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111-510: Occupational licensing , also called licensure , is a form of government regulation requiring a license to pursue a particular profession or vocation for compensation. It is related to occupational closure . Some claim higher public support for the licensing of professions whose activities could be a health or safety threat to the public, such as practicing medicine, and doctors require occupational licenses in most developed countries . However, some jurisdictions also require licenses for

222-407: A Higher National Certificate (HNC), may allow students to enter directly into the second year of a Bachelor's program, provided that the course they completed is the same as the one they are applying for. In South Africa, grades (also known as "marks") are presented as a percentage, with anything below 50% considered a failure. Students who receive a failing grade may have the opportunity to rewrite

333-415: A peer-reviewed journal . To pursue a doctor of philosophy degree, students must have completed a relevant master's degree. They are required to carry out a supervised scientific study for a minimum of three years and publish at least two scientific first-author papers in peer-reviewed journals relevant to their area of study. Currently, Kenya is implementing a Competency Based Curriculum (CBC) that follows

444-727: A 2–6–3–3 education system to replace the existing 8–4–4 system which allows confirmation of undergraduate degrees upon successful completion. The CBC system was introduced in 2017. Since the Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region in 1997 and the Bologna Declaration in 1999, higher education systems in Europe have been undergoing harmonisation through

555-499: A Bachelor of Arts (BA) and a Master of Arts (MA). Management degrees are also classified under 'arts' but are nowadays considered a separate stream, with degrees of Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) and Master of Business Administration (MBA). Science refers to the basic sciences and natural science ( Biology , Physics , Chemistry , etc.); the corresponding degrees are Bachelor of Science (BSc) and Master of Science (MSc). Information Technology degrees are conferred specially in

666-660: A C+ (55–59%) on the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE). Students pursuing a degree in engineering, such as B.Sc. Mechanical Engineering or B.Sc. Electrical and Electronics Engineering , are required to join programs that are accredited by the Engineers Board of Kenya and the Commission for University Education. The B.Sc. degree in engineering typically takes five years to complete. A degree in medicine or surgery may take six to seven years, while

777-480: A bogus institution or simply invented, is often covered by fraud laws. Depending on the culture and the degree earned, degrees may be indicated by a pre-nominal title , post-nominal letters , a choice of either, or not indicated at all. In countries influenced by the UK, post-nominal letters are the norm, with only doctorates granting a title, while titles are the norm in many northern European countries. Depending on

888-645: A business leading to an additional 1.4% of national income going to the top 10% of earners. A 2019 National Bureau of Economic Research paper found that occupational licensing contributed to an average welfare loss of 12 percent. The empirical work on the effects of licensing on employment levels or growth rates, but the existing estimates suggest that they could be large. Kleiner (2006) examined employment growth rates in states and occupations with stronger versus weaker occupational licensing requirements. Specifically, he compares employment growth between 1990 and 2000 of occupations that are licensed in some states to

999-599: A cheaper but (allegedly) sub-standard service. Organizations such as the American Medical Association were explicitly set up to restrict the number of practitioners. However, libertarians like Milton Friedman have argued that this process is counterproductive as it seriously restricts the number of active professionals working in society and thus unnecessarily inhibits the working of a free enterprise economy. A 2011 U.S. study estimated that occupational licenses result in 2.8 million fewer jobs, and cost

1110-541: A college degree, but sometimes the term includes high school diplomas and non-degree certificate programs) that can be earned primarily or entirely on a distance learning basis through the use of an Internet-connected computer, rather than attending college in a traditional campus setting. Improvements in technology, the increasing use of the Internet worldwide, and the need for people to have flexible school schedules that enable them to work while attending school have led to

1221-531: A country abbreviation with the university's name. For example, 'York (Can.)' and 'York (UK)' or 'Newc (UK)' and 'Newc (Aus.) are commonly used to denote degrees conferred by these universities where the potential for confusion exists, and institution names are given in this form in the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. Abbreviations used for degrees vary between countries and institutions, e.g. MS indicates Master of Science in

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1332-527: A credit-based system for degrees, with different levels of National Qualifications Framework (NQF) ratings corresponding to each degree level. For example, an undergraduate degree in Science is rated at NQF level 6, while an additional year of study in that discipline would result in an NQF level 8 (honours degree) rating. In Kenya, the first undergraduate degree is pursued after students have completed four years of secondary school education and attained at least

1443-468: A degree in education or management takes around four years. For students pursuing a master's degree, they must have completed an undergraduate degree and attained at least a second-class honours upper division (60–69%) or lower division plus at least two years of relevant experience. Most master's degree programs take two years to complete. In an engineering master's degree program, students are typically required to publish at least one scientific paper in

1554-565: A fee. The Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed the access – now largely free of charge – of all able applicants, who were, however, still tested for aptitude by the ecclesiastic scholastic. This right remained a point of contention between the church authorities and the slowly emancipating universities, but was granted by the Pope to the University of Paris in 1231 where it became

1665-518: A few fields, such as medicine and dentistry, the Finnish system of higher education degrees is in compliance with the Bologna process. Universities award bachelor's degrees ( kandidaatti / kandidat ), Master's degrees ( maisteri / magister ) and doctoral degrees ( lisensiaatin tutkinto / licentiat examen and tohtorin tutkinto / doktorexamen ). In most fields, the system of doctoral degrees is two-tier,

1776-585: A higher status than the master's degree . This led to the modern hierarchy in which the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), which in its present form as a degree based on research and dissertation is a development from 18th- and 19th-century German universities, is a more advanced degree than the Master of Arts (M.A.). The practice of using the term doctor for PhDs developed within German universities and spread across

1887-519: A jurisdiction with more stringent licensing. This can be particularly burdensome on families where one spouse has no choice with regard to location of work (such as military servicemembers), when the second spouse is in a licensed profession. These problems can be avoided by harmonizing laws across jurisdictions, or with reciprocity agreements where licenses from one jurisdiction are recognized in others. With occupational licensing varying by state, another channel through which licensing can affect employment

1998-531: A license to teach ( Latin : licentia docendi ) at a medieval university. Its roots can be traced to the early church when the term "doctor" referred to the Apostles , church fathers and other Christian authorities who taught and interpreted the Bible . The right to grant a licentia docendi was originally reserved by the church which required the applicant to pass a test, take an oath of allegiance, and pay

2109-466: A lifelong privilege, but increasingly nowadays, it requires periodic review by peers and renewal. It is very common for license renewal to depend, at least in part, on academia . In the United Kingdom such regular upgrading of skills is often termed continuous professional development , or CPD. In many professions this is fast becoming a standard, mandatory and annual requirement. For example, in

2220-513: A means of excluding competition. Licensure restricts entry into professional careers in medicine , nursing , law , business , pharmacy , psychology , social work , teaching , engineering , surveying , and architecture . Advocates claim that licensure protects the consumer through the application of professional, educational and/or ethical standards of practice. Economist Milton Friedman opposed this practice, believing that licensure effectively raises professional salary by placing limits on

2331-513: A more recent study from 2009 found the opposite. To distinguish various forms of regulation, there are three forms of government regulation of occupations: In contrast to government regulation, voluntary professional certification can be used to demonstrate competence without the harmful economic effects of legalized occupational barriers. Examples of professional associations and trade associations that provide voluntary professional certification in various fields include: Research funded by

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2442-406: A much wider range of professions, such as florists and hairdressers. Some studies find consumers are more responsive to reviews than to occupational licensing status. Licensing creates a regulatory barrier to entry into licensed occupations. Licensing advocates argue that it protects the public interest by keeping incompetent and unscrupulous individuals from working with the public. However, there

2553-420: A natural experiment. It finds that this policy change increased the propensity to work as self-employed substantially. Because it restricts employment, licensing can also lead to higher prices for services faced by consumers . While it is not possible to precisely estimate the effects of substantially reducing occupational licensing at the present time, both theory and the available evidence suggest that such

2664-516: A number of cases at different stages of licensing reduces employment, but does not result in better services. For example, Kleiner and Kudrle (2000) find that occupational licensing of dentists does not lead to improved measured dental outcomes of patients, but is associated with higher prices of certain services, likely because there are fewer dentists. In the case of midwifery, the introduction of occupation licensing led to substantial reductions in maternal mortality. Many professions involving risk to

2775-990: A particular profession or to obtain a privilege such as to drive a car or truck. Many other privileges and professions require a license, generally from the state or provincial government, in order to ensure that the public will not be harmed by the incompetence of the practitioners, and to limit supply to incumbent practitioners and thus increase wages. Examples of professions that require licensure in some jurisdictions include: actuary , architect , certified public accountant , electrician , engineering , general contractors , financial analyst , geologists , hedge fund manager, insurance agent , interior design , investment banker , licensed professional counselor , nurse , physical therapist , plumber , private investigator , psychologist , landscape architect , lawyer , nutritionist , physician , real estate broker , speech-language pathologist , school counselor , social worker , stockbroker , surveyor , and teacher . Licensure

2886-420: A particular political jurisdiction where the pass rate is low because both the economic and shame costs may be high. Conversely, efforts can be made at interstate reciprocity, so that a license or a certification earned in one federated state or province qualifies the holder to practice in any of the other states or provinces of the federation , which can lower the overall cost and burden of adequately staffing

2997-504: A practice adopted by the English universities of Oxford and Cambridge , as well as the ancient Scottish universities of St Andrews , Glasgow , Aberdeen and Edinburgh . In medieval European universities , candidates who had completed three or four years of study in the prescribed texts of the trivium ( grammar , rhetoric and logic ) and the quadrivium ( arithmetic , geometry , astronomy and music ), together known as

3108-567: A premises be licensed to oversee unlicensed practitioners, permitting of the business overall, random health and safety inspections, general consumer protection laws, and deregulation in favor of voluntary professional certification schemes or free market mechanisms such as customer review sites. Traditionally, occupations in the crafts professions and in the liberal professions organize their respective industries in guilds and chambers in European countries like Germany and Austria. One of

3219-461: A proliferation of online colleges that award associate's, bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees. Bangladesh and India mostly follow the colonial era British system for the classification of degrees, however, Pakistan has recently switched to the US model of a two-year associate degree and a four-year bachelor's degree program. The arts, referring to the performing arts and literature, may confer

3330-496: A reduction could translate into significantly higher employment, better job matches, and improved customer satisfaction . Low-income consumers, in particular, would benefit because reduced barriers to entry would reduce the prices of services provided. Without doing a detailed analysis at the occupation-by-occupation and state level, economists cannot say which occupations can be justified based on quality-consideration, though studies have been conducted they have found at least in

3441-418: A scale of 0 to 20. The minimum score for passing is set at 10 out of 20. This numerical system exclusively evaluates a student's academic accomplishments, serving as the determinant for admission into advanced programs. For instance, a student's grades obtained for their bachelor's degree are considered when they apply for a Master's program. Level 4 courses, which include the first year of a Bachelor's program or

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3552-405: A similar structure: the term "Bachiller" was used for those who finished the secondary or high-school level education, known as "Bachillerato" . The standard Spanish university 5-year degree was "Licenciado" , (although there were a few 3-year associate degrees called "diplomaturas" , from where the "diplomados" could move to study a related licenciatura ). The highest level was "Doctor". In

3663-469: A six year program and obligatory exam they achieve the title MUDr. (equivalent to MD degree in the United States of America) , or MDDr. for dentists and MVDr. for veterinary physicians . They can also get a "big doctorate" ( Ph.D. ) after another three or four years of study. Bachelor's degrees, master's degrees and small doctorates in the form of letters (Bc., Mgr., Ing., ...) are listed before

3774-518: A universal license to teach ( licentia ubique docendi ). While the licentia continued to hold a higher prestige than the bachelor's degree ( Baccalaureus ), it was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to the Magister and doctorate , both of which now became the exclusive qualification for teaching. In universities, doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild . The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to

3885-420: A very high degree regulated by the labour market parties themselves (self-regulation) in contrast to state regulation of minimum wages etc. Regulation can be assessed for different countries through various quantitative measures. The Global Indicators of Regulatory Governance by World Bank 's Global Indicators Group scores 186 countries on transparency around proposed regulations, consultation on their content,

3996-409: Is 180, 210, or 240 ECTS-points. The academic degrees available at universities are: Historically, the Finnish higher education system is derived from the German system. The current system of higher education comprises two types of higher education institutions, the universities and the polytechnics , many of whom refer to themselves as universities of applied sciences (UAS). With the exception of

4107-499: Is a much later creation and was not introduced in England before 1900. Studies in what once was called philosophy are now classified as sciences and humanities . George Makdisi theorizes that the ijazah issued in medieval Islamic madrasas in the 9th century was the origin of the doctorate that later appeared in medieval European universities. Alfred Guillaume , Syed Farid al-Attas and Devin J. Stewart agree that there

4218-408: Is a resemblance between the ijazah and the university degree. However, Toby Huff and others reject Makdisi's theory. Devin J. Stewart finds that the ijazat al-ifta , license to teach Islamic law and issue legal opinions, is most similar to the medieval European university degree in that it permits entry into certain professions. A key difference was that the granting authority of the ijaza

4329-613: Is a standard list of abbreviations for university names given in the Commonwealth Universities Yearbook. In practice, many variations are used and the Yearbook notes that the abbreviations used may not match those used by the universities concerned. For some British universities it is traditional to use Latin abbreviations, notably 'Oxon' and 'Cantab' for the universities of Oxford and Cambridge respectively, in spite of these having been superseded by English 'Oxf' and 'Camb' in official university usage, particularly in order to distinguish

4440-401: Is already strongly encouraged within the medical profession. One simple theory of occupational licensing envisions a costless supply of unbiased , capable gatekeepers , and enforcers . The gatekeepers screen entrants to the occupation, barring those whose skills or character suggest a tendency toward low-quality output. The enforcers monitor incumbents and discipline those whose performance

4551-493: Is analysed in empirical legal studies, law and economics, political science, environmental science, health economics , and regulatory economics . Power to regulate should include the power to enforce regulatory decisions. Monitoring is an important tool used by national regulatory authorities in carrying out the regulated activities. In some countries (in particular the Scandinavian countries) industrial relations are to

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4662-466: Is based on the Latin gradus ("step"). The naming of degrees eventually became linked to the subjects studied. Scholars in the faculties of arts or grammar became known as "masters", but those in theology , medicine and law were known as "doctors". As a study in the arts or grammar was a necessary prerequisite to study in subjects such as theology, medicine and law, the degree of doctor assumed

4773-416: Is below standard with punishments that may include revocation of the license needed to practise. Assuming that entry and performance are controlled in these ways, the quality of service in the profession will almost automatically be maintained at or above standards that are set by the gatekeeper to the profession . Within this approach, only those who have the funds to invest in training and the ability to do

4884-870: Is covered by the Doctorate  [ fr ] degree ( French : Doctorat ; Dutch : Doctoraat ) that covers a 3-to-7-year-long PhD , depending on whether the doctoral student has teaching responsibilities in addition to conducting research or not (typically 6 years for teaching assistants and 4 years for research-only mandates). The Czech Republic has implemented the Bologna process, and functionally has three degrees: Bachelor (3 years), Master (2 years after Bachelor) and Doctor (4 years after Master). The Czech Republic also has voluntary academic titles called "small doctorates" (e.g. RNDr. for natural sciences, PhDr. for philosophy, JUDr. for law etc.) which are achieved after passing an additional exam. Medical students do not get bachelor's or master's degrees, but instead attend

4995-615: Is government intervention in the private market in an attempt to implement policy and produce outcomes which might not otherwise occur, ranging from consumer protection to faster growth or technological advancement. The regulations may prescribe or proscribe conduct ("command-and-control" regulation), calibrate incentives ("incentive" regulation), or change preferences ("preferences shaping" regulation). Common examples of regulation include limits on environmental pollution , laws against child labor or other employment regulations, minimum wages laws, regulations requiring truthful labelling of

5106-444: Is little evidence that it affects the overall quality of services provided to customers by members of the regulated occupation. It can also harm consumers by raising prices and reducing innovation by new market entrants, and may slow overall economic growth. Some occupational licensing can violate competition law due to anti-competitive practices . Alternatives to individual licensing include only requiring that at least one person on

5217-564: Is regulated by the three communities of Belgium , all have common and comparable systems of degrees that were adapted to the Bologna structure during the 2000s . The primary 3-cycle structure is called BMD (Bachelor-Master-Doctorate; French : Bachelier-Master-Doctorat or Dutch : Bachelor-Master-Doctoraat ). In the first cycle, the Bachelor's degree is issued after 180 ECTS (3 years, EQF level 6). Other first cycle degrees include

5328-521: Is similar to professional certification , and sometimes synonymous (such as in the case with teacher licensure/certification); however, certification is an employment qualification and not a legal requirement for practicing a profession. In many cases, an individual must complete certain steps, such as training, acquiring an academic degree in a particular area of study, and/or passing an exam , before becoming eligible to receive their license. There are various resources available to assist professionals with

5439-603: Is the bachelor's degree , although some educational systems offer lower-level undergraduate degrees such as associate and foundation degrees. Common postgraduate degrees include engineer's degrees , master's degrees and doctorates . In the UK and countries whose educational systems are based on the British system, honours degrees are divided into classes: first, second (broken into upper second, or 2.1, and lower second, or 2.2) and third class. The doctorate ( Latin : doceo , "I teach") first appeared in medieval Europe as

5550-405: Is through reduced mobility. The patchwork of regulations raises the cost of cross-state mobility for workers in these occupations. This will result in slower adjustment costs to regional economic shocks which can result in higher unemployment . A 1983 study found that some occupational licensing schemes tended to exclude minorities and disadvantaged populations from entering such trades. However,

5661-413: Is well understood that occupational licensing can serve as a barrier to occupational entry resulting in reduced employment , monopoly rents for workers in the occupation, and higher prices for consumers. Kleiner and Krueger (2010 and 2013) show that after controlling for education, labor market experience, occupation, and other controls, licensing is associated with a 15 to 18 percent wage premium in

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5772-601: The Bologna Process , which is based on a three-cycle hierarchy of degrees: Bachelor's / Licence – Master's – Doctorate . This system is gradually replacing the two-stage system previously used in some countries and is combined with other elements such as the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) and the use of Diploma Supplements to make comparisons between qualifications easier. The European Higher Education Area (EHEA)

5883-504: The Education Reform Act 1988 , many educational institutions other than universities have been granted degree-awarding powers, including higher education colleges and colleges of the University of London , many of which are now effectively universities in their own right. In many countries, gaining an academic degree entitles the holder to assume distinctive academic dress particular to the awarding institution, identifying

5994-422: The Latin magister , "master" (typically indicating a teacher), entitling one to teach these subjects. Masters of Arts were eligible to enter study under the "higher faculties" of Law , Medicine or Theology and earn first a bachelor's and then master's or doctor's degree in these subjects. Thus, a degree was only a step on the way to becoming a fully qualified master – hence the English word "graduate", which

6105-537: The Liberal Arts , and who had successfully passed examinations held by their master, would be admitted to the degree of Bachelor of Arts . The term "bachelor" comes from the Latin baccalaureus , a term previously used to describe a squire (i.e., apprentice) to a knight . Further study and, in particular, successful participation in, and moderation of, disputations would earn one the Master of Arts degree, from

6216-596: The Medieval university , they were equivalent terms. The use of them in the degree name was a matter of custom at a university. Most universities conferred the Master of Arts, although the highest degree was often termed Master of Theology/Divinity or Doctor of Theology/Divinity, depending on the place. The earliest doctoral degrees ( theology – Divinitatis Doctor (D.D.), law – Legum Doctor (LL.D., later D.C.L.) and medicine – Medicinæ Doctor (M.D., D.M.)) reflected

6327-603: The Oxbridge MA from an earned MA. Other Latin abbreviations commonly used include 'Cantuar' for Lambeth degrees (awarded by the Archbishop of Canterbury ), 'Dunelm' for Durham University , 'Ebor' for the University of York and 'Exon' for the University of Exeter . The Ancient universities of Scotland and the University of London have abbreviations that are the same in English and Latin. (See Universities in

6438-573: The UK medical licensing system has largely been a response to public and government unease about a series of recent and well-publicised cases of alleged medical incompetence, including the Harold Shipman case, the Alder Hey organs scandal and those involving David Southall , Rodney Ledward and Richard Neale. Such cases of medical malpractice in the 1990s are widely considered to have inspired

6549-568: The United States Environmental Protection Agency and Occupational Safety and Health Administration . Academic degree An academic degree is a qualification awarded to a student upon successful completion of a course of study in higher education , usually at a college or university . These institutions often offer degrees at various levels, usually divided into undergraduate and postgraduate degrees. The most common undergraduate degree

6660-500: The professionalization process by which trades have transformed themselves into true professions, licensing fast became the method of choice in obtaining the occupational closure required by barring competition from entry to the rites and privileges of a professional group. This was initially the preferred route of regulation whether for physicians, lawyers, the clergy, accountants, bankers, scientists or architects. However, licensing has given way to membership of professional bodies, as

6771-433: The supply of specific occupations. "It is hard to regard altruistic concern for their customers as the primary motive behind their determined efforts to get legal power to decide who may be a plumber." Restricting entry by licensing is arguably a convenient and effective method of maintaining the high standards, high status and elite privileges of a profession as well as acting to eliminate competition from those who provide

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6882-451: The EHEA. In Austria , there are currently two parallel systems of academic degrees: The two-cycle degree system was phased out by 2010, with a few exceptions. However, some of the established degree naming has been preserved, allowing universities to award the "Diplom-Ingenieur" (and for a while also the "Magister") to graduates of the new-style Master programmes. While higher education

6993-572: The EU enacted Directive 2005/36/EC , which "enables the free movement of professionals" across Member States, by allowing licensed workers to have their professional qualifications recognised by other countries in the bloc. The European Commission records occupational licensing restrictions across the EU on its Regulated Professions Database . The subsequent 'Proportionality Directive' passed in 2018 requires national governments to assess whether new barriers to practice are proportionate to achieve objectives in

7104-631: The European Commission in 2016 estimated that around 22% of workers in the European Union were affected by occupational licensing. This varied significantly between member states, with Germany having the highest proportion (33%) affected, and Denmark the lowest (14%). The same paper also found the 'Health and Social Work' sector generally had the most licensing, but in general there was "considerably large variation" in which professions were licensed in different member states. In 2005,

7215-450: The Pope. Among educational institutions, St David's College, Lampeter , was granted limited degree awarding powers by royal charter in the nineteenth century, despite not being a university. The University College of North Staffordshire was also granted degree awarding powers on its foundation in 1949, despite not becoming a university (as the University of Keele ) until 1962. Following

7326-658: The U.S. workforce in the 1950s, but declined to less than 12 percent of the U.S. workforce by 2008. In April 2019, Arizona became the first US state to recognize out-of-state occupational licenses. Regulation Regulation in the social, political, psychological, and economic domains can take many forms: legal restrictions promulgated by a government authority, contractual obligations (for example, contracts between insurers and their insureds ), self-regulation in psychology, social regulation (e.g. norms ), co-regulation, third-party regulation, certification, accreditation or market regulation. State -mandated regulation

7437-422: The US and places following American usage, but Master of Surgery in the UK and most Commonwealth countries, where the standard abbreviation for Master of Science is MSc. Common abbreviations include BA and MA for Bachelor and Master of Arts , BS/BSc and MS/MSc for Bachelor and Master of Science , MD for Doctor of Medicine and PhD for Doctor of Philosophy . An online degree is an academic degree (usually

7548-522: The US, educators are subject to state re-certification requirements in order to continue teaching. The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, enacted to improve performance in US schools, has led to an intensification of license requirements for both beginning and experienced educators. In the case of UK medical practitioners , the government has recently proposed that they should all be legally required to produce formal proof, every five years, that they are upgrading their standard of practise. This tightening of

7659-510: The United Kingdom § Post-nominal abbreviations for a more complete list and discussion of abbreviations for British universities.) Confusion can result from universities sharing similar names, e.g. the University of York in the UK and York University in Canada or Newcastle University in the UK and the University of Newcastle in Australia. In this case, the convention is to include

7770-492: The academic world. The French terminology is tied closely to the original meanings of the terms. The baccalauréat (cf. "bachelor") is conferred upon French students who have completed their secondary education and allows the student to attend university. When students graduate from university, they are awarded a licence , much as the medieval teaching guilds would have done, and they are qualified to teach in secondary schools or proceed to higher-level studies. Spain had

7881-606: The ancient world, and gold may have operated to some degree as an international currency. In China, a national currency system existed and paper currency was invented. Sophisticated law existed in Ancient Rome . In the European Early Middle Ages , law and standardization declined with the Roman Empire, but regulation existed in the form of norms, customs, and privileges; this regulation was aided by

7992-680: The authority of statutes. Legislators created these agencies to require experts in the industry to focus their attention on the issue. At the federal level, one of the earliest institutions was the Interstate Commerce Commission which had its roots in earlier state-based regulatory commissions and agencies. Later agencies include the Federal Trade Commission , Securities and Exchange Commission , Civil Aeronautics Board , and various other institutions. These institutions vary from industry to industry and at

8103-562: The colonial Dutch system for the classification of degrees. However, Indonesia has been dropping the Dutch titles and developing its own distinctions. Sri Lanka , like many other commonwealth countries, follows the British system, but with its own distinctions. Degrees are approved by the University Grants Commission . Tunisia's educational grading system, ranging from elementary school to Ph.D. programs, operates on

8214-421: The completion of these steps. Professional associations are often a tremendous resource to individuals looking to obtain a special level of certification or licensure. Upon the successful attainment of a license, individuals append an acronym to their name, such as CPA ( Certified Public Accountant ) or LPD and PI ( Private Detective and Investigator ) PE ( Professional Engineer ). In places, licensure may still be

8325-470: The culture and the purpose of the listing, only the highest degree, a selection of degrees, or all degrees might be listed. The awarding institution may be shown and it might be specified if a degree was at honours level, particularly where the honours degree is a separate qualification from the ordinary bachelor's degree. For member institutions of the Association of Commonwealth Universities , there

8436-399: The difference in growth rates between these sets of states of fully licensed and fully unlicensed occupations. This estimate implies that a licensed occupation that grew at a 10 percent rate between 1990 and 2000 would have grown at a 12 percent rate if it were unregulated. For Germany, a study exploits the deregulation of occupational licenses called Meister for 53 occupations in 2004 as

8547-634: The economy $ 203 billion per year. The number of jobs requiring a professional licensed represents an increasing fraction of the workforce, from 5% in 1950 to 22% in 2010s. Critics say that low-income consumers, who pay higher prices than required for the level of quality they might require, and low-income job seekers, are disproportionately affected. In the United States, critics have pointed out that (as of 2018) only 60 professions are licensed by all 50 states, but about 1100 by at least one state, including tour guides, bartenders, and interior designers. If many professions are functioning satisfactorily unlicensed in

8658-435: The exam, depending on the criteria established by their institution. Degrees in almost any field of study can be pursued at one of the institutions in the country, with certain institutions being known for excelling in specific fields. Major fields of study across the country include Arts , Commerce , Engineering , Law , Medicine , Science , and Theology . The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) has developed

8769-440: The federal and state level. Individual agencies do not necessarily have clear life-cycles or patterns of behavior, and they are influenced heavily by their leadership and staff as well as the organic law creating the agency. In the 1930s, lawmakers believed that unregulated business often led to injustice and inefficiency; in the 1960s and 1970s, concern shifted to regulatory capture , which led to extremely detailed laws creating

8880-680: The field of computer science , and include Bachelor of Science in Information Technology (B.Sc.IT.) and Master of Science in Information Technology (M.Sc.IT.). The engineering degree in India follows two nomenclatures, Bachelor of Engineering (B.Eng.) and Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech.). Both represent bachelor's degree in engineering . In Pakistan, engineering degrees are Bachelor of Engineering (B.E.) and Bachelor of Science in Engineering (B.S./B.Sc. Engineering). Both are

8991-403: The government to tighten professional control of medical practitioners and monitor the quality of their practice for their entire working life. One qualification for life is no longer deemed sufficient. Consequently, medical licenses can now be withdrawn when evidence of serious malpractice emerges. Currently, though such reviews of CPD are entirely voluntary, some form of professional development

9102-456: The guild of "Master of Arts" was seven years. This was the same as the term of apprenticeship for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master's degree . Today the terms "master" (from the Latin magister , lit.   ' teacher ' ), "Doctor", and "Professor" signify different levels of academic achievement, but in

9213-558: The historical separation of all higher University study into these three fields. Over time, the D.D. has gradually become less common outside theology and is now mostly used for honorary degrees, with the title "Doctor of Theology" being used more often for earned degrees. Studies outside theology , law , and medicine were then called " philosophy ", due to the Renaissance conviction that real knowledge could be derived from empirical observation. The degree title of Doctor of Philosophy

9324-400: The imposition of fines, improved screening to prevent expelled practitioners from re-entering the occupation, or requiring all incumbents to put up capital that would be forfeited upon loss of the license. To offset the possibility that incumbents could shift to other occupations with little loss of income, entry requirements could be tightened to limit supply and create monopoly rents within

9435-581: The ingredients in food and drugs, and food and drug safety regulations establishing minimum standards of testing and quality for what can be sold, and zoning and development approvals regulation. Much less common are controls on market entry, or price regulation. One critical question in regulation is whether the regulator or government has sufficient information to make ex-ante regulation more efficient than ex-post liability for harm and whether industry self-regulation might be preferable. The economics of imposing or removing regulations relating to markets

9546-522: The labor market. This estimate may partially reflect a premium for higher unmeasured human capital, but it is also consistent and likely in large part due to rents. A 2016 paper studying occupational licensing in the European Union estimated a wage premium of 4%, with significant variation across professions. A study from the Mercatus Center showed that occupational licensing can lead to greater income inequality, with each step needed to open

9657-655: The licensed occupation ( rent-seeking ). The threat of losing these monopoly rents could, in principle, give incentives to incumbents to maintain quality standards . This may also result in some increases in human capital investments in order to attain additional requirements. The rents could also motivate potential entrants to invest in high levels of training in order to gain admittance. This suggests that licensing can raise quality within an industry by restricting supply, raising labor wages, and raising output prices. Increasing prices may signal either enhanced quality due to perceived or actual skill enhancements or restrictions on

9768-625: The major points of the Lisbon Recognition Convention in national legislation. Since 2008, the European Union has been developing the European Qualifications Framework (EQF). This is an eight-level framework designed to allow cross-referencing of the various national qualifications frameworks. While it is not specific to higher education , the top four levels (5–8) correspond to the short cycle, first cycle, second cycle, and third cycle of

9879-484: The majority of states, this implies to critics that the licensing is unnecessary for consumer protection. The administrations of both President Obama and President Trump have tried to pressure state and local authorities to reduce overly burdensome licensing requirements. Excessive requirements include requiring hair braiders to have a full cosmetology license and learn about many unrelated tasks, and requiring casket salespersons to be full licensed funeral directors. It

9990-458: The most important changes in licensing has been the 2004 reform in Germany, where workers in 53 of 94 crafts professions were not required to be licensed anymore in order to start a business. In 2020, 12 of these deregulated professions reinstated the licensing requirement. In the United States and Canada, licensing (the term registration is sometimes used) is usually required by law to work in

10101-695: The new requirements) is the norm when occupations seek to become licensed , incumbent workers are usually supportive of the regulation process. In the absence of grandfathering, lower-skilled workers in the occupation may have to seek alternative employment. For example, if sales skills are the key to both providing licensed sales of heart monitors and the non-licensed selling of shoes or cars , then individuals may shift between these lines of work with little loss of income. Under these circumstances, meaningful discipline for license holders may require deliberate steps to ensure that loss of license entails significant financial loss. Such additional steps could include

10212-1006: The one-year Advanced Bachelor's degree  [ fr ; nl ] degree ( French : Bachelier de spécialisation , lit.   'Specialized Bachelor'; Dutch : Bachelor-na-bachelor , lit.   'Bachelor-after-bachelor') and the Brevet (in the French-speaking Community only) for short-cycle higher education programmes. Bachelor's degrees are followed in the second cycle ( EQF level 7) by Master's degrees  [ fr ] that last two years, completing an extra 120 ECTS credits. The master's degree can be followed by an Advanced Master's degree  [ fr ; nl ] ( French : Master de spécialisation , lit.   'Specialized Master'; Dutch : Master-na-master , lit.   'Master-after-master') that lasts one year (60 ECTS). The third cycle of Belgium's higher education

10323-545: The past, degrees have been directly issued by the authority of the monarch or by a bishop, rather than any educational institution. This practice has mostly died out. In Great Britain , Lambeth degrees are still awarded by the Archbishop of Canterbury . The Archbishop of Canterbury's right to grant degrees is derived from the Peter's Pence Act 1533 , which empowered the Archbishop to grant dispensations previously granted by

10434-829: The person's name, and Doctor's degrees (Ph.D.) are listed after name (e.g. MUDr. Jan Novák, Ph.D.). The Czech Republic previously had more degrees that were awarded. Before the adoption of the Bologna Process, the lowest degree that would normally be studied at universities in Denmark was equivalent to a master's degree ( kandidatgrad ). Officially, a bachelor's degree was always obtained after 3 years' university studies. Various medium-length (2–4 years) professional degrees have been adopted, so they now have status as professional bachelor's degrees of varying length. As opposed to academic bachelor's degrees, they are considered to be "applied" degrees. A professional bachelor's degree

10545-683: The profession in all regions. For example, high demand and low supply for nurses or for teachers , in any particular region, can be alleviated if the red tape is reduced, as long as that reduction does not truly harm competence and preparedness. The effect of not reducing that administrative burden has been measured by a 2017 analysis that found that occupational licensing in different American states reduced between-state migration of individuals in professions with divergent licensing by 36 percent relative to members of other occupations, while workers in nationally licensed occupations showed no evidence of reduced interstate migration. A 2020 follow up study by

10656-412: The public do not require professional licenses. For example, chefs are generally unlicensed, though opening a restaurant may require permits, inspection, and employee training or instructional signage. Becoming a brain surgeon typically only requires a medical license; the substantial additional training and experience required to perform this operation competently is managed by the hospitals who employ

10767-485: The public interest. In the United States , licensing has been among the fastest-growing labor market institutions. The figure shows the growth of occupational licensing relative to the decline of union membership since the 1950s. By 2008 occupational licensing in the U.S. had grown to 29 percent of the workforce, up from below five percent in the 1950s. In contrast, unions represented as much as 33 percent of

10878-442: The public might also be restricted by licensure, including a barber , cosmetologist , or massage therapist . Occupations that bring a person into the home might also be screened through licensure, including a chauffeur , landscape architect , or arborist . Individuals practicing a profession in one jurisdiction where no license is required, or where licensing requirements are more lax, face problems with employment when moving to

10989-414: The same authors found that "the magnitude of the effect can only account for a small part of the overall decline in [interstate migration] seen in recent decades." "People of the same trade seldom meet together, even for merriment and diversion, but the conversation ends in a conspiracy against the public, or in some contrivance to raise prices." Adam Smith , The Wealth of Nations Historically, in

11100-530: The same in curriculum , duration and pattern, and differ only in nomenclature. The engineering degree in Bangladesh is a Bachelor of Science in Engineering (B.Sc. Engineering). Other degrees include the medical degree ( Bachelor of Medicine & Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS)), dental degree ( Bachelor of Dental Surgery (BDS)) and computer application degrees ( Bachelor of Computer Application (BCA)) and Master of Computer Application (MCA). Indonesia follows

11211-473: The same occupations that are not licensed in other states. In order to account for differential growth rates between states, he also compared the growth rate of occupations that are either fully licensed or fully unlicensed in both sets of states. Using a " difference-in-difference " regression analysis , Kleiner found that partially licensed occupations had a 20 percent lower growth rate in states with licensing relative to states without licensing and relative to

11322-493: The standards of the new entrants. Individuals who attempt to enter the occupation in the future will need to balance the economic rents of the field's increased monopoly power against the greater difficulty of meeting the entrance requirements. Once an occupation is regulated, members of that occupation in a geographic or political jurisdiction can implement tougher statutes or examination pass rates and may gain relative to those who have easier requirements by further restricting

11433-420: The status of the individual wearing them. In many countries, degrees may only be awarded by institutions authorised to do so by the national or regional government. Frequently, governments will also regulate the use of the word university in the names of businesses. This approach is followed, for example, by Australia, the United Kingdom and Israel. The use of fake degrees by individuals, either obtained from

11544-435: The supply of labor and obtaining economic rents for incumbents ( credentialism and educational inflation ). Restrictions would include raising the pass rate on licensing exams, imposing higher general and specific requirements, and implementing tougher residency requirements that limit new arrivals in the area from qualifying for a license. Moreover, individuals who have finished schooling in the occupation may decide not to go to

11655-422: The supply of regulated workers. State-regulated occupations can use political institutions to restrict supply and raise the wages of licensed practitioners. There is assumed to be a once-and-for-all income gain that accrues to current members of the occupation who are "grandfathered" in, and do not have to meet the newly established standard. Generally, workers who are "grandfathered" are not required to ever meet

11766-468: The surgeons. Restrictions to employment without licensure can prevent people with criminal records or severe mental health issues from working in occupations that require public trust. Occupations of or affected by the gambling industry, may be restricted by licensure, such as a racing secretary in horseracing , or people in the boxing , mixed martial arts , and professional wrestling industry. People whose occupations put them in physical contact with

11877-485: The unified Christian identity and a sense of honor regarding contracts . Modern industrial regulation can be traced to the Railway Regulation Act 1844 in the United Kingdom, and succeeding Acts. Beginning in the late 19th and 20th centuries, much of regulation in the United States was administered and enforced by regulatory agencies which produced their own administrative law and procedures under

11988-465: The use of regulatory impact assessments and the access to enacted laws on a scale from 0 to 5. The V-Dem Democracy indices include the regulatory quality indicator. The QuantGov project at the Mercatus Center tracks the count of regulations by topic for United States, Canada, and Australia. Regulation of businesses existed in the ancient early Egyptian, Indian, Greek, and Roman civilizations. Standardized weights and measures existed to an extent in

12099-422: The work are able to enter the occupation. Introducing economics to this otherwise mechanical model by noting that a key discipline on incumbents—the threat of revoking one's license—may not mean much if incumbents can easily re-enter the profession, such as by moving to a new firm, or by shifting to an alternative occupation with little loss of income. Since grandfathering (i.e., allowing current workers to bypass

12210-587: Was an individual professor whereas the university degree was granted by a corporate entity. The University of Bologna in Italy , regarded as the oldest university in Europe , was the first institution to confer the degree of Doctor in Civil Law in the late 12th century; it also conferred similar degrees in other subjects, including medicine . The University of Paris used the term "master" for its graduates,

12321-516: Was formally established in 2010 and, as of September 2016, has 50 members. The implementation of the various elements of the EHEA varies between countries. Twenty-four countries have fully implemented a national qualifications framework, and a further ten have a framework but have not yet certified it against the overarching framework . In 38 countries, ECTS credits are used for all higher education programmes, and 31 countries have fully implemented diploma supplements. Only 11 countries have included all

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