method by which the law can be made supreme, and is the protector of the individual against despotic arbitrariness. Using the example of
13056-440: The show said that votes counted before the end of the show would be decisive, but it was suggested that all votes correctly cast before the closing of the vote would be counted. Following the official rules, the outcome was not changed. Right-wing politicians gained greater public influence after Fortuyn's death, such as former Minister for Integration & Immigration Rita Verdonk , the prominent critic of Islam , Member of
13184-539: The socio-culturally liberal values of the Netherlands, women's rights and sexual minorities (he was openly gay himself), from the "backward" Islamic culture. He held liberal views favouring the drug policy of the Netherlands , same-sex marriage , euthanasia , and related positions. Fortuyn was also a member of the Republican Society , and favoured a US-style system with an elected president, elected mayors and police commissioners. He also expressed support for
13312-506: The state of Israel throughout his political career. The LPF also won support from some ethnic minorities; one of Fortuyn's closest associates was of Cape Verdean origin, and one of the party's MPs was a young woman of Turkish descent. His ideology comprised the following positions: Fortuyn was compared with the politicians Jörg Haider and Jean-Marie Le Pen in the foreign press. These comparisons were often referred to by Dutch reporters and politicians. An explicit comparison with Le Pen
13440-586: The tasks for administration, it should not be suffered to manipulate its offices". This essay became a foundation for the study of public administration in America. In his 1944 work Bureaucracy , the Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises compared bureaucratic management to profit management. Profit management, he argued, is the most effective method of organization when the services rendered may be checked by economic calculation of profit and loss. When, however,
13568-575: The translation of Confucian texts during the Enlightenment , the concept of a meritocracy reached intellectuals in the West, who saw it as an alternative to the traditional ancien regime of Europe. Western perception of China even in the 18th century admired the Chinese bureaucratic system as favourable over European governments for its seeming meritocracy; Voltaire claimed that the Chinese had "perfected moral science" and François Quesnay advocated an economic and political system modeled after that of
13696-439: The upfront behavior of its members and its unconventional, if sometimes right -leaning vision, especially on issues of immigration , crime and inter-culture tolerance . In the municipal elections of 7 March 2006, Livable Rotterdam lost 5%, dropping to 29.7% of their votes and PvdA gained 15%, making the latter the biggest party again, with 37.4% of the votes. Before the elections, Livable Rotterdam declared it would not enter in
13824-467: The word achterlijk , literally meaning "backward", but commonly used as an insult in the sense of " retarded ". After his use of "achterlijk" caused an uproar, Fortuyn said he had used the word with its literal meaning of "backward". Fortuyn wrote Against the Islamization of Our Culture (1997) (in Dutch ). The ideology or political style that is derived from Pim Fortuyn, and in turn the LPF,
13952-401: The word is used very often to blame complicated rules, processes, and written work that are interpreted as obstacles rather than safeguards and accountability assurances. Socio-bureaucracy would then refer to certain social influences that may affect the function of a society. In modern usage, modern bureaucracy has been defined as comprising four features: Bureaucracy in a political theory
14080-585: The world. And wherever Islam rules, it's just terrible. All the hypocrisy. It's a bit like those old Reformed Protestants . The Reformed lie all the time. And why is that? Because they have standards and values that are so high that you can't humanly maintain them. You also see that in that Muslim culture. Then look at the Netherlands. In what country could an electoral leader of such a large movement as mine be openly homosexual? How wonderful that that's possible. That's something that one can be proud of. And I'd like to keep it that way, thank you very much. Fortuyn used
14208-477: Was assassinated during the 2002 Dutch national election campaign by Volkert van der Graaf , a left-wing environmentalist and animal rights activist. In court at his trial, van der Graaf said he murdered Fortuyn to stop him from exploiting Muslims as "scapegoats" and targeting "the weak members of society" in seeking political power. The LPF went on to poll in second place during the election but went into decline soon after. Wilhelmus Simon Petrus Fortuijn
14336-643: Was demonized . In it he said that he often had to tell journalists that the image created of him in the media was incorrect. Columnist Jan Blokker wrote that "[a]fter reading [...] I realized once again that Professor Pim may really be called the Jean-Marie Le Pen, the Filip Dewinter, the Jörg Haider and the new Hans Janmaat of the Netherlands." Prime Minister Wim Kok accused Fortuyn of stirring up fear and stimulating xenophobia among
14464-529: Was "always applied with an opprobrious connotation", and by 1957 the American sociologist Robert Merton suggested that the term bureaucrat had become an " epithet , a Schimpfwort " in some circumstances. The word bureaucracy is also used in politics and government with a disapproving tone to disparage official rules that appear to make it difficult—by insistence on procedure and compliance to rule, regulation, and law—to get things done. In workplaces,
14592-661: Was able to control and regulate all social groups, as well as trade, manufacturing, and even the Eastern Orthodox Church . The tsarist bureaucracy , alongside the military , the judiciary and the Russian Orthodox Church , played a major role in solidifying and maintaining the rule of the Tsars in the Tsardom of Russia (1547–1721) and in the Russian Empire (1721–1917). In the 19th century,
14720-626: Was also an employee of the Groningen University Newspaper for which he wrote columns. He was a Marxist at the time and sympathized with the Communist Party of the Netherlands (CPN), although he never became a full member. Later, he joined the Labour Party . In 1989 Fortuyn became director of a government organisation administering student transport cards and worked as an advisor to the Social and Economic Council (SER). In 1990 he moved to Rotterdam . From 1991 to 1995, he
14848-585: Was an extraordinary professor at the Erasmus University Rotterdam , appointed to the Albeda-chair in "employment conditions in public service" and ran an education consultancy business. When his contract ended, he made a career of public speaking, writing books and press columns, and worked as a weekly columnist for Elsevier . He gradually involved himself in politics through regularly appearing on televised debate shows and became
14976-477: Was at hand. Later, the right-wing Party for Freedom , which has a strong stance on immigration, proposing to deport criminal, unemployed or not assimilated non-western immigrants, won nine (out of 150) seats in the 2006 elections and became the largest party in the 2023 elections , reaching 37 seats. The Netherlands has made its asylum policy more strict. Opponents of Fortuynism , such as Paul Rosenmöller , Thom de Graaf , and Ad Melkert (all labelling Fortuyn as
15104-471: Was born on 19 February 1948 in Driehuis within the Dutch municipality of Velsen , as the third child to a middle class Catholic family. His father worked as a salesman and his mother was a housewife. He attended Mendelcollege secondary school in Haarlem where he was described as an academically gifted pupil. As a youth, Fortuyn initially wanted to train as a priest, but in 1967 he began to study sociology at
15232-467: Was essential for a study of Soviet history and understanding the process of capitalist restoration in Russia and Eastern Europe. Political scientist, Baruch Knei-Paz argued Trotsky had, above all others, written "to show the historical and social roots of Stalinism" as a bureaucratic system. One of the predictions made by Trotsky in his 1936 work, The Revolution Betrayed , was that the USSR would come before
15360-458: Was held by viewers' voting through the internet and by phoning in. Theo van Gogh had been murdered a few days before by a Muslim, which likely affected people's voting in the TV contest for Fortuyn. The program later revealed that William of Orange had received the most votes, but many could not be counted until after the official closing time of the television show (and the proclamation of the winner), due to technical problems. The official rules of
15488-538: Was made by Ad Melkert , then lijsttrekker of the Labour Party , who said in Emmen on 24 April 2002: "If you flirt with Fortuyn, then in the Netherlands the same thing will happen as happened in France. There they woke up with Le Pen, soon we will wake up with Fortuyn." On 5 May, the day before the assassination, Fortuyn in a debate with Melkert organized by the Algemeen Dagblad newspaper claimed that he
15616-469: Was nine days before the general election , in which he was running. The attacker was pursued by Hans Smolders , Fortuyn's driver, and was arrested by the police shortly afterward, still in possession of a handgun. Months later, Van der Graaf confessed in court to the first notable political assassination in the Netherlands since 1672 (excluding World War II ). On 15 April 2003, he was convicted of assassinating Fortuyn and sentenced to 18 years in prison. He
15744-425: Was not just one ideology, but contained liberalism, populism and nationalism . During the 2002 campaign, Fortuyn was accused by some of being on the "extreme right", although others saw only certain similarities. While he employed anti-immigration rhetoric, he considered himself neither a radical nationalist nor a defender of traditional authoritarian values. On the contrary, Fortuyn claimed he wanted to protect
15872-450: Was not necessarily an admirer of bureaucracy, Weber saw bureaucratization as the most efficient and rational way of organizing human activity and therefore as the key to rational-legal authority , indispensable to the modern world. Furthermore, he saw it as the key process in the ongoing rationalization of Western society . Weber also saw bureaucracy, however, as a threat to individual freedoms, and ongoing bureaucratization as leading to
16000-489: Was released on parole in May 2014 after serving two-thirds of his sentence, the standard procedure under the Dutch penal system. The assassination shocked many residents of the Netherlands and highlighted the cultural clashes within the country. Various conspiracy theories arose after Pim Fortuyn's murder and deeply affected Dutch politics and society. Politicians from all parties suspended campaigning. After consultation with LPF,
16128-539: Was still prominent in both dynasties. It was not until the Song dynasty (960–1279) that the recruitment of those who passed the exams and earned degrees was given greater emphasis and significantly expanded. During the Song dynasty (960–1279) the bureaucracy became meritocratic . Following the Song reforms, competitive examinations took place to determine which candidates qualified to hold given positions. The imperial examination system lasted until 1905, six years before
16256-534: Was to be re-invented by identifying that enemy as Islam. In his 1997 book Tegen de islamisering van onze cultuur ("Against the islamisation of our culture"), Fortuyn proposed that after the fall of communism a new adversary would be found in Muslim culture. Fortuyn explained the global fundamentalist wave of the 1990s as a backlash against the insecurities caused by globalisation . The Dutch should counter Islamic fundamentalism by promoting and defending their own fundament , Dutch culture, especially modernism and
16384-455: Was to keep records of all actions of the state officials and report directly to the Shah. The Shah himself exercised his own measures for keeping his ministers under control by fostering an atmosphere of rivalry and competitive surveillance. And since the Safavid society was meritocratic, and successions seldom were made on the basis of heritage, this meant that government offices constantly felt
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