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82-453: His name is from Mongolian "Ligden Khutugt Khan" ( Mongol script : ; Mongolian Cyrillic : Лигдэн Хутугт хаан), title Ligden Khutugt from Standard Tibetan : རྦད་དེ་ཐོག་ཐུ། . His name is also written Lindan Han ( Chinese : 林丹汗 ; 1588–1634). Ligden (b. 1588) was a son of Mangghus Mergen Taiji and grandson of Buyan Sechen Khan (r. 1593–1603). Because his father died early, Ligden was chosen to succeed his grandfather Buyan as khan of

164-510: A or e ( ᠎ᠠ ‑a/‑e ) is common, and can appear at the end of a word stem , or suffix . This form requires a final-shaped preceding letter, and an word-internal gap in between. This gap can be transliterated with a hyphen. The presence or lack of a separated a or e can also indicate differences in meaning between different words (compare ᠬᠠᠷ᠎ᠠ qar‑a 'black' with ᠬᠠᠷᠠ qara 'to look'). It has

246-604: A is attested in a strict transcription from Tibetan letters in the chronicle Bolur Erdeni. However, for any Mongolian reader who does not immediately perceive the name to be a loan, the letter g would (by means of consonant harmony and its interaction with vowel harmony ) indicate that the word only contains front vowels . This must have been perceived in this fashion at the time of i-breaking as well, as this phonological process took place in back-vocalic words only and would have resulted in * [ɮʲaɢtan] had it been /liɡdan/ . Today, western scholars tend to cling to

328-741: A treaty with the Ming dynasty to protect their northern border from the Manchus in exchange for thousands of taels of silver. He received an annual subsidy of 40,000 taels of silver in 1620. Sog Zaisai, a Southern Khalkha nobleman, prince Sanasarai of the Khorchin, and Paghwa of the Jarud attacked the Later Jin with more than 10,000–50,000 men to assist the Ming in August 1619, but they were crushed. Because

410-465: A 1623 revolt, Nurhaci came to mistrust his Nikan ( Manchu : ᠨᡳᡴᠠᠨ , "Han people") followers so Hong Taiji began their assimilation into the country and government. A mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1,000 couples was arranged by Prince Yoto and Hong Taiji in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups. It is the predecessor of Mongol Yamen ( ᠮᠣᠩᡤᠣ ᠵᡠᡵᡤᠠᠨ 蒙古衙門, monggo jurgan ) which

492-560: A deal with the Ming dynasty. If the Ming was willing to give support and money that would be beneficial to the Qing's economy, the Qing in exchange would not only be willing to not attack the borders, but also admit itself as a country one level lower than the Ming dynasty; however, since Ming court officials were reminded of the deal that preceded the Song dynasty 's wars with the Jin Empire ,

574-472: A discussion concerning the possible naming of Nurhaci's heir apparent, a title that the document refers to as taise . Tatiana Pang and Giovanni Stary, two specialists of early Manchu history, consider this document as "further evidence" that Hong Taiji was his real name, "not being at all connected with the Chinese title huang taizi ". Historian Mark Elliott views this as persuasive evidence that Hong Taiji

656-815: A final tail as in ⟨ ᠪᠣ ⟩ bo / bu or ⟨ ᠮᠣ᠋ ⟩ mo / mu , and with a vertical tail as in ⟨ ᠪᠥ᠋ ⟩ bö / bü or ⟨ ᠮᠥ᠋ ⟩ mö / mü (as well as in transcriptions of Chinese syllables). Only in a late form can a definite order of signs be established for the alphabet, but can likely be traced back to an earlier Uyghur model. ‍ᠠ᠋ ‍ᠡ᠋ ‍ᠥ‍ ‍ᠦ‍ ‍ᠨ᠋‍ ‍ᠨ᠎ [REDACTED] [REDACTED] k [REDACTED] ‍ᠭ᠋‍ [REDACTED] ‍ᠭ᠎ [REDACTED] g ‍ᠳ᠋‍ In 1587,

738-574: A piece of red fruit near Fekulen, who ate it. She then became pregnant with Bukūri Yongšon. However, another older version of the story by the Hurha (Hurka) tribe member Muksike recorded in 1635 contradicts Hongtaiji's version on location, claiming that it was in Heilongjiang province close to the Amur river where Bulhuri lake was located where the "heavenly maidens" took their bath. This was recorded in

820-549: A reader who knows the orthography. Letters have different forms depending on their position in a word: initial, medial, or final. In some cases, additional graphic variants are selected for visual harmony with the subsequent character. The rules for writing below apply specifically for the Mongolian language, unless stated otherwise. Mongolian vowel harmony separates the vowels of words into three groups – two mutually exclusive and one neutral: Any Mongolian word can contain

902-475: A stem. Such single-letter vowel suffixes appear with the final-shaped forms of a / e , i , or u / ü , as in ᠭᠠᠵᠠᠷ ᠠ γaǰar‑a 'to the country' and ᠡᠳᠦᠷ ᠡ edür‑e 'on the day', or ᠤᠯᠤᠰ ᠢ ulus‑i 'the state' etc. Multi-letter suffixes most often start with an initial- (consonants), medial- (vowels), or variant-shaped form. Medial-shaped u in

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984-518: A successor. "Hong Taiji" was very rarely used in Manchu sources, because they observed a taboo on the personal names of emperors. In redacted documents, Hong Taiji was simply called the " Fourth Beile " or "fourth prince" ( duici beile ), indicating that he was the fourth ranked among the eight beile Nurhaci had designated from among his sons. However, an archival document rediscovered in 1996 and recounting events from 1621 calls him "Hong Taiji" in

1066-985: A wide variety of names. As it was derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet , the Mongol script is known as the Uighur(-)Mongol script . From 1941 onwards, it became known as the Old Script , in contrast to the New Script , referring to Cyrillic. The Mongolian script is also known as the Hudum or 'not exact' script, in comparison with the Todo 'clear, exact' script, and also as 'vertical script'. The traditional or classical Mongolian alphabet , sometimes called Hudum 'traditional' in Oirat in contrast to

1148-504: Is borrowed from the Classical Tibetan term legs-ldan . There, the letters s and l had already become silent, g before d could be realized as [n] and a before n got palatalized. In Mongolian sources, the most frequent ways to write the name are Ligda/en and Linda/en , but the intermediate Lingda/en ( [ŋ] ) does appear as well. a and e are not differentiated in normal Mongolian writing in this position, but

1230-459: Is one among Oirat Clear , Manchu , and Buryat are the only known vertical scripts written from left to right. This developed because the Uyghurs rotated their Sogdian -derived script, originally written right to left, 90 degrees counterclockwise to emulate Chinese writing, but without changing the relative orientation of the letters. The reed pen was the writing instrument of choice until

1312-412: Is somewhat comparable to the situation of English , which must represent ten or more vowels with only five letters and uses the digraph th for two distinct sounds. Ambiguity is sometimes prevented by context, as the requirements of vowel harmony and syllable sequence usually indicate the correct sound. Moreover, as there are few words with an exactly identical spelling, actual ambiguities are rare for

1394-658: The Jiu Manzhou Dang and his much shorter and simpler in addition to being older. This is believed to be the original version and Hongtaiji changed it to Changbai mountain. It shows that the Aisin Gioro clan originated in the Amur area and the Heje ( Hezhen ) and other Amur valley Jurchen tribes had an oral version of the same tale. It also fits with Jurchen history since some ancestors of the Manchus originated north before

1476-607: The Buddhist religious center of the Mongols to Chakhar and had himself declared both religious and political leader of the Mongols by a Tibetan religious leader. Ligden revived the old Saskyapa order of Kublai 's time (r. 1260–94), inviting the order's Sharba pandita, who was appointed his preceptor in 1617. Sharba installed Mahakala image in Ligden's capital Chagan. Ligden Khan also built temples at Küriye. In 1618, Ligden signed

1558-599: The Clear script ( Todo 'exact'), is the original form of the Mongolian script used to write the Mongolian language . It does not distinguish several vowels ( o / u , ö / ü , final a / e ) and consonants (syllable-initial t / d and k / g , sometimes ǰ / y ) that were not required for Uyghur , which was the source of the Mongol (or Uyghur-Mongol) script. The result

1640-700: The Emperor Taizong of Qing , was the second khan of the Later Jin dynasty and the founding emperor of the Qing dynasty . He was responsible for consolidating the empire that his father Nurhaci had founded and laid the groundwork for the conquest of the Ming dynasty , although he died before this was accomplished. He was also responsible for changing the name of the Jurchens to " Manchu " in 1635, and changing

1722-647: The Hongwu Emperor , and the Yongle Emperor . His political abilities were paralleled only by Genghis Khan , Emperor Taizong of Tang , and Emperor Guangwu of Han . In this sense, Hong Taiji is considered by some historians as the true first emperor for the Qing dynasty. Some historians suspect Hong Taiji was overall underrated and overlooked as a great emperor because he was a Manchu. Empress Primary Consort Secondary Consort Concubine Enthroned in 1626 as Khan , Hong Taiji changed

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1804-802: The Hudum Mongol bichig , was the first writing system created specifically for the Mongolian language , and was the most widespread until the introduction of Cyrillic in 1946. It is traditionally written in vertical lines [REDACTED] Top-Down, right across the page. Derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet , it is a true alphabet , with separate letters for consonants and vowels. It has been adapted for such languages as Oirat and Manchu . Alphabets based on this classical vertical script continue to be used in Mongolia and Inner Mongolia to write Mongolian, Xibe and, experimentally, Evenki . Computer operating systems have been slow to adopt support for

1886-693: The Northern Yuan dynasty with the reign title Khutugtu in 1603. At the time the Khagan's appanage , Chakhar people, occupied Sira Mören valley. Ligden divided the Chakhar into right and left wings and built Chaghan city near Abaga Khara Mountain. During his early reign, Ligden had the respect and loyalty of other Mongol tümens. Boshigo jinong of the Three Right Wing Tumens expressed his allegiance to Ligden Khan. Allied with princes of

1968-451: The Qing dynasty . Also during this period, Hong Taiji took over Inner Mongolia in three major wars, each of them victorious. From 1636 until 1644, he sent 4 major expeditions into the Amur region. In 1640 he completed the conquest of the Evenks , when he defeated and captured their leader Bombogor . By 1644, the entire region was under his control. Huang Taji's plan at first was to make

2050-479: The 14th-15th centuries in the Amur and only later moved south. Before Hong Taiji was emperor, he controlled the two White banners. Upon Nurhaci's death, Hong Taiji immediately switched his two White Banners with Nurhaci's two Yellow Banners, which should have been passed on to Dorgon and his brothers. As emperor, he was the holder of three banners out of eight. He controlled the Upper Three Banners or

2132-651: The 17th and 18th centuries, smoother and more angular versions of the letter tsadi became associated with [ dʒ ] and [ tʃ ] respectively, and in the 19th century, the Manchu hooked yodh was adopted for initial [ j ] . Zain was dropped as it was redundant for [ s ] . Various schools of orthography, some using diacritics , were developed to avoid ambiguity. Traditional Mongolian words are written vertically from top to bottom, flowing in lines from left to right. The Old Uyghur script and its descendants, of which traditional Mongolian

2214-410: The 18th century, when the brush took its place under Chinese influence. Pens were also historically made of wood, bamboo , bone, bronze , or iron. Ink used was black or cinnabar red, and written with on birch bark , paper, cloths made of silk or cotton, and wooden or silver plates. Mongols learned their script as a syllabary , dividing the syllables into twelve different classes, based on

2296-710: The Bodhisattva Manjusri , the Bodhisattva of Wisdom, of whom Nurhaci claimed to be an incarnation. The dynastic name Later Jin was a direct reference to the Jin dynasty founded by the Jurchen people, who ruled northern China from 1115 to 1234. As such, the name was likely to be viewed as closely tied to the Jurchens and would perhaps evoke hostility from ethnic Han who viewed the Song dynasty , rival state to

2378-547: The Eastern Tümens deserted to Nurhaci in 1622–24. Ligden, on the other hand, by trying to assume this former power, ruled in a progressively aggressive fashion, so several Mongolian tribes opted to form a coalition with the Manchus. When the Khorchin and some formerly allied tribes bonded with the Manchus in 1624, Ligden undertook a punitive expedition and besieged the Khorchin nobleman Oba for 3 days, but retreated when Manchu relief troops arrived. When Ligden Khan called

2460-750: The Eight White Yurts of Genghis Khan in Kokenuur. Allied with the Tibetan monarchs, he opposed Dalai Lama V and Banchin Erdene IV . He died of smallpox at Sira Tala (in modern Gansu ) in 1634 while marching to attack dGe-lugs-pa order (Yellow Hat sect) in Tibet . After Ligden Khan's death, his son Ejei Khan (Erke qongγor eje) returned and was handed over to the Qing dynasty which soon after established control over Inner Mongolia . The name

2542-749: The Elite banners which at the time were the Plain/Bordered Yellow Banners and Plain Blue Banner. Later the Plain Blue Banner was switched by Dorgon to the Plain White Banner as the third Elite Banner. At the end of his reign, Hong Taiji gave the two Yellow Banners to his eldest son Hooge. Daisan, who was the second son of Nurhaci, and his son controlled the two Red Banners. Dorgon and his two brothers controlled

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2624-783: The Han people, then it was not too much to change it. At the same time, Hong Taiji conquered the territory north of Shanhai pass by Ming Dynasty and Ligdan Khan in Inner Mongolia. He won one of the Yuan dynasty's imperial jade seal (Chinese: 制 誥 之 寶 ) and a golden Buddha called "Mahakala". In April 1636, Mongol nobility of Inner Mongolia, Manchu nobility and the Han mandarin held the Kurultai in Shenyang, recommended khan of Later Jin to be

2706-514: The Jehol Pass, then in 1632 and 1634 he sent raids into Shanxi . In 1636, Hong Taiji invaded Joseon Korea, as the latter did not accept that Hong Taiji had become emperor and refused to assist in operations against the Ming. With the Joseon dynasty surrendered in 1637, Hong Taiji succeeded in making them cut off relations with the Ming dynasty and force them to submit as tributary state of

2788-479: The Jin, as the legitimate rulers of China at that time. Hong Taiji's ambition was to conquer China proper and overthrow the Ming dynasty , and to do that required not only a powerful military force but also an effective bureaucratic administration. For this, he used the obvious model, that of the Ming government, and recruited Ming officials to his cause. If the name of Later Jin would prove an impediment to his goal among

2870-408: The Later Jin wanted to use the Mongols against the Ming, they persuaded their leaders, including Ligden, to ally with them. Since a conflict with the Later Jin in 1619, the relations between his clan federation and the Manchu federation had continuously deteriorated. In 1620, after an exchange of contemptuous letters, Ligden and the Later Jin ruler Nurhaci (r. 1616–1626) broke off relations and most of

2952-415: The Manchus needed Han defectors in order to assist in the conquest of the Ming, and thus explained to other Manchus why he also needed to be lenient to recent defectors like Ming general Hong Chengchou, who surrendered to the Qing in 1642. When Hong Taiji came into power, the military was composed of entirely Mongol and Manchu companies. By 1636, Hong Taiji created the first of many Chinese companies. Before

3034-829: The Mandarin retroflex consonants . These letters remain in use in Inner Mongolia for the purpose of transcribing Chinese. ཛ When written between words, punctuation marks use space on both sides of them. They can also appear at the very end of a line, regardless of where the preceding word ends. Red (cinnabar) ink is used in many manuscripts, to either symbolize emphasis or respect. Modern punctuation incorporates Western marks: parentheses; quotation, question, and exclamation marks; including precomposed ⁈ and ⁉ . Mongolian numerals are either written from left to right, or from top to bottom. For typographical reasons, they are rotated 90° in modern books to fit on

3116-506: The Ming refused the exchange. Huang Taiji rejected the comparison, saying that, "Neither is your Ming ruler a descendant of the Song nor are we heir to the Jin. That was another time." Hong Taiji had not wanted to conquer the Ming. The Ming's refusal ultimately led him to take the offensive. The people who first encouraged him to invade the Ming dynasty were his ethnic Han advisors Fan Wencheng, Ma Guozhu, and Ning Wanwo. Hong Taiji recognized that

3198-742: The Mongolian language of the middle period in Chinese transcription, etc.; in the western dialect, materials of the Arab–Mongolian and Persian–Mongolian dictionaries, Mongolian texts in Arabic transcription, etc. The main features of the period are that the vowels ï and i had lost their phonemic significance, creating the i phoneme (in the Chakhar dialect , the Standard Mongolian in Inner Mongolia , these vowels are still distinct); inter-vocal consonants γ / g , b / w had disappeared and

3280-552: The Mongolian script; almost all have incomplete support or other text rendering difficulties. The Mongolian vertical script developed as an adaptation of the Old Uyghur alphabet for the Mongolian language. Tata-tonga , a 13th-century Uyghur scribe captured by Genghis Khan , was responsible for bringing the Old Uyghur alphabet to the Mongolian Plateau and adapting it to the form of the Mongolian script. From

3362-579: The Southern Khalkha (Baarin and Jarud), Ligden raided the Ming dynasty . However, from 1612 on, leaders of the Khorchin and the Jarud became in-laws with the rising Manchu -led Later Jin dynasty . By the early 17th century, the Khan's court had lost most of its power and was under pressure from the Manchus in the east. Hoping that he could consolidate his power over the Mongol tümens, Ligden moved

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3444-648: The Three Right Wing Tumens against Ligden. They attacked Ligden at Zhaocheng. Ligden defeated the allies but lost 10,000 Chakhars. When the Ming court refused to pay subsidy , he raided the Ming Empire, forcing them to renew the treaty. The Ming increased his annual subsidy to 81,000 taels of silver. In 1631 Ligden passed the Khinggan Range and successfully attacked the Khorchin and the Tümed. A powerful alliance of Khorchin, Tümed , Yungshiyebu , Ordos and Abaga

3526-568: The Tibetans' and Mongols' belief in the religion. Hong Taiji started his conquest by subduing the potent Ming ally in Korea. February 1627 his forces crossed the Yalu River which had frozen. In 1628, he attempted to invade the Ming dynasty, but was defeated by Yuan Chonghuan and his use of artillery. During the next five years, Hong Taiji spent resources in training his artillery to offset

3608-714: The city of Hohhot ; as opposed to other compound words). This also allows components of different harmonic classes to be joined together, and vowels of an added suffix will harmonize with those of the latter part of the compound. Orthographic peculiarities are most often retained, as with the short and long teeth of an initial-shaped ⟨ ᠥ‍ → ᠊ᠥ᠌‍ ⟩ ö in ᠮᠤᠤ‍ ‍ᠥ᠌‍ ‍ᠬᠢᠨ Muu' ö kin 'Bad Girl' ( protective name ). Medial t and d , in contrast, are not affected in this way. Isolate citation forms for syllables containing o , u , ö , and ü may in dictionaries appear without

3690-442: The conquest of the Ming dynasty, the number of companies organized by him and his successor was 278 Manchus, 120 Mongols, and 165 Han. By the time of Hong Taiji's death there were more ethnic Han than Manchus and he had realized the need for there to be control exerted whilst getting approval from the Han majority. Not only did he incorporate the Han into the military, but also into the government. The Council of Deliberative Officials

3772-413: The emperor of Great Qing empire. Russian archive contains translations of the 1636 year Hong Taiji decree with the provision that after the fall of the Qing dynasty Mongols will return to their previous laws, i.e. independence. Whatever the precise motivation, Hong Taiji proclaimed the establishment of the Qing dynasty and also changed his era name to Chóngdé in 1636. The reasons for the choice of Qing as

3854-594: The final phonemes of the syllables, all of which ended in vowels. The script remained in continuous use by Mongolian speakers in Inner Mongolia in the People's Republic of China . In the Mongolian People's Republic , it was largely replaced by the Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet , although the vertical script remained in limited use. In March 2020, the Mongolian government announced plans to increase

3936-596: The highest class banners — the Plain and Bordered Yellow Banners — and the most influence. From there, he slowly got rid of his competitors' powers. Later, he would also receive the Plain Blue Banner from his fifth brother Manggūltai , which was the third strongest banner. Those three banners would officially become the Upper Three Banners during the early years of the Qing dynasty. During his reign, Hong Taiji started recruitment of Han Chinese officials. After

4018-537: The line. Listed in the table below are letter components ( graphemes ) commonly used across the script. Some of these are used with several letters, and others to contrast between them. As their forms and usage may differ between writing styles , however, examples of these can be found under this section below. As exemplified in this section, the shapes of glyphs may vary widely between different styles of writing and choice of medium with which to produce them. The development of written Mongolian can be divided into

4100-519: The military-civil administration known as the Eight Banners or Banner system . This system was well-suited to accept the different peoples, primarily Han and Mongols , who joined the Later Jin state either following negotiated agreements or military defeat. Although Hong Taiji patronized Tibetan Buddhism in public, in private he disdained the Buddhist belief of the Mongols and thought it

4182-489: The name of his dynasty from "Great Jin" to "Great Qing" in 1636. It is unclear whether " Hong Taiji " was a title or a personal name. Written Hong taiji in Manchu , it was borrowed from the Mongolian title Khong Tayiji . That Mongolian term was itself derived from the Chinese huang taizi 皇太子 ("crown prince", "imperial prince"), but in Mongolian it meant, among other things, something like "respected son". Alternatively, historian Pamela Crossley argues that "Hung Taiji"

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4264-419: The name of his people from Jurchen ( Manchu : [REDACTED] jušen ) to Manchu, or [REDACTED] manju in the Manchu language . The original meaning of Manju is not known and so the reasons for its adoption remain opaque. There are many theories as to the reason for the choice of name but two of the most commonly cited are its sounding similar to the Manchu word for "brave" and a possible connection with

4346-427: The neutral vowel i , but only vowels from either of the other two groups. The vowel qualities of visually separated vowels and suffixes must likewise harmonize with those of the preceding word stem. Such suffixes are written with front or neutral vowels when preceded by a word stem containing only neutral vowels. Any of these rules might not apply for foreign words however. A separated final form of vowels

4428-534: The new name are likewise unclear, although it has been speculated that the sound – Jin and Qing are pronounced similarly in Manchu – or wuxing theory – traditional ideas held that fire, associated with the character for Ming, was overcome by water, associated with the character for Qing – may have influenced the choice. Another possible reason may be that Hong Taiji changed the name of the dynasty from (Later) Jin to Qing in 1636 because of internecine fraternal struggle and skirmish between brothers and half brothers for

4510-407: The northern Khalkhas to join him against the Manchus, only Tsogt Taij accepted his appeal. Ligden aimed at centralizing Mongol rule. He appointed officials to rule the left and right wing tümens, and organized a special court nobility and a corps of 300 baaturs (warriors). In 1627, the other tümens were in full revolt . Princes ruling the Sunid, Uzemchin , and Abaga moved northwest and allied with

4592-408: The politician and linguist Bayantömöriin Khaisan published the rime dictionary Mongolian-Han Bilingual Original Sounds of the Five Regions , a bilingual edition of the earlier Original Sounds of the Five Regions , to aid Mongolian speakers in learning Mandarin Chinese. To that end, he included transliterations of Mandarin using the Mongolian script, and repurposed three Galik letters to represent

4674-432: The preliminary process of the formation of Mongolian long vowels had begun; the initial h was preserved in many words; grammatical categories were partially absent, etc. The development over this period explains why the Mongolian script looks like a vertical Arabic script (in particular the presence of the dot system). Eventually, minor concessions were made to the differences between the Uyghur and Mongol languages: In

4756-452: The same shape as the traditional dative-locative suffix ‑a/‑e exemplified in the next section. This form of the suffix is, however, more commonly found in older texts, and is restricted in its Post- Classical use. All case suffixes , as well as any plural suffixes consisting of one or two syllables, are likewise separated by a preceding and hyphen-transliterated gap. A maximum of two case suffixes can be added to

4838-401: The second ruler of the Later Jin dynasty in 1626. He might have had Mongolian ancestry as the son of Yehe-Nara Monggo Jerjer , and he might have been genetically related to the Mongolic Daur people as a member of the Aisin-Gioro clan . Although it has always been regarded as gossip, he was said to have been involved in the suicide of Dorgon 's mother, Lady Abahai , in order to block

4920-421: The seventh and eighth to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the Mongolian language separated into southern, eastern and western dialects. The principal documents from the period of the Middle Mongol language are: in the eastern dialect, the famous text The Secret History of the Mongols , monuments in the Square script , materials of the Chinese–Mongolian glossary of the fourteenth century and materials of

5002-435: The strength of the Ming artillery. Hong Taiji upgraded the weapons of the Empire. He realized the advantage of the Red Cannons and later also bought the Red Cannons into the army. Though the Ming dynasty still had more cannons, Hong Taiji now possessed the cannons of equal might and Asia's strongest cavalry. Also during this time, he sent several probing raids into northern China which were defeated. First attack went through

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5084-435: The succession of his younger brother. This is speculated because at the time of Nurhaci's death, there were four Lords/Beile with Hong Taiji holding the lowest rank, but also being the most fit one. Originally, at the end of Nurhaci's reign, Hong Taiji controlled the two White Banners , but after Lady Abahai's death, he switched his two banners with Dorgon and Dodo 's two Yellow banners. In the end, Hong Taiji had control over

5166-801: The three periods of pre-classical (beginning – 17th century), classical (16/17th century – 20th century), and modern (20th century onward): The Mongolian script was added to the Unicode standard in September 1999 with the release of version 3.0. However, several design issues have been pointed out. The Unicode block for Mongolian is U+1800–U+18AF. It includes letters, digits and various punctuation marks for Hudum Mongolian , Todo Mongolian , Xibe (Manchu) , Manchu proper , and Ali Gali , as well as extensions for transcribing Sanskrit and Tibetan . Hong Taiji Hong Taiji (28 November 1592 – 21 September 1643), also rendered as Huang Taiji and sometimes referred to as Abahai in Western literature, also known by his temple name as

5248-433: The throne to Hong Taiji's half-brother Dorgon  – a proven military leader – or to Hong Taiji's eldest son Hooge . As a compromise, Hong Taiji's five-year-old ninth son Fulin was chosen, while Dorgon – alongside Nurhaci's nephew Jirgalang  – was given the title of "prince regent". Fulin was officially crowned emperor of the Qing dynasty on 8 October 1643 and it

5330-433: The throne. According to Taoist philosophy, the name Jin has the meaning of metal and fire in its constituent, thereby igniting the tempers of the brothers of the Manchu Royal household into open conflicts and wars. Hong Taiji therefore adopted the new name of Great Qing (大清), the Chinese character of which has the water symbol [3 strokes] on its left hand side. The name, which means clear and transparent, with its water symbol

5412-403: The translator and scholar Ayuush Güüsh created the Galik alphabet ( Али-гали Ali-gali ), inspired by the third Dalai Lama , Sonam Gyatso . It primarily added extra characters for transcribing Tibetan and Sanskrit terms when translating religious texts, and later also from Chinese . Some of those characters are still in use today for writing foreign names (as listed below). In 1917,

5494-440: The two White Banners and Šurhaci's son Jirgalang controlled the remaining Bordered Blue Banner. Hong Taiji died on 21 September 1643 just as the Qing was preparing to attack Shanhai Pass , the last Ming fortification guarding access to the north China plains. Because he died without having named an heir, the Qing state now faced a succession crisis. The Deliberative Council of Princes and Ministers debated on whether to grant

5576-481: The two-letter suffix  ᠤᠨ ‑un / ‑ün is exemplified in the adjacent newspaper logo. Two medial consonants are the most that can come together in original Mongolian words. There are however, a few loanwords that can begin or end with two or more. In the modern language, proper names can usually join two words into graphic compounds (such as those of ᠬᠠᠰᠡᠷᠳᠡᠨᠢ Qas'erdeni 'Jasper-jewel' or ᠬᠥᠬᠡᠬᠣᠲᠠ Kökeqota –

5658-402: The use of the traditional Mongolian script and to use both Cyrillic and Mongolian script in official documents by 2025. However, due to the particularity of the traditional Mongolian script, a large part (40% ) of the Sinicized Mongols in China are unable to read or write this script, and in many cases the script is only used symbolically on plaques in many cities. The script is known by

5740-2380: The written form of the Tibetan word and write Ligdan , while Mongolian scholars will usually write Ligden , both pointing to a possible alternative with n . In Chinese , the name is written as 林丹, the standard Pinyin transcription being Líndān . Consorts and issue: Three Eastern Tumens Khalkha Chahar Uriankhai Three Western Tumens Ordos Tumed Yunshebu Tümen Choros Torghut Khoid Dörbet Oirat Yingchang Karakorum Hohhot Khagan Khan Khatun Taishi Jinong Khong Tayiji Noyan Tarkhan Councellor Wang Ukhaantu Khan Toghun-Temur (1368–1370) Biligtü Khan Ayushiridara (1370–1378) Uskhal Khan Tögüs Temür (1378–1388) Jorightu Khan Yesüder (1388–1391) Engke Khan (1391–1394) Elbeg Nigülesügchi Khan (1394–1399) Gün Temür Khan (1399–1402) Örüg Temür Khan Gulichi (1402–1408) Öljei Temür Khan Bunyashiri (1403–1412) Delbeg Khan (1411–1415) Oyiradai Khan (1415–1425) Adai Khan (1425–1438) Tayisung Khan Toghtoa Bukha (1433–1452) Agbarjin (1453) Esen Taishi (1453–1454) Markörgis Khan (Ükegtü) (1454–1465) Molon Khan (1465–1466) Manduul Khan (1475–1479) Dayan Khan (1480–1516) Bars Bolud Jinong (deputy) Bodi Alagh Khan (1516–1547) Darayisung Gödeng Khan (1547–1557) Tümen Jasaghtu Khan (1557–1592) Buyan Sechen Khan (1592–1604) Ligdan Khan (1604–1634) Ejei Khan (1634–1635) Altan Khan (1521–1582) Sengge Düüreng Khan (1583–1585) Namudai Sechen Khan (1586–1607) Boshugtu Khung Taiji (1608–1636) Barsu-Bolod (d. 1521) Mergen Jinong (d. 1542) Noyandara Jinong (1543–1572) Buyan Baatur Taiji (1573–1576) Boshugtu Jinong (1577–1624) Erinchen Jinong (1624–1636) Abtai Sain Khan (1567–1588) Eriyekhei Mergen Khan (1589–?) Gombodorji Khan (d. 1655) Chakhun Dorji Khan (1654–1698) Laikhur Khan Subandai Khan Norbu Bisireltü Khan (d. 1661) Chambun Khan (1670?–) Zenggün Shara (d. 1687) Soloi Maqasamadi Sechen Khan (1577–1652) Baba Sechen Khan (1653–?) Sechen Khan (d. 1686) Ubasi Khong Tayiji (c.1609–1623) Badma Erdeni Khong Tayiji (1623–1652) Erinchin Lobsang Tayiji (1652–1667) Mongol script The traditional Mongolian script , also known as

5822-408: Was Hong Taiji's era name in the Manchu language . Though "Abahai" is indeed "unattested in Manchu sources", it might also have derived from the Mongol word Abaġai , an honorary name given to the younger sons of hereditary monarchs. According to another view, Hong Taiji was mistakenly referred to as Abahai as a result of a confusion with the name of Nurhaci's main consort Lady Abahai . Hong Taiji

5904-484: Was a title "of Mongolian inspiration" derived from hung , a word that appeared in other Mongolian titles at the time. Early seventeenth-century Chinese and Korean sources rendered his name as "Hong Taiji" ( 洪台極 ). The modern Chinese rendering " Huang Taiji " ( 皇太極 ), which uses the character huang ("imperial"), misleadingly implies that Hong Taiji once held the title of "imperial prince" or heir apparent, even though his father and predecessor Nurhaci never designated

5986-653: Was buried in Zhaoling , located in northern Shenyang . As the emperor, he is commonly recognized as having abilities similar to the best emperors such as Yongle , Emperor Taizong of Tang due to his effective rule, use of talent, and warring skills. According to historian Jin Yong , Hong Taiji had the broad and wise views of Qin Shi Huang , Emperor Gaozu of Han , Emperor Guangwu of Han , Emperor Wen of Sui , Emperor Taizong of Tang , Emperor Taizu of Song , Kublai Khan ,

6068-410: Was decided that he would reign under the era name " Shunzhi ." A few months later, Qing armies led by Dorgon seized Beijing , and the young Shunzhi Emperor became the first Qing emperor to rule from that new capital. That the Qing state succeeded not only in conquering China but also in establishing a capable administration was due in large measure to the foresight and policies of Hong Taiji. His body

6150-495: Was destructive of Mongol identity. He is quoted to have said that, "The Mongolian princes are abandoning the Mongolian language; their names are all in imitation of the lamas ." The Manchus themselves such as Hong Taiji did not personally believe in Tibetan Buddhism and few wanted to convert. Hong Taiji described some Tibetan Buddhist lamas as "incorrigibles" and "liars", but still patronized Buddhism in order to harness

6232-606: Was established for indirect government of Inner Mongolia after the Mongols were conquered by Hong Taiji. In 1638 it was renamed to Lifanyuan . Initially, the ministerial affairs were settled, while vice-ministers were set up as vice-ministers. He continued the expansion of the Later Jin dynasty in Manchuria , pushing deeper into the Mongolian Plateau and raiding the Joseon dynasty and the Ming dynasty . His personal military abilities were widely praised and he effectively developed

6314-478: Was formed against Ligden. They destroyed 4,000 Chahar militias in Hohhot and 3,000 soldiers who were going to take Ligden's subsidy from the Ming. In 1632, the Later Jin khan Hong Taiji and his Mongol allies undertook a campaign against Ligden who avoided a confrontation and with maybe 100,000 Chakhar fled to Kokenuur . Ligden made himself yet more unpopular by seizing the wife of Erinchin jinong and taking refuge in

6396-578: Was formed as the highest level of policy-making and was composed entirely of Manchu. However, Hong Taiji adopted from the Ming such institutions as the Six Ministries , the Censorate and others. Each of these lower ministries was headed by a Manchu prince, but had four presidents: two were Manchu, one was Mongol, and one was Han. This basic framework remained, even though the details fluctuated over time, for some time. In 1635, Hong Taiji changed

6478-586: Was hoped to put out the feud among the brothers of the Manchu Royal household. Hongtaiji claimed that the progenitor of his Aisin Gioro clan, Bukūri Yongšon (布庫里雍順), was conceived from a virgin birth. According to the legend, three heavenly maidens, namely Enggulen (恩古倫), Jenggulen (正古倫) and Fekulen (佛庫倫), were bathing at a lake called Bulhūri Omo near the Changbai Mountains . A magpie dropped

6560-468: Was not a title, but a personal name. Western scholars used to refer to Hong Taiji as " Abahai ", but this appellation is now considered mistaken. Hong Taiji was never mentioned under this name in Manchu and Chinese sources; it was a mistake first made by Russian clergyman G.V. Gorsky and later repeated by sinologists starting in the early twentieth century. Giovanni Stary states that this name may have originated by confusing "Abkai" with Abkai sure , which

6642-649: Was the second Khan of the Later Jin and then Emperor of the Qing dynasty , after he changed its name. His title as Great Khan was Bogd Sécén Khaan (Manchu: Gosin Onco Hūwaliyasun Enduringge Han), and he was referred to as Bogda Khan by his Mongol subjects. His reign names , which were used in his lifetime to record dates, were Tiancong 天聰 ("heavenly wisdom"; Manchu: Abka-i sure ) from 1627 to 1636, and Chongde 崇德 ("lofty virtue"; Manchu: Wesihun erdemungge , Mongolian: Degedü Erdemtü ) from 1636 to 1643. Hong Taiji's temple name , by which he

6724-479: Was worshipped at the Imperial Ancestral Temple , was Taizong 太宗, the name that was conventionally given to the second emperor of a dynasty. His posthumous name , which was chosen to reflect his style of rule, was " Wen Huangdi " 文皇帝 (Manchu: šu hūwangdi ), which means "the culturing emperor" or "the emperor of letters". Hong Taiji was the eighth son of Nurhaci , whom he succeeded as

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