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69-586: The Linnaean Herbarium ( herbarium code: LINN ) is a historically significant collection of over 13,000 dried plant and lichen specimens assembled by the Swedish taxonomist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778). Housed at the Linnean Society of London since 1828 (and at its current location in Burlington House since 1873), it forms the foundation of modern botanical nomenclature and serves as

138-505: A fungarium . A xylarium is a herbarium specialising in specimens of wood. The term hortorium (as in the Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium ) has occasionally been applied to a herbarium specialising in preserving material of horticultural origin. The techniques for making herbaria have changed little over at least six centuries. They have been an important step in the transformation of the study of plants from

207-748: A branch of medicine to an independent discipline, and to make available plant material from far away places and over a long period of time. The oldest traditions of making herbarium collections have been traced to Italy. The Bologna physician and botanist, Luca Ghini (1490–1556) reintroduced the study of actual plants as opposed to relying on classical texts, such as Dioscorides , which lacked sufficient accuracy for identification. At first, he needed to make available plant material, even in winter, hence his Hortus hiemalis (winter garden) or Hortus siccus (dry garden). He and his students placed freshly gathered plants between two sheets of paper and applied pressure to flatten them and absorb moisture. The dried specimen

276-415: A comprehensive catalogue of type designations for all Linnaean plant names, necessary for clarifying their application in botanical nomenclature. In 2003, the project launched an online database with typification details for all Linnaean plant names. This resource provides information on place of publication, stated provenance, type specimens or illustrations, and current taxonomic placement for each name. By

345-497: A herbarium can represent the only record of the plant's original distribution. Environmental scientists make use of such data to track changes in climate and human impact. Herbaria have also proven very useful as source of plant DNA for use in taxonomy and molecular systematics . Even ancient fungaria represent a source for DNA-barcoding of ancient samples. Many kinds of scientists and naturalists use herbaria to preserve voucher specimens; representative samples of plants used in

414-609: A key resource for botanical research and understanding 18th-century scientific practices, with ongoing preservation, documentation, and digitisation efforts improving its accessibility. It remains vital for modern botanical nomenclature, providing context for about 5,900 Linnaean specific names. Current research, including the Linnaean Plant Name Typification Project, demonstrates its enduring relevance in botanical studies more than two centuries after its creation. Linnaeus started his herbarium as

483-541: A larger herbarium eventually incorporated into the Lyceum of Natural History 's collections. This collection, last recorded in 1830, is believed to have been destroyed in a fire in 1866, though this is not conclusively proven. The loss of Hosack's collection, if confirmed, represents a significant setback for early American botanical studies. Few other Linnaean specimens are known to exist in the United States, including

552-470: A model for later herbaria, emphasizing flexibility and adaptability in botanical classification. The Linnaean Herbarium shares similarities with other pre-Linnaean and early 18th-century collections, such as those of William Sherard , Hans Sloane , Paul Hermann , and Francesco Cupani . These collections, like the Linnaean Herbarium, contain specimens from various parts of the world, reflecting

621-419: A number corresponding to the species in the first edition of Species Plantarum (1753). Linnaeus used a unique system to mark specimens acquired after Species Plantarum . Species collected up to the 10th edition of Systema Naturae (1759) were marked with capital letters. The second edition of Species Plantarum (1762–63) introduced a new numbering system, which was not applied to the herbarium. The herbarium

690-465: A particular study to demonstrate precisely the source of their data, or to enable confirmation of identification at a future date. They may also be a repository of viable seeds for rare species. Many universities, museums, and botanical gardens maintain herbaria. Each is assigned an alphabetic code in the Index Herbariorum , between one and eight letters long. The largest herbaria in

759-488: A proposal to reject or conserve 26 Linnaean names for lichen-forming fungi. Researchers working with the Linnaean Herbarium face persistent challenges, particularly in interpreting Linnaeus's handwriting. His hurried script, especially in later annotations, can be difficult to decipher, adding complexity to the process of accurately cataloging and interpreting the specimens. The Linnaean Herbarium remains an important resource for botanical research, especially in taxonomy and

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828-476: A sheet of paper (called exsiccatum , plur. exsiccata ) but, depending upon the material, may also be stored in boxes or kept in alcohol or other preservative. The specimens in a herbarium are often used as reference material in describing plant taxa ; some specimens may be types , some may be specimens distributed in series called exsiccatae . The same term is often used in mycology to describe an equivalent collection of preserved fungi , otherwise known as

897-778: A significant moment in natural history , as it provided the material and social basis for the advancement of the Linnaean system in Britain. Smith founded the Linnean Society of London in 1788, initially meeting at his residence where the collections were housed in their original storage cabinets. These cabinets, though later returned to Sweden, had played a crucial role in preserving the specimens in their original arrangement. Smith's botanical education began in Norwich with local botanists like Hugh Rose, who introduced him to Linnaeus's works. He later studied at Edinburgh under John Hope ,

966-580: A single-word genus name, and a single-word specific epithet or "trivial name"; the two examples above became Plantago media and Nepeta cataria , respectively. The use of binomial names had originally been developed as a kind of shorthand in a student project about the plants eaten by cattle. After the specific epithet, Linnaeus gave a short description of each species, and a synonymy . The descriptions were careful and terse, consisting of few words in small genera; in Glycyrrhiza , for instance,

1035-753: A specimen in the Muhlenberg Herbarium at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia and fragments in Asa Gray 's herbarium at Harvard University . The herbarium faced several risks before Smith acquired it. In 1766, a fire in Uppsala led Linnaeus to move his herbarium and library to a barn, and later to a specially built museum at Hammarby . This exposed the collection to damp and mould, causing further damage. The younger Linnaeus also reported damage by mice and insects. Despite these challenges,

1104-429: A standard system of organizing their specimens into herbarium cases. Specimen sheets are stacked in groups by the species to which they belong and placed into a large lightweight folder that is labelled on the bottom edge. Groups of species folders are then placed together into larger, heavier folders by genus . The genus folders are then sorted by taxonomic family according to the standard system selected for use by

1173-785: A student at Lund University in 1727–28, collecting about 600 Swedish plants by autumn 1729. The collection grew significantly during his time in Holland and England (1735–38), where he acquired specimens from Virginia , the West Indies , Central America , and various gardens. This period was vital for his botanical development, as he obtained specimens from diverse sources, including George Clifford 's garden and John Clayton 's Virginian collection (via Johann Gronovius ). Linnaeus avidly collected specimens during his 1732 Lapland journey (where he named Linnaea borealis ) and trips to Öland , Gotland , and Skåne . He also cultivated plants in

1242-719: A subject of extensive research and typification efforts. In 1994, Per Magnus Jørgensen and colleagues conducted a comprehensive study of Linnaeus' lichen herbarium, which is housed alongside his plant specimens at the Linnean Society of London and contains 324 sheets with 109 lichen taxa. They found that Linnaeus' treatment of lichens was somewhat arbitrary, reflecting his limited interest in the group. The authors' work involved examination of original specimens, illustrations, and Linnaeus' writings to establish lectotypes and epitypes for these names, often navigating complex issues of interpretation and nomenclature. This research led to

1311-452: Is especially rich in the earlier collections made in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, contains the types of many species founded by the earlier workers in botany . It is also rich in types of Australian plants from the collections of Sir Joseph Banks and Robert Brown , and contains in addition many valuable modern collections. The large herbaria have many exsiccata series included in their collections. Most herbaria utilize

1380-429: Is internationally recognised by its standard herbarium code LINN, which is used to uniquely identify this collection in scientific literature and databases. Linnaeus's innovative approach to specimen management can be better understood compared to other historical collections of the era. Unlike earlier herbaria bound into fixed volumes, Linnaeus's cabinets allowed easy reorganisation and expansion. This innovation provided

1449-849: Is the Linnaean herbarium at the Swedish Museum of Natural History in Stockholm, comprising approximately 4,000 specimens. These specimens were originally distributed by Linnaeus to his disciples and eventually became part of the collections of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, before being transferred to the Swedish Museum of Natural History. Many of these specimens are types that have been formally designated by various experts. Efforts have been made to digitise and make these collections more accessible. Since 1997,

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1518-485: The hortus siccus (1566) of Petrus Cadé. While most of the early herbaria were prepared with sheets bound into books, Carl Linnaeus came up with the idea of maintaining them on free sheets that allowed their easy re-ordering within cabinets. Commensurate with the need to identify the specimen, it is essential to include in a herbarium sheet as much of the plant as possible (e.g., roots, flowers, stems, leaves, seed, and fruit), or at least representative parts of them in

1587-590: The Cape of Good Hope . Lists from 1753, 1755, and 1767 provide some insight into the herbarium's contents, but the collection was not static. Linnaeus continually added to it, and it also suffered losses over the years, making it difficult to identify all original specimens. After Linnaeus's death in 1778, his herbarium passed to his son, Carl Linnaeus the Younger . When the Carl Linnaeus the Younger died in 1783,

1656-497: The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature . The entire Linnaean collections encompass 14,000 plant specimens, 158 fish specimens, 1,564 shells, 3,198 insects, 1,600 books, and 3,000 letters and documents. These items are available for viewing by appointment, and a guided tour is offered monthly. The Linnean Society of London has made the Linnaean Herbarium accessible online, allowing researchers worldwide to study

1725-520: The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences . Carl Linnaeus the Younger also had his own herbarium, including plants he collected and some from his father. After his death, part of this collection (the 'Herbarium parvum') was given to Baron Clas Alströmer, and eventually became part of the Swedish Museum of Natural History collections. Linnaeus organised his herbarium by genera, species, and classes, with specific names written outside. Each species

1794-521: The Uppsala Garden from seeds sent from various regions. Despite travel challenges and preservation difficulties, Linnaeus's collections formed the foundation for his extensive botanical work. His network of students , colleagues, and correspondents, including Torbern Bergman , Erik Brander , Johann Reinhold Forster , Pehr Osbeck , Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber , Anders Sparrman , and Domenico Vandelli , contributed specimens from around

1863-543: The flora of an area. A large collection from a single area is used in writing a field guide or manual to aid in the identification of plants that grow there. With more specimens available, the author or the guide will better understand the variability of form in the plants and the natural distribution over which the plants grow. Herbaria also preserve a historical record of change in vegetation over time. In some cases, plants become extinct in one area or may become extinct altogether. In such cases, specimens preserved in

1932-712: The International Documentation Centre AB, Sweden, available in microfiche form. These efforts have ensured that high-quality, detailed images of the specimens are available for study, even outside the Linnean Society's rooms. A comprehensive modern effort to catalogue and typify Linnaean plant names is Charlie Jarvis's Order Out of Chaos: Linnaean Plant Names and Their Types , published in 2007. This monumental work, representing more than 25 years of research and collaboration with hundreds of botanists worldwide, meticulously designated type specimens for over 9000 plants named by Linnaeus, adhering to

2001-591: The Linnaean Herbarium contains 13,832 plant sheets, and several zoological specimens. These specimens represent species from every continent, contributed by about 150 individuals. The herbarium's organisation largely reflects how Linnaeus's son left it in 1783. Specimens are arranged by genus, each given a number. Within each genus, individual sheets are numbered sequentially. Linnaeus designed functional herbarium cabinets with adjustable shelving, allowing for dynamic and flexible organisation to accommodate new discoveries and rearrangements. Specimens are usually authenticated by

2070-517: The Linnaean Herbarium remains largely in its original form, making it a particularly valuable resource for understanding 18th-century botanical practices. The influence of the Linnaean Herbarium extended beyond Europe, with some specimens reaching the United States. In 1794, David Hosack acquired one of the few Linnaean specimen collections in America, obtaining duplicates from James Edward Smith during his London studies. These specimens became part of

2139-779: The Natural History Museum's Linnaean Plant Name Typification Project, Tropicos , or the International Plant Names Index (IPNI). The Linnean Society welcomes current determinations of specimens and encourages the use of these collections for scientific and historical research. Digitising of the Linnaean Herbarium is an essential step in preserving and democratising access to this scientific resource. High-resolution digital images and comprehensive metadata enable global researchers worldwide to study Linnaeus's original specimens without risking damage to these fragile historical artifacts, safeguarding

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2208-514: The Netherlands and England. After Linnaeus's death, his son inherited the herbarium, which was sold to English botanist James Edward Smith in 1784. Smith's acquisition and subsequent founding of the Linnean Society of London advanced the Linnaean system globally. The herbarium's organisation remains largely as Linnaeus's son left it in 1783, offering essential context for interpreting Linnaeus's specific names . The Linnaean Herbarium remains

2277-642: The South West portion of the courtyard. Prior to this, from 1856 to 1873, it was housed in Old Burlington House. Contrary to belief, it was not gifted or bequeathed to the Society. The Society bought it from the executors of Sir James Edward Smith (1759–1828) to make its contents permanently available to botanical scholars. The Linnaean Herbarium is fundamental to modern botanical nomenclature , as Linnaeus's 1753 work Species Plantarum serves as

2346-464: The Swedish Museum of Natural History has worked to present images of these specimens on their web server, aiming to eventually include images of all sheets in their Linnaean collection. These additional Linnaean collections accentuate the widespread influence of Linnaeus's work and the dispersal of his specimens during and after his lifetime. Herbarium The specimens may be whole plants or plant parts; these will usually be in dried form mounted on

2415-406: The case of large specimens. To preserve their form and colour, plants collected in the field are carefully arranged and spread flat between thin sheets, known as flimsies (equivalent to sheets of newsprint), and dried, usually in a plant press , between blotters or absorbent paper. During the drying process the specimens are retained within their flimsies at all times to minimize damage, and only

2484-486: The collection for future generations and facilitating new research and collaboration among botanists worldwide. The digitisation process captures detailed information to aid researchers. The Swedish Museum of Natural History provides the following details with their digital images of Linnaean specimens: This level of detail in digital catalogs helps researchers identify and verify Linnaean specimens, facilitating ongoing taxonomic and historical botanical research. It highlights

2553-500: The collection more accessible to researchers worldwide. Efforts to catalog and study the Linnaean Herbarium in detail date back to at least the mid-20th century. Spencer Savage's 1945 A Catalogue of the Linnaean Herbarium was a significant early work. In 1941, a microfilm of the herbarium was made with support from the Carnegie Foundation . In 1958–59, a more detailed photographic record was created in collaboration with

2622-477: The collection was preserved and later restored. Due to its immense scientific and historical value, the Linnaean Herbarium is now carefully preserved in a temperature- and humidity-controlled environment beneath Burlington House in London. These conditions ensure long-term preservation of the specimens, making them accessible for ongoing research. The Linnean Society has undertaken various efforts to document and make

2691-466: The collections was not without controversy; he was accused by some contemporaries of appropriating Linnaeus's work and passing it off as his own. However, Smith viewed himself as a 'trustee' or 'steward' of national treasures. Since 1873, the Linnaean Herbarium has been housed by the Linnean Society of London at Burlington House in Piccadilly , following the Society's move to its current location in

2760-502: The definitive specimen (lectotype) that Linnaeus used to describe this species is preserved in the Clifford Herbarium at London's Natural History Museum . In 1801, the botanist Olof Swartz transferred the species to a different genus, creating the new combination Botrychium lunaria (L.) Swartz , with the '(L.)' indicating that Linnaeus provided the original species name (basionym). The Linnaean lichen names have been

2829-425: The dispersal of his collections after his death. These herbaria, though smaller than the main collection in London, are significant because they often contain type specimens and provide additional context for Linnaeus's work. They offer researchers alternative sources for studying Linnaean material, potentially filling gaps in the main collection or providing comparative specimens for taxonomic studies. A notable example

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2898-441: The early 2000s, valid, published typifications were known for more than 75% of Linnaean plant names. The project has published numerous papers with hundreds of new typifications and assisted scientists worldwide in publishing typifications for Linnaean names. For example, the common moonwort fern was originally named Osmunda lunaria by Linnaeus in his 1753 Species Plantarum . Through typification research, botanists determined that

2967-523: The first time in 1758). Prior to this work, a plant species would be known by a long polynomial, such as Plantago foliis ovato-lanceolatis pubescentibus, spica cylindrica, scapo tereti (meaning " plantain with pubescent ovate-lanceolate leaves, a cylindrical spike and a terete scape") or Nepeta floribus interrupte spicatis pedunculatis (meaning " Nepeta with flowers in a stalked, interrupted spike"). In Species Plantarum , these cumbersome names were replaced with two-part names, consisting of

3036-534: The first to teach the Linnaean system in Scotland. Smith's deep interest in botany and his acquisition of Linnaeus's collections significantly influenced botanical research and education in Britain. Smith extensively used the Linnaean collections in his publications, including English Botany (1790–1814) and Flora Britannica (1800–1804). These publications advanced botanical knowledge and served as valuable references for future taxonomic studies. Smith's ownership of

3105-465: The genera in Species Plantarum ; these are supplied in the companion volume Genera Plantarum ( lit.   ' the genera of plants ' ), the fifth edition of which was printed at a similar time to the first edition of Species Plantarum . Linnaeus acknowledged his "sexual system" was an artificial system, rather than one which accurately reflects shared ancestry , but

3174-765: The global nature of botanical exploration at the time. However, the Linnaean Herbarium is notable for its larger size and comprehensive scope. It contains about 13,000 specimens, a significant increase compared to other collections of the period. For instance, the herbarium of Paolo Boccone (1633–1704) in Leiden contains 669 samples, Sherard's herbarium has about 20,000 specimens, and Cupani's collection comprises 669 samples focused on Sicilian flora. The mounting methods used in these herbaria are also comparable. Linnaeus and contemporaries like Sloane and Hermann used strips of paper and glue to mount specimens. Unlike some other collections that underwent significant rearrangements over time,

3243-487: The herbarium and placed into pigeonholes in herbarium cabinets. Locating a specimen filed in the herbarium requires knowing the nomenclature and classification used by the herbarium. It also requires familiarity with possible name changes that have occurred since the specimen was collected, since the specimen may be filed under an older name. Herbarium collections can have great significance and value to science, and have many uses. Herbaria have long been essential for

3312-515: The herbarium was sold to English botanist James Edward Smith , fulfilling Linnaeus's wishes. This sale has been a source of regret for Swedish botanists ever since. While the main herbarium went to England, many Linnaean specimens stayed in Sweden. These specimens were often gifts from Linnaeus to friends and disciples. For example, about 30 plants classified by Linnaeus are in the Bergian herbarium at

3381-516: The history of botany. It provides invaluable insights into Linnaeus's work and the development of plant classification systems. As Stearn notes, "The Linnaean Herbarium from its world-wide scope has a world-wide interest", and its availability in microfiche form represents "a major service to systematic botany". Linnaeus's method of keeping herbarium sheets unbound in cabinets allowed for a flexible and dynamic system of botanical classification. This approach has influenced modern botanical practices, where

3450-446: The importance of Linnaean specimens as type material for plant names, underlining their continued relevance in modern botany. The herbarium sheets may also include symbols used by Linnaeus, providing additional historical context and insight into his working methods. The Linnaean Plant Name Typification Project, initiated by the Linnean Society of London, remains at the forefront of Linnaean Herbarium research. This project aims to provide

3519-469: The internationally accepted starting point. It provides essential context for interpreting approximately 5,900 Linnaean specific names published in this work. Linnaeus's pioneering work in botanical data management involved innovative paper-based technologies to handle information overload. He used interleaved books, index cards, and systematic filing systems to catalogue species and maintain extensive notes on various genera. His annotations included details on

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3588-503: The medicinal and economic uses of plants, reflecting his broader goal of utilizing natural resources efficiently. Linnaeus's extensive correspondence network across Europe and beyond was important for expanding his collections and updating classifications. His work was foundational for botanical taxonomy and had significant practical applications in agriculture, medicine, and other industries. According to Benjamin Daydon Jackson ,

3657-466: The method of preservation, detailed information on where and when the plant and fungus was collected, habitat, color (since it may fade over time), and the name of the collector is usually included. The value of a herbarium is much enhanced by the possession of types , that is, the original specimens on which the study of a species was founded. Thus the herbarium at the British Museum , which

3726-751: The plant, altitude, and special habitat conditions. The sheet is then placed in a protective case. As a precaution against insect attack, the pressed plant is frozen or poisoned, and the case disinfected. Certain groups of plants and fungi are soft, bulky, or otherwise not amenable to drying and mounting on sheets. For these plants, other methods of preparation and storage may be used. For example, conifer cones and palm fronds may be stored in labelled boxes. Representative flowers or fruits may be pickled in formaldehyde to preserve their three-dimensional structure. Small specimens, such as saprophytic and plant parasitic microfungi , mosses and lichens , are often air-dried and packaged in small paper envelopes. No matter

3795-457: The primary reference for Linnaeus's 1753 work Species Plantarum , the starting point for modern plant taxonomy . The herbarium includes specimens from Linnaeus's botanical explorations and global collaborations, spanning early Swedish collections to acquisitions from the Americas, Asia, and Africa. The collection, begun during Linnaeus's student days, expanded considerably during his time in

3864-456: The specimens digitally. The herbarium is searchable by genus and by historical 'filed as' names. Specimens are cataloged using the Savage numbering system. The digital database includes names written by Linnaeus and his son, as well as some subsequent determinations, but does not include transcriptions of all annotations. Researchers seeking currently accepted names are directed to resources such as

3933-624: The study of plant taxonomy , the study of geographic distributions, and the stabilizing of nomenclature. Most of Carl Linnaeus 's collections are housed at the Linnaean Herbarium , which contains over 4,000 types and now belongs to the Linnean Society in England. Modern scientists continue to develop novel, non-traditional uses for herbarium specimens that extend beyond what the original collectors could have anticipated. Specimens housed in herbaria may be used to catalogue or identify

4002-529: The thicker, absorbent drying sheets are replaced. For some plants it may prove helpful to allow the fresh specimen to wilt slightly before being arranged for the press. An opportunity to check, rearrange and further lay out the specimen to best reveal the required features of the plant occurs when the damp absorbent sheets are changed during the drying/pressing process. The specimens, which are then mounted on sheets of stiff white paper, are labelled with all essential data, such as date and place found, description of

4071-528: The thousands of plant species known to Linnaeus at the time. In the first edition, there were 5,940 names, from Acalypha australis to Zygophyllum spinosum . In his introduction, Linnaeus estimated that there were fewer than 10,000 plant species in existence; there are now thought to be around 400,000 species of flowering plants alone. The species were arranged in around a thousand genera, which were grouped into 24 classes, according to Linnaeus' sexual system of classification. There are no descriptions of

4140-560: The three species ( Glycyrrhiza echinata , Glycyrrhiza glabra and " Glycyrrhiza hirsuta ", respectively) were described as " leguminibus echinatis ", " leguminibus glabris " and " leguminibus hirsutis ". Because it is the first work in which binomial nomenclature was consistently applied, Species Plantarum was chosen as the "starting point" for the nomenclature of most plants (the nomenclature of some non-vascular plants and all fungi uses later starting points). Species Plantarum contained descriptions of

4209-472: The type method and the concept of holotypes are now standard. Linnaeus's insistence on detailed descriptions and comparisons of multiple specimens laid the groundwork for the taxonomic methods used today. While the main Linnaean Herbarium is housed at the Linnean Society of London, other significant collections of Linnaean specimens exist elsewhere. These additional collections emerged from Linnaeus's practice of sharing specimens with colleagues and students and

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4278-417: The world, further enriching his herbarium. Linnaeus pioneered the practice of keeping herbaria unbound, storing dried plant sheets separately in purpose-built cabinets. This innovation facilitated easy addition, removal, and reorganisation of specimens, significantly influencing 18th-century botanical study methods. His herbarium cabinets were designed to store unbound sheets of dried plants. The specimen paper

4347-436: The world, in approximate order of decreasing size, are: Species Plantarum Species Plantarum ( Latin for "The Species of Plants") is a book by Carl Linnaeus , originally published in 1753, which lists every species of plant known at the time, classified into genera . It is the first work to consistently apply binomial names and was the starting point for the naming of plants . Species Plantarum

4416-459: Was glued to a half-sheet of paper, and all half-sheets of the same genus were placed in a whole sheet with the genus name on it. In December 1783, Sara Elisabeth Moræa, Linnaeus's widow, offered to sell his collection to Sir Joseph Banks for 1000 guineas . Banks declined but advised James Edward Smith, a young medical student, who then purchased the herbarium and manuscripts in 1784. The collection, which included three cabinets of herbarium sheets,

4485-432: Was published by Willdenow in four volumes, 1798 (1), 1800 (2), 1801 (3 ), 1803 (3 ), 1804 (3 ), 1805 (4 ), 1806 (4 ), rather than the dates printed on the volumes themselves. Species Plantarum was the first botanical work to consistently apply the binomial nomenclature system of naming to any large group of organisms (Linnaeus' tenth edition of Systema Naturae would apply the same technique to animals for

4554-492: Was published on 1 May 1753 by Laurentius Salvius in Stockholm, in two volumes. A second edition was published in 1762–1763, and a third edition in 1764, although this "scarcely differed" from the second. Further editions were published after Linnaeus' death in 1778, under the direction of Karl Ludwig Willdenow , the director of the Berlin Botanical Garden ; the fifth edition was titled "fourth edition" and

4623-553: Was relatively small, 12.3 by 8 inches (32 cm x 20.56 cm), and often provided scant information about the collector and collection details. Linnaeus relied on memory, using brief notes or signs to remind himself of a specimen's source. By 1753, when Linnaeus published Species Plantarum , the herbarium included specimens from southern France, other parts of Europe, Siberia , coastal China, India, southeastern Canada, New York , and Pennsylvania . After 1753, Linnaeus added specimens from South America , Jamaica , China, and

4692-549: Was shipped to England. According to an illustration in Robert John Thornton 's New Illustration Of The Sexual System Of Linnaeus , published during the Napoleonic Wars , the collection's transport to England involved a dramatic pursuit by a Swedish vessel, though this detail may be part of a manufactured narrative celebrating Britain's acquisition of the collections. The acquisition of the collection marked

4761-583: Was then glued onto a page in a book and annotated. This practice was supplemented by the parallel development of the Hortus simplicium or Orto botanico ( botanical garden ) to supply material, which he established at the University of Pisa in 1544. Although Ghini's herbarium has not survived, the oldest extant herbarium is that of Gherardo Cibo from around 1532. and in the Lower Countries

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