The term lute song is given to a music style from the late 16th century to early 17th century, late Renaissance to early Baroque , that was predominantly in England and France. Lute songs were generally in strophic form or verse repeating with a homophonic texture. The composition was written for a solo voice with an accompaniment, usually the lute . It was not uncommon for other forms of accompaniments such as bass viol or other string instruments, and could also be written for more voices. The composition could be performed either solo or with a small group of instruments.
47-453: The basic style of lute songs is light and serious, with poetic lyrics that usually followed word-setting to composed music. In England, the songs tended to range from extended contrapuntal compositions to short harmonized tunes. The text could be written by the composer or most often borrowed from a poem, set in verse form. These songs were composed for professional and amateur performers, which had variations for solo and ensemble. The lute song
94-446: A component of a musical composition . Because there are multiple ways to separate these components, there are several contradictory senses in which the word "part" is used: Part-writing (or voice leading ) is the composition of parts in consideration of harmony and counterpoint . In the context of polyphonic composition the term voice may be used instead of part to denote a single melodic line or textural layer. The term
141-466: A favorite at the court of Louis XIII (1610–1643). During this time many volumes were released from the Royal court and others. The general form was strophic, with a vocal range of one octave and a tonal harmony, with text usually from pastorals . Other composers of airs were Antoine Boesset, Jean Boyer, Jean-Baptiste Boessert, and Francois Richard. Contrapuntal In music theory , counterpoint
188-478: A more beautiful polyphonic whole. The internal structures that create each of the voices separately must contribute to the emergent structure of the polyphony, which in turn must reinforce and comment on the structures of the individual voices. The way that is accomplished in detail is ... 'counterpoint'. Counterpoint has been most commonly identified in the European classical tradition , strongly developing during
235-507: A new timbre. This effect is also used in orchestral arrangements; for instance, in Ravel 's Bolero #5 the parallel parts of flutes, horn and celesta resemble the sound of an electric organ. In counterpoint, parallel voices are prohibited because they violate the homogeneity of musical texture when independent voices occasionally disappear turning into a new timbre quality and vice versa. Some examples of related compositional techniques include:
282-570: A number of devices, including: Broadly speaking, due to the development of harmony, from the Baroque period on, most contrapuntal compositions were written in the style of free counterpoint. This means that the general focus of the composer had shifted away from how the intervals of added melodies related to a cantus firmus , and more toward how they related to each other. Nonetheless, according to Kent Kennan : "....actual teaching in that fashion (free counterpoint) did not become widespread until
329-434: A school-room discipline," consisting of species counterpoint but with all the traditional rules reversed. First species counterpoint must be all dissonances, establishing "dissonance, rather than consonance, as the rule," and consonances are "resolved" through a skip, not step. He wrote that "the effect of this discipline" was "one of purification". Other aspects of composition , such as rhythm, could be "dissonated" by applying
376-549: A second voice is added. "The counterpoint in bars 5-8... sheds an unexpected light on the tonality of the Subject." : Bach 's 3-part Invention in F minor combines three independent melodies: According to pianist András Schiff , Bach's counterpoint influenced the composing of both Mozart and Beethoven . In the development section of the opening movement of Beethoven's Piano Sonata in E minor , Beethoven demonstrates this influence by adding "a wonderful counterpoint" to one of
423-632: A solo bassoon adds a counterpoint that has a similarly impromptu quality." In the Prelude to Richard Wagner 's opera Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg , three themes from the opera are combined simultaneously. According to Gordon Jacob , "This is universally and justly acclaimed as an extraordinary feat of virtuosity." However, Donald Tovey points out that here "the combination of themes ... unlike classical counterpoint, really do not of themselves combine into complete or euphonious harmony." One spectacular example of 5-voice counterpoint can be found in
470-488: A total of 371 harmonized chorales. Today most students' reference Albert Riemenschneider's 1941 compilation of Bach chorales. Polyphony and part-writing are also present in many popular music and folk music traditions, although they may not be described as explicitly or systematically as they sometimes are in the Western tradition. The lead part or lead voice is the most prominent, melodically-important voice (often
517-427: A voice or even an entire composition. Counterpoint focuses on melodic interaction—only secondarily on the harmonies produced by that interaction. Work initiated by Guerino Mazzola (born 1947) has given counterpoint theory a mathematical foundation. In particular, Mazzola's model gives a structural (and not psychological) foundation of forbidden parallels of fifths and the dissonant fourth. Octavio Agustin has extended
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#1732772570066564-486: Is Johann Fux 's Gradus ad Parnassum , which dictates a style of counterpoint writing that resembles the work of the famous Renaissance composer Palestrina . The standard for most Western music theory in the twentieth century is generalized from the work of Classical composers in the common practice period . For example, a recent general music textbook states, Part writing is derived from four-voice chorales written by J.S. Bach . The late baroque era composer wrote
611-530: Is called expanded when the added-part notes vary in length among themselves. The technique requires chains of notes sustained across the boundaries determined by beat, and so creates syncopation . A dissonant interval is allowed on beat 1 because of the syncopation created by the suspension. While it is not incorrect to start with a half note, it is also common to start 4th species with a half rest. Short example of "fourth species" counterpoint In fifth species counterpoint, sometimes called florid counterpoint ,
658-479: Is generic, and is not meant to imply that the line should necessarily be vocal in character, instead referring to instrumentation , the function of the line within the counterpoint structure, or simply to register . The historical development of polyphony and part-writing is a central thread through European music history. The earliest notated pieces of music in Europe were gregorian chant melodies. It appears that
705-532: Is the relationship of two or more simultaneous musical lines (also called voices) that are harmonically interdependent yet independent in rhythm and melodic contour . The term originates from the Latin punctus contra punctum meaning "point against point", i.e. "note against note". John Rahn describes counterpoint as follows: It is hard to write a beautiful song. It is harder to write several individually beautiful songs that, when sung simultaneously, sound as
752-482: The Codex Calixtinus (12th century) contains the earliest extant decipherable part music. Many histories of music trace the development of new rules for dissonances , and shifting stylistic possibilities for relationships between parts. In some places and time periods, part-writing has been systematized as a set of counterpoint rules taught to musicians as part of their early education. One notable example
799-718: The Renaissance and in much of the common practice period , especially in the Baroque period . In Western pedagogy , counterpoint is taught through a system of species (see below). There are several different forms of counterpoint, including imitative counterpoint and free counterpoint. Imitative counterpoint involves the repetition of a main melodic idea across different vocal parts, with or without variation. Compositions written in free counterpoint often incorporate non-traditional harmonies and chords, chromaticism and dissonance . The term "counterpoint" has been used to designate
846-588: The Renaissance period in European music, much contrapuntal music has been written in imitative counterpoint. In imitative counterpoint, two or more voices enter at different times, and (especially when entering) each voice repeats some version of the same melodic element. The fantasia , the ricercar , and later, the canon and fugue (the contrapuntal form par excellence ) all feature imitative counterpoint, which also frequently appears in choral works such as motets and madrigals . Imitative counterpoint spawned
893-418: The functional independence of voices is the prime concern. The violation of this principle leads to special effects, which are avoided in counterpoint. In organ registers, certain interval combinations and chords are activated by a single key so that playing a melody results in parallel voice leading. These voices, losing independence, are fused into one and the parallel chords are perceived as single tones with
940-438: The round (familiar in folk traditions), the canon , and perhaps the most complex contrapuntal convention: the fugue . All of these are examples of imitative counterpoint . There are many examples of song melodies that are harmonically interdependent yet independent in rhythm and melodic contour. For example, " Frère Jacques " and " Three Blind Mice " combine euphoniously when sung together. A number of popular songs that share
987-530: The cantus firmus is the lower part. (The same cantus firmus is used for later examples also. Each is in the Dorian mode .) In second species counterpoint, two notes in each of the added parts work against each longer note in the given part. Additional considerations in second species counterpoint are as follows, and are in addition to the considerations for first species: In third species counterpoint, four (or three, etc.) notes move against each longer note in
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#17327725700661034-495: The composer than other types of counterpoint and therefore is called a "strict" counterpoint. The student gradually attains the ability to write free counterpoint (that is, less rigorously constrained counterpoint, usually without a cantus firmus) according to the given rules at the time. The idea is at least as old as 1532, when Giovanni Maria Lanfranco described a similar concept in his Scintille di musica (Brescia, 1533). The 16th-century Venetian theorist Zarlino elaborated on
1081-468: The finale to Mozart's Symphony No 41 ("Jupiter" Symphony). Here five tunes combine simultaneously in "a rich tapestry of dialogue": See also Invertible counterpoint . Species counterpoint was developed as a pedagogical tool in which students progress through several "species" of increasing complexity, with a very simple part that remains constant known as the cantus firmus (Latin for "fixed melody"). Species counterpoint generally offers less freedom to
1128-416: The first collection of airs de cour, a collection of 22 airs with lute accompaniment. In 1582, Composer Didier LeBlanc released a collection of 43 short airs that were strophic form, homophonic and ametric structure. Composer Jean Planson, published 38 short airs in 1587, much like Leblanc; however, his had an ABB form. In the 17th century the popularity of the airs grew. The simple solo strophic melodies were
1175-473: The following rules govern the combination of the parts: In first species counterpoint, each note in every added part (parts being also referred to as lines or voices ) sounds against one note in the cantus firmus. Notes in all parts are sounded simultaneously, and move against each other simultaneously. Since all notes in First species counterpoint are whole notes, rhythmic independence is not available. In
1222-482: The given part. Three special figures are introduced into third species and later added to fifth species, and ultimately outside the restrictions of species writing . There are three figures to consider: The nota cambiata , double neighbor tones , and double passing tones . Double neighbor tones: the figure is prolonged over four beats and allows special dissonances. The upper and lower tones are prepared on beat 1 and resolved on beat 4. The fifth note or downbeat of
1269-533: The highest in pitch but not necessarily) and is played by a lead instrument (e.g. a lead vocalist ). In musical forms , a part may refer to a subdivision in the structure of a piece. Sometimes "part" is a title given by the composer or publisher to the main sections of a large-scale work, especially oratorios . For example, Handel 's Messiah , which is organized into Part I, Part II, and Part III, each of which contains multiple scenes and one or two dozen individual arias or choruses. Other times, "part"
1316-562: The horizontal (linear) aspects over the vertical" is featured or the "harmonic control of lines is rejected." Associated with neoclassicism , the technique was first used in Igor Stravinsky 's Octet (1923), inspired by J. S. Bach and Giovanni Palestrina . However, according to Knud Jeppesen : "Bach's and Palestrina's points of departure are antipodal. Palestrina starts out from lines and arrives at chords; Bach's music grows out of an ideally harmonic background, against which
1363-532: The idea in his influential Le institutioni harmoniche , and it was first presented in a codified form in 1619 by Lodovico Zacconi in his Prattica di musica . Zacconi, unlike later theorists, included a few extra contrapuntal techniques, such as invertible counterpoint . In 1725 Johann Joseph Fux published Gradus ad Parnassum (Steps to Parnassus), in which he described five species: A succession of later theorists quite closely imitated Fux's seminal work, often with some small and idiosyncratic modifications in
1410-499: The integrity of the individual melodic lines is not sacrificed to harmonic considerations. "Its distinctive feature is rather the concept of melody, which served as the starting-point for the adherents of the 'new objectivity' when they set up linear counterpoint as an anti-type to the Romantic harmony." The voice parts move freely, irrespective of the effects their combined motions may create." In other words, either "the domination of
1457-402: The late nineteenth century." Young composers of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, such as Mozart , Beethoven , and Schumann , were still educated in the style of "strict" counterpoint, but in practice, they would look for ways to expand on the traditional concepts of the subject. Main features of free counterpoint: Linear counterpoint is "a purely horizontal technique in which
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1504-457: The lute song was usually called an "ayre", possibly borrowed from the French word, air . The first written record of the lute songs or ayres is a 1597 publication First Booke of Songes or Ayres , which was composed by John Dowland . This is considered the beginning of the popularity of the lute songs, that set the standard for other composer’s songbooks of English ayres. The music was printed on
1551-414: The main themes. A further example of fluid counterpoint in late Beethoven may be found in the first orchestral variation on the " Ode to Joy " theme in the last movement of Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 , bars 116–123. The famous theme is heard on the violas and cellos , while "the basses add a bass-line whose sheer unpredictability gives the impression that it is being spontaneously improvised. Meantime
1598-539: The model to microtonal contexts. Another theorist who has tried to incorporate mathematical principles in his study of counterpoint is Sergei Taneyev (1856-1915). Inspired by Spinoza , Taneyev developed a theory which covers and generalizes a wide range of advanced contrapuntal phenomena, including what is known to the english-speaking theorists as invertible counterpoint (although he describes them mainly using his own, custom-built terminology), by means of linking them to simple algebraic procedures. In counterpoint,
1645-406: The next measure should move by step in the same direction as the last two notes of the double neighbor figure. Lastly a double passing tone allows two dissonant passing tones in a row. The figure would consist of 4 notes moving in the same direction by step. The two notes that allow dissonance would be beat 2 and 3 or 3 and 4. The dissonant interval of a fourth would proceed into a diminished fifth and
1692-439: The next note would resolve at the interval of a sixth. In fourth species counterpoint, some notes are sustained or suspended in an added part while notes move against them in the given part, often creating a dissonance on the beat, followed by the suspended note then changing (and "catching up") to create a subsequent consonance with the note in the given part as it continues to sound. As before, fourth species counterpoint
1739-408: The other four species of counterpoint are combined within the added parts. In the example, the first and second bars are second species, the third bar is third species, the fourth and fifth bars are third and embellished fourth species, and the final bar is first species. In florid counterpoint it is important that no one species dominates the composition. Short example of "Florid" counterpoint Since
1786-524: The page, so that when placed in the center of a table it could be read by the performers around the table. John Dowland's ayres, like other composers, used music from dance forms such as pavane , galliard and jig , for the melody. Philip Rosseter , court musician, composer, and theatrical manager, published a collection in 1601, A Book of Ayres , with composer and poet Thomas Campion . The compositions were short, homophonic songs with minimal phrase repetition with their own lyrics. The last book published
1833-459: The present context, a "step" is a melodic interval of a half or whole step. A "skip" is an interval of a third or fourth. (See Steps and skips .) An interval of a fifth or larger is referred to as a "leap". A few further rules given by Fux, by study of the Palestrina style, and usually given in the works of later counterpoint pedagogues, are as follows. In the adjacent example in two parts,
1880-460: The reign of Henry the VIII , leads to some consideration that the lute songs were composed prior to 1597. Other composers of lute songs during this time include John Danyel, Robert Jones, Pilkington and Alfonso Ferrabosco. In France, the lute song was called " air de cour ". The first airs were not homophonic or solos, but rather polyphonic and for up to four voices. In 1571, Adrian LeRoy published
1927-449: The rules. Many of Fux's rules concerning the purely linear construction of melodies have their origin in solfeggio . Concerning the common practice era, alterations to the melodic rules were introduced to enable the function of certain harmonic forms. The combination of these melodies produced the basic harmonic structure, the figured bass . The following rules apply to melodic writing in each species, for each part: And, in all species,
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1974-581: The same chord progression can also be sung together as counterpoint. A well-known pair of examples is " My Way " combined with " Life on Mars ". Johann Sebastian Bach is revered as one of the greatest masters of counterpoint. For example the harmony implied in the opening subject of the Fugue in G-sharp minor from Book II of the Well-Tempered Clavier is heard anew in a subtle way when
2021-532: The same principle. Seeger was not the first to employ dissonant counterpoint, but was the first to theorize and promote it. Other composers who have used dissonant counterpoint, if not in the exact manner prescribed by Charles Seeger, include Johanna Beyer , John Cage , Ruth Crawford-Seeger , Vivian Fine , Carl Ruggles , Henry Cowell , Carlos Chávez , John J. Becker , Henry Brant , Lou Harrison , Wallingford Riegger , and Frank Wigglesworth . Sources Part (music) A part in music refers to
2068-450: The voices develop with a bold independence that is often breath-taking." According to Cunningham, linear harmony is "a frequent approach in the 20th century...[in which lines] are combined with almost careless abandon in the hopes that new 'chords' and 'progressions'...will result." It is possible with "any kind of line, diatonic or duodecuple ". Dissonant counterpoint was originally theorized by Charles Seeger as "at first purely
2115-418: Was by John Attey in 1622, called First Book of Ayres . The format of these songbooks was intended to be performed with a solo voice and an accompaniment, but some did include variations for multiple voices and additional instruments. It is possible that lute songs were composed before these books were published, but the written record of such songs starts with John Dowland. The consort song , popular during
2162-524: Was for a solo voice accompanied by a small group of string instruments. In France, the chanson is a precursor to the lute song or air de cour . Collections of airs de cour were used in other countries, besides England and France. Collections of the French airs were published in England, Germany and Holland. Italy had forms of song such as the frottola that were much like the lute song, but the lute song seemed more prominent in England and France. In England,
2209-478: Was popular among the Royalty and nobility. King Louis XIII was believed to be fond of the simple songs, which led to a volume of work during his reign. Composers of the lute song usually composed other forms of music as well such as madrigals , chansons , and consort songs . The consort song, popular in England, is considered to be closely related to the lute song. This was an earlier strophic form of music that
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