The Luba Empire or Kingdom of Luba was a pre-colonial Central African state that arose in the marshy grasslands of the Upemba Depression in what is now southern Democratic Republic of Congo .
100-510: Archaeological research shows that the Upemba Depression had been occupied continuously since at least the 4th century AD. In the 4th century, the region was occupied by iron -working farmers. Over the centuries, the people of the region learned to use nets , harpoons , make dugout canoes , and clear canals through swamps. They had also learned techniques for drying fish, which were an important source of protein; they began trading
200-434: A body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure . As it cools further to 1394 °C, it changes to its γ-iron allotrope, a face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure, or austenite . At 912 °C and below, the crystal structure again becomes the bcc α-iron allotrope. The physical properties of iron at very high pressures and temperatures have also been studied extensively, because of their relevance to theories about
300-415: A kitenta . Kasongo had four physically abnormal children. They were barred from succession. His first normal child was Ilunga Mpunji. He was caught with Kasongo's senior wife and they were drowned, and another son died of grief. Their spirits terrorised the people, however Kasongo consulted the diviner of the spirit Nkulu and killed them. Kasongo Bisonwe was the offspring of the son who died of grief, and
400-430: A nuclear spin (− 1 ⁄ 2 ). The nuclide Fe theoretically can undergo double electron capture to Cr, but the process has never been observed and only a lower limit on the half-life of 4.4×10 years has been established. Fe is an extinct radionuclide of long half-life (2.6 million years). It is not found on Earth, but its ultimate decay product is its granddaughter, the stable nuclide Ni . Much of
500-426: A sacred king ), such as not to eat in anyone's view. Nkongolo accidentally insulted Mbidi and he set to return to the east. Nkongolo's sisters, who had been given to Mbidi as wives, were both pregnant. Mbidi told the sisters and the god Mijibu Kalenga that a black-skinned child would be his, while a red-skinned child would be Nkongolo's. He entrusted Mijibu Kalenga with looking after his child. On his return he crossed
600-561: A sacred king ). His capital was Mwibele near Lake Boya . One day Mbidi Kiluwe (lit. "Mbidi the hunter"), who came from the east, was searching for his hunting dog. Mbidi crossed the Lomami River and his followers founded the kingdoms Lukungu and Mutombo Mukulu. He came to the Lunda and fathered a child called Mwata Yamvo . Mbidi wandered to Mwibele and Nkongolo invited him to stay. From him Nkongolo learnt royal behaviour (ie. that of
700-499: A supernova for their formation, involving rapid neutron capture by starting Fe nuclei. In the far future of the universe, assuming that proton decay does not occur, cold fusion occurring via quantum tunnelling would cause the light nuclei in ordinary matter to fuse into Fe nuclei. Fission and alpha-particle emission would then make heavy nuclei decay into iron, converting all stellar-mass objects to cold spheres of pure iron. Iron's abundance in rocky planets like Earth
800-559: A centered crest on the top of the masks and its size varies on the status of the dancer wearing it, elder dances within the Bwadi bra Kifwebe have larger centered crest compared to others. Female Kifwebe masks was typically used for public ceremonies and reproduction rituals. Women within the Songye community were viewed as the bearer of children and good fortune. To them, women represent continuation of life and cultural tradition. The features of
900-752: A deep violet complex: Songye people The Songye people , sometimes written Songe , are a Bantu ethnic group from the central Democratic Republic of the Congo . They speak the Songe language . They inhabit a vast territory between the Sankuru/Lulibash river in the west and the Lualaba River in the east. Many Songye villages can be found in present-day East Kasai province, parts of Katanga and Kivu Province. The people of Songye are divided into thirty-four conglomerate societies; each society
1000-454: A distorted sodium chloride structure. The binary ferrous and ferric halides are well-known. The ferrous halides typically arise from treating iron metal with the corresponding hydrohalic acid to give the corresponding hydrated salts. Iron reacts with fluorine, chlorine, and bromine to give the corresponding ferric halides, ferric chloride being the most common. Ferric iodide is an exception, being thermodynamically unstable due to
1100-570: A female Nkishi has a cavity in the abdomen and head to house the Bijimba. The figure itself usually shows signs of scarification on its face and above its face. The legs of the figure are posed in an unusual way and appears to be unfinished, this may suggests that it was covered by sacred objects and was not meant to be shown. When a Nkishi is being used, the Nganga places shells, horns, animal skins, nails or studs and other spiritual objects outside of
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#17327655836661200-521: A group called the Mbudye. They were responsible for maintaining the oral histories associated with kings, their villages and the customs of the land. Parallels to these kinds of officials can be found in neighboring kingdoms such as Kuba and Lunda. The local economy led to the development of several small Luba kingdoms. Luba traders linked the Congolese forest to the north with the mineral-rich region in
1300-407: A latex ball. Ilunga won, again, with Mijibu Kalenga's help. Nkongolo's mother laughed at him and he had his mother buried alive. Ilunga saw black ants carrying off termites, which he took as a sign to make war, killing some of Nkongolo's men. While Ilunga was away collecting tribute, Nkongolo set a trap intended to kill him. With the help of a drummer, Ilunga discovered the trap, and fled east, crossing
1400-553: A macroscopic piece of iron will have a nearly zero overall magnetic field. Application of an external magnetic field causes the domains that are magnetized in the same general direction to grow at the expense of adjacent ones that point in other directions, reinforcing the external field. This effect is exploited in devices that need to channel magnetic fields to fulfill design function, such as electrical transformers , magnetic recording heads, and electric motors . Impurities, lattice defects , or grain and particle boundaries can "pin"
1500-475: A mixture of O 2 /Ar. Iron(IV) is a common intermediate in many biochemical oxidation reactions. Numerous organoiron compounds contain formal oxidation states of +1, 0, −1, or even −2. The oxidation states and other bonding properties are often assessed using the technique of Mössbauer spectroscopy . Many mixed valence compounds contain both iron(II) and iron(III) centers, such as magnetite and Prussian blue ( Fe 4 (Fe[CN] 6 ) 3 ). The latter
1600-423: A protectors of the community, encourages fertility and protects families from evil spirits and practitioners. Nganga (magical practitioners) are responsible for commissioning these figures, they decide the dimensions, sex morphological aspects, and the type of wood used for the figure. These Sculptures comes various forms and serves different purposes, Usually Mankishi are depicted as a large stylized sculptures of
1700-471: A result, mercury is traded in standardized 76 pound flasks (34 kg) made of iron. Iron is by far the most reactive element in its group; it is pyrophoric when finely divided and dissolves easily in dilute acids, giving Fe . However, it does not react with concentrated nitric acid and other oxidizing acids due to the formation of an impervious oxide layer, which can nevertheless react with hydrochloric acid . High-purity iron, called electrolytic iron ,
1800-490: A sign Nkongolo wished to stay there, making it the first sacred village ( kitenta ). Ilunga established a court in Mwilunde , and took the title Mwine Munza ("lord of Munza"). Tribute came from all of the country and no region remained outside his control. He killed most of his children, leaving succession to two boys, Kazade Milele and one covered in animal hair, Ilunga Mwila. Mwine Munza wanted Ilunga Mwila killed, however
1900-478: A standing on a base. In profile, the repetition of strong diagonals in the hair, beard forearm and feet are forceful and aesthetically pleasing. The horizontal shoulders arm and legs helps gives the figure a sense of energy and movement. The Stance is meant to signify the Mankishi's alertness and readiness to carry out his purpose whether it is protecting its owner from evil spirits or witches and sorcerers. Its head
2000-455: A type of rock consisting of repeated thin layers of iron oxides alternating with bands of iron-poor shale and chert . The banded iron formations were laid down in the time between 3,700 million years ago and 1,800 million years ago . Materials containing finely ground iron(III) oxides or oxide-hydroxides, such as ochre , have been used as yellow, red, and brown pigments since pre-historical times. They contribute as well to
2100-435: A very large coordination and organometallic chemistry : indeed, it was the discovery of an iron compound, ferrocene , that revolutionalized the latter field in the 1950s. Iron is sometimes considered as a prototype for the entire block of transition metals, due to its abundance and the immense role it has played in the technological progress of humanity. Its 26 electrons are arranged in the configuration [Ar]3d 4s , of which
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#17327655836662200-646: Is also rarely found in basalts that have formed from magmas that have come into contact with carbon-rich sedimentary rocks, which have reduced the oxygen fugacity sufficiently for iron to crystallize. This is known as telluric iron and is described from a few localities, such as Disko Island in West Greenland, Yakutia in Russia and Bühl in Germany. Ferropericlase (Mg,Fe)O , a solid solution of periclase (MgO) and wüstite (FeO), makes up about 20% of
2300-461: Is believed that the chiefs are sacred heirs of their ancestors and of the founding cultural hero. Hunting was an occupation associated with cultural heroes: Chiefs would organize hunting of animals to showcase the power that was imbued in him by the cultural hero he was honoring. Blacksmithing was another craft that was associated with their heroes. Their smiths were reputed for their production of arms; their axes were used by Luba, and some were found in
2400-407: Is considered to be resistant to rust, due to its oxide layer. Iron forms various oxide and hydroxide compounds ; the most common are iron(II,III) oxide (Fe 3 O 4 ), and iron(III) oxide (Fe 2 O 3 ). Iron(II) oxide also exists, though it is unstable at room temperature. Despite their names, they are actually all non-stoichiometric compounds whose compositions may vary. These oxides are
2500-499: Is due to its abundant production during the runaway fusion and explosion of type Ia supernovae , which scatters the iron into space. Metallic or native iron is rarely found on the surface of the Earth because it tends to oxidize. However, both the Earth's inner and outer core , which together account for 35% of the mass of the whole Earth, are believed to consist largely of an iron alloy, possibly with nickel . Electric currents in
2600-474: Is experimentally well defined for pressures less than 50 GPa. For greater pressures, published data (as of 2007) still varies by tens of gigapascals and over a thousand kelvin. Below its Curie point of 770 °C (1,420 °F; 1,040 K), α-iron changes from paramagnetic to ferromagnetic : the spins of the two unpaired electrons in each atom generally align with the spins of its neighbors, creating an overall magnetic field . This happens because
2700-494: Is in Earth's crust only amounts to about 5% of the overall mass of the crust and is thus only the fourth most abundant element in that layer (after oxygen , silicon , and aluminium ). Most of the iron in the crust is combined with various other elements to form many iron minerals . An important class is the iron oxide minerals such as hematite (Fe 2 O 3 ), magnetite (Fe 3 O 4 ), and siderite (FeCO 3 ), which are
2800-438: Is led by a single chief with a Judiciary Council of elders and nobles (bilolo). Smaller kingdoms east of the Lomami River refer to themselves as Songye, other kingdoms in the west, refer to themselves as Kalebwe, Eki, Ilande, Bala, Chofwe, Sanga and Tempa. As a society, the people of Songye are mainly known as a farming community; they do, however, take part in hunting and trading with other neighboring communities. The origin of
2900-401: Is not like that of Mn with its weak, spin-forbidden d–d bands, because Fe has higher positive charge and is more polarizing, lowering the energy of its ligand-to-metal charge transfer absorptions. Thus, all the above complexes are rather strongly colored, with the single exception of the hexaquo ion – and even that has a spectrum dominated by charge transfer in the near ultraviolet region. On
3000-407: Is possible, but nonetheless the sequence does effectively end at Ni because conditions in stellar interiors cause the competition between photodisintegration and the alpha process to favor photodisintegration around Ni. This Ni, which has a half-life of about 6 days, is created in quantity in these stars, but soon decays by two successive positron emissions within supernova decay products in
3100-548: Is somewhat different). Pieces of magnetite with natural permanent magnetization ( lodestones ) provided the earliest compasses for navigation. Particles of magnetite were extensively used in magnetic recording media such as core memories , magnetic tapes , floppies , and disks , until they were replaced by cobalt -based materials. Iron has four stable isotopes : Fe (5.845% of natural iron), Fe (91.754%), Fe (2.119%) and Fe (0.282%). Twenty-four artificial isotopes have also been created. Of these stable isotopes, only Fe has
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3200-442: Is such a strong oxidizing agent that it oxidizes ammonia to nitrogen (N 2 ) and water to oxygen: The pale-violet hex aquo complex [Fe(H 2 O) 6 ] is an acid such that above pH 0 it is fully hydrolyzed: As pH rises above 0 the above yellow hydrolyzed species form and as it rises above 2–3, reddish-brown hydrous iron(III) oxide precipitates out of solution. Although Fe has a d configuration, its absorption spectrum
3300-502: Is supposed to have an orthorhombic or a double hcp structure. (Confusingly, the term "β-iron" is sometimes also used to refer to α-iron above its Curie point, when it changes from being ferromagnetic to paramagnetic, even though its crystal structure has not changed. ) The inner core of the Earth is generally presumed to consist of an iron- nickel alloy with ε (or β) structure. The melting and boiling points of iron, along with its enthalpy of atomization , are lower than those of
3400-418: Is thus very important economically, and iron is the cheapest metal, with a price of a few dollars per kilogram or pound. Pristine and smooth pure iron surfaces are a mirror-like silvery-gray. Iron reacts readily with oxygen and water to produce brown-to-black hydrated iron oxides , commonly known as rust . Unlike the oxides of some other metals that form passivating layers, rust occupies more volume than
3500-451: Is used as the traditional "blue" in blueprints . Iron is the first of the transition metals that cannot reach its group oxidation state of +8, although its heavier congeners ruthenium and osmium can, with ruthenium having more difficulty than osmium. Ruthenium exhibits an aqueous cationic chemistry in its low oxidation states similar to that of iron, but osmium does not, favoring high oxidation states in which it forms anionic complexes. In
3600-437: Is used in chemical actinometry and along with its sodium salt undergoes photoreduction applied in old-style photographic processes. The dihydrate of iron(II) oxalate has a polymeric structure with co-planar oxalate ions bridging between iron centres with the water of crystallisation located forming the caps of each octahedron, as illustrated below. Iron(III) complexes are quite similar to those of chromium (III) with
3700-445: Is usually elongated with sharp facial feature such as the eyes, chin, and rectangular nose. Its torso is also elongated yet the center of abdomen is hollowed along with the top of the head so that the Bijimba, a magical substance created by the Nganga, can be housed in the sculpture and bring spiritual power to it. Female Mankishi exist, but they are smaller, less common, and they are usually for personal usage. Like its male counterpart,
3800-568: The 2nd millennium BC and the use of iron tools and weapons began to displace copper alloys – in some regions, only around 1200 BC. That event is considered the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age . In the modern world , iron alloys, such as steel , stainless steel , cast iron and special steels , are by far the most common industrial metals, due to their mechanical properties and low cost. The iron and steel industry
3900-548: The Kingdom of Kanyok and the Kingdom of Kalundwe , the buffer states between Luba and Lunda , though this ultimately failed. Instead, they focused their efforts on less centralized regions, mainly to the east and south of Luba. They established client states known as "fire kingdoms" - vassal kingdoms on the Luba frontier that were granted the sacred royal fire embers of the Luba kings (whom they were often seen as equals to). However,
4000-704: The Kuba Kingdom , the Luba Kingdom held the arts in high esteem. A carver held relatively high status, which was displayed by an adze (axe) that he carried over his shoulder. Luba art varied because of the kingdom's vast territory. Some characteristics are common. The important role of woman in the creation myths and political society resulted in the decoration of many prestigious objects with female figures. Headrests and staffs were of great importance in relation to beliefs about prophetic dreams and ancestor worship. Dreams were believed to communicate messages from
4100-568: The periodic table . It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth , forming much of Earth's outer and inner core . It is the fourth most abundant element in the Earth's crust , being mainly deposited by meteorites in its metallic state. Extracting usable metal from iron ores requires kilns or furnaces capable of reaching 1,500 °C (2,730 °F), about 500 °C (932 °F) higher than that required to smelt copper . Humans started to master that process in Eurasia during
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4200-432: The supernova remnant gas cloud, first to radioactive Co, and then to stable Fe. As such, iron is the most abundant element in the core of red giants , and is the most abundant metal in iron meteorites and in the dense metal cores of planets such as Earth . It is also very common in the universe, relative to other stable metals of approximately the same atomic weight . Iron is the sixth most abundant element in
4300-491: The trans - chlorohydridobis(bis-1,2-(diphenylphosphino)ethane)iron(II) complex is used as a starting material for compounds with the Fe( dppe ) 2 moiety . The ferrioxalate ion with three oxalate ligands displays helical chirality with its two non-superposable geometries labelled Λ (lambda) for the left-handed screw axis and Δ (delta) for the right-handed screw axis, in line with IUPAC conventions. Potassium ferrioxalate
4400-466: The universe , and the most common refractory element. Although a further tiny energy gain could be extracted by synthesizing Ni , which has a marginally higher binding energy than Fe, conditions in stars are unsuitable for this process. Element production in supernovas greatly favor iron over nickel, and in any case, Fe still has a lower mass per nucleon than Ni due to its higher fraction of lighter protons. Hence, elements heavier than iron require
4500-532: The 18th century, the Luba invaded groups of the Songye people,, but did not conquer them, and consolidated their power north of the Upemba Depression . Trade and tribute extraction were emphasized during this period rather than conquest of land. In the 19th century, the Luba began invading their neighbors to set up their own vassal tributaries. They first attempted western invasions for the submission of
4600-570: The 3d and 4s electrons are relatively close in energy, and thus a number of electrons can be ionized. Iron forms compounds mainly in the oxidation states +2 ( iron(II) , "ferrous") and +3 ( iron(III) , "ferric"). Iron also occurs in higher oxidation states , e.g., the purple potassium ferrate (K 2 FeO 4 ), which contains iron in its +6 oxidation state. The anion [FeO 4 ] with iron in its +7 oxidation state, along with an iron(V)-peroxo isomer, has been detected by infrared spectroscopy at 4 K after cocondensation of laser-ablated Fe atoms with
4700-418: The Bwadi bra Kifwebe help regulate and maintain political order and balance between the chief and his communities. The Bwadi bra Kifwebe maintain balance within the community by conducting masquerades, rituals and rites such as initiation rituals, circumcisions and funerals. The Bwadi bra Kifwebe maintain balance within the community by conducting masquerades. The overall appearance of a masquerader varies on
4800-493: The Congo River and told the ferryman only to allow a black man, not red, to cross. One sister gave birth to a black-skinned boy named Kalala Ilunga (lit. "Ilunga the warrior"). He was precocious. He became known as an athlete and hunter. Nkongolo challenged Ilunga to a game called masoko , similar to marbles . With the help of Mijibu Kalenga Ilunga won. They then played another game called bulundu , which involved kicking
4900-411: The Congo. Nkongolo pursued him, but the ferryman hid the canoes. Ilunga brought together an army from his father's realm and returned. Nkongolo fled, amid attempts to build a fortified island. Ilunga and his men captured Nkongolo and executed him, burying his head and genitals in a sacred basket. The basket was brought to Ilunga's father's realm and buried. In its place grew an anthill, which was taken as
5000-603: The Earth's surface. Items made of cold-worked meteoritic iron have been found in various archaeological sites dating from a time when iron smelting had not yet been developed; and the Inuit in Greenland have been reported to use iron from the Cape York meteorite for tools and hunting weapons. About 1 in 20 meteorites consist of the unique iron-nickel minerals taenite (35–80% iron) and kamacite (90–95% iron). Native iron
5100-571: The Luba were linked by the Bambudye , a secret society that kept the memory of the Luba alive and taught throughout the realm. The Mbudye tradition states that all of the rulers of the Luba Empire traced their ancestry to Kalala Ilunga, a mystical hunter credited with toppling Kongolo Mwamba. This figure is also credited with the introduction of advanced iron forging techniques to the Luba peoples. Luba kings became deities upon their deaths, and
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#17327655836665200-450: The Songye begins when its founding ancestors Tshimbale and Kongolo (king) established the Kingdom of Luba . Tshimbale and Kongolo played an important role in establishing the foundation of Luba's political empire. After suffering from political dissension, the ancestors of Songye migrated out of the Luba Empire. The Songye honor their ancestors and cultural heroes through a series of different practices and occasions. In Songye culture, it
5300-526: The accuracy of the story and the existence of certain figures, like Kolongo, Kalala, and Ilunga, is questionable. Reefe believes that the accounts of Luba's foundation are mythical tales, however Congolese historians maintain they're based on historical events. The kingdom of Luba's success was due in large part to its development of a form of a government durable enough to withstand the disruptions of succession disputes and flexible enough to incorporate foreign leaders and governments. The Luba model of governing
5400-402: The appropriate use of magical ingredients. In order to become a member of the Bwadi bra Kifwebe, all applicants must undergo an initiation process. During this process, initiates must learn and identify a secret esoteric language. They must undergo a radical and violent experience in order to become less fearful of the unknown and learn their roles within the subject to Bwadi bra Kifwebe. Some of
5500-450: The brown deposits present in a sizeable number of streams. Due to its electronic structure, iron has a very large coordination and organometallic chemistry. Many coordination compounds of iron are known. A typical six-coordinate anion is hexachloroferrate(III), [FeCl 6 ] , found in the mixed salt tetrakis(methylammonium) hexachloroferrate(III) chloride . Complexes with multiple bidentate ligands have geometric isomers . For example,
5600-666: The center of modern Zambia known as the Copperbelt. The trade routes passing through Luba territory were also connected with wider networks extending to both the Atlantic and Indian Ocean coasts. With the formation of the Luba kingdom, the economy was complex and based on a tribute system that redistributed agricultural, hunting and mining resources among nobles. The ruling class held a virtual monopoly on trade items such as salt , copper , and iron ore . This allowed them to continue their dominance in much of Central Africa . As in
5700-709: The color of various rocks and clays , including entire geological formations like the Painted Hills in Oregon and the Buntsandstein ("colored sandstone", British Bunter ). Through Eisensandstein (a jurassic 'iron sandstone', e.g. from Donzdorf in Germany) and Bath stone in the UK, iron compounds are responsible for the yellowish color of many historical buildings and sculptures. The proverbial red color of
5800-524: The community. When the dancer is wearing a male mask his movements are aggressive and unstable, however when a dancer wears a female mask his movements are gentle and controlled. The dances of the kifwebe dancers are meant to encourage social conformity within the community showing its people how one should behave in their society. There are two different types of kifwebe masks. The kifwebe masks come in various designs and reference different aspects of nature, culture and cosmology. Kifwebe masks symbolized
5900-464: The cores of the Earth and other planets. Above approximately 10 GPa and temperatures of a few hundred kelvin or less, α-iron changes into another hexagonal close-packed (hcp) structure, which is also known as ε-iron . The higher-temperature γ-phase also changes into ε-iron, but does so at higher pressure. Some controversial experimental evidence exists for a stable β phase at pressures above 50 GPa and temperatures of at least 1500 K. It
6000-413: The dancer, the type of ceremony they're performing in, and spirit being evoked. Normally Masqueraders have a wooden mask and are covered head to toe in flowing black raffia fibers made from the bark or roots of trees. Their arms, bodies and legs are covered with raffia netting, with goat skins fastened around their waist. The dancers are male and the complexity of their costume varies on their status within
6100-414: The dead that can influence the world of men. These spirits can be malevolent spirits causing infertility, bad harvests and sickness or benevolent spirits bringing good health and prosperity in the hunt and field. The Songye believe that spirits can be reborn; benevolent spirits are believed to be reborn by creating a mamkishi power figure, while malevolent spirits (bikudi) are not reborn and are forced to roam
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#17327655836666200-435: The distant Indian Ocean . At this time, social stratification and governance began to form. By the 14th century, the people of the region were organized into various successful farming and trading communities — the gradual process of the communities merging began. Some communities began to merge into larger, more centralized ones; the reason for this is likely because of competition for increasingly limited resources. "Lords of
6300-401: The domains in the new positions, so that the effect persists even after the external field is removed – thus turning the iron object into a (permanent) magnet . Similar behavior is exhibited by some iron compounds, such as the ferrites including the mineral magnetite , a crystalline form of the mixed iron(II,III) oxide Fe 3 O 4 (although the atomic-scale mechanism, ferrimagnetism ,
6400-477: The dried fish with the inhabitants of the protein-starved savanna . By the 6th century, fishing people lived on lakeshores, worked iron, and traded palm oil . By the 10th century, the people of Upemba had diversified their economy, combining fishing, farming and metal-working. Metal-workers relied on traders to bring them the copper and charcoal that they needed in smelting. Traders exported salt and iron items, and imported glass beads and cowry shells from
6500-479: The earlier 3d elements from scandium to chromium , showing the lessened contribution of the 3d electrons to metallic bonding as they are attracted more and more into the inert core by the nucleus; however, they are higher than the values for the previous element manganese because that element has a half-filled 3d sub-shell and consequently its d-electrons are not easily delocalized. This same trend appears for ruthenium but not osmium . The melting point of iron
6600-430: The earth for eternity. Not all spirits who are unable to be reborn as a Nkishi are wandering spirits, spirits who are not reborn yet are knowledgeable on their power and knowledge of patrilineage founders, heroic leaders, and lineage chiefs and dignitaries become guardians of the lineage and provide general protection. Mankishi conform to a certain magico-social standard within the Songye community. Songye figures serves as
6700-435: The empire over the upper left bank territories of the Lualaba River . At its peak, the state had about a million people paying tribute to its king. Luba-Katanga oral traditions start with a man named Kyubaka Ubaka (lit. "Maker of huts") and a woman named Kibumba Bumba (lit. "Pottery maker") who lived east of the upper Congo River . They gave birth to twins; a boy named Kyungu and a girl named Kibange. Several generations of
6800-406: The exception of iron(III)'s preference for O -donor instead of N -donor ligands. The latter tend to be rather more unstable than iron(II) complexes and often dissociate in water. Many Fe–O complexes show intense colors and are used as tests for phenols or enols . For example, in the ferric chloride test , used to determine the presence of phenols, iron(III) chloride reacts with a phenol to form
6900-405: The female kifwebe mask was meant to portray these ideas. Typically they share similar characteristics as the male mask however it facial features are more gentle and rounded evoking the tenderness of a mother as well as the power to protect and support her children. The structure of the face is longed, the mask itself is covered in white paint or Kaolin. Mankishi (singular: Nkishi ) are spirits of
7000-428: The fire would "burn out" with the death of the king, meaning their status as a "fire kingdom" would only last for the king's tenure. The Luba set up three main fire kingdoms in the 19th century: Ultimately, long-distance trade destroyed the kingdom of Luba. In the 1870s and 1880s, traders from East Africa began searching for slaves and ivory in the savannas of central Africa. The empire was raided for slaves beginning
7100-462: The global stock of iron in use in society is 2,200 kg per capita. More-developed countries differ in this respect from less-developed countries (7,000–14,000 vs 2,000 kg per capita). Ocean science demonstrated the role of the iron in the ancient seas in both marine biota and climate. Iron shows the characteristic chemical properties of the transition metals , namely the ability to form variable oxidation states differing by steps of one and
7200-592: The head of every genealogy. It is an honorific title, with the literal meaning of "the essentially powerful". It was given to the three most distant patriarchs and inserted symbolically in all genealogies. In Baluba tradition, a kasala is a well-defined form of slogans in free-verse poetry. They are chanted or recited, sometimes with instrumental accompaniment, by men and women who are professional specialists. It dramatizes public events that call for strong emotions, such as courage in battle, collective joy at official functions, and bereavement at funerals. In style and content,
7300-409: The kasala by itself is a diverse genre of proverbs, myths, fables, riddles, tales and historical narratives. The Luba Empire greatly expanded its influence during the period from 1700-1860. This expansion was done through tributaries, where Luba armies frequently targeted population-dense regions (usually under smaller states with less military resistance) to extract tribute from them to the emperor. In
7400-447: The land" held priestly roles due to their special relationship with the spirits of the land and were widely recognised, holding sway over multiple villages and essentially ruling embryonic kingdoms. As lineages grew in size, authority was opportunistically absorbed or incorporated by force, leading to the formation of states. The Luba Kingdom was founded by King Kongolo Mwamba . His nephew and immediate successor, Kalala Ilunga , expanded
7500-453: The liquid outer core are believed to be the origin of the Earth's magnetic field . The other terrestrial planets ( Mercury , Venus , and Mars ) as well as the Moon are believed to have a metallic core consisting mostly of iron. The M-type asteroids are also believed to be partly or mostly made of metallic iron alloy. The rare iron meteorites are the main form of natural metallic iron on
7600-446: The literature, this mineral phase of the lower mantle is also often called magnesiowüstite. Silicate perovskite may form up to 93% of the lower mantle, and the magnesium iron form, (Mg,Fe)SiO 3 , is considered to be the most abundant mineral in the Earth, making up 38% of its volume. While iron is the most abundant element on Earth, most of this iron is concentrated in the inner and outer cores. The fraction of iron that
7700-424: The living and the dead and are able to enact their will on the community. Bwadi bra Kifwebe is a secret society of masked men. In the community, these men were known for their use of magic (Buki or Buchi) and sorcery (Masende). Buki and Masende magic differ from witchcraft; these types of magic are inherited or obtained either by will or unconsciously. Witchcraft, in contrast, can be obtained through initiation and at
7800-407: The major ores of iron . Many igneous rocks also contain the sulfide minerals pyrrhotite and pentlandite . During weathering , iron tends to leach from sulfide deposits as the sulfate and from silicate deposits as the bicarbonate. Both of these are oxidized in aqueous solution and precipitate in even mildly elevated pH as iron(III) oxide . Large deposits of iron are banded iron formations ,
7900-414: The mask. The ruggedness of the mask itself symbolizes the underworld and the spirits escape from it. Male Kifwebe masks were mainly used for initiation ceremonies, circumcision, and the enthronement and funerals of the supreme chief. The face of a typical Kifwebe masks is covered with linear incisions, a square protruding mouth and a linear nose set between globular pierced eyes. Male masks typical have
8000-775: The metal and thus flakes off, exposing more fresh surfaces for corrosion. Chemically, the most common oxidation states of iron are iron(II) and iron(III) . Iron shares many properties of other transition metals, including the other group 8 elements , ruthenium and osmium . Iron forms compounds in a wide range of oxidation states , −4 to +7. Iron also forms many coordination compounds ; some of them, such as ferrocene , ferrioxalate , and Prussian blue have substantial industrial, medical, or research applications. The body of an adult human contains about 4 grams (0.005% body weight) of iron, mostly in hemoglobin and myoglobin . These two proteins play essential roles in oxygen transport by blood and oxygen storage in muscles . To maintain
8100-612: The meteorites Semarkona and Chervony Kut, a correlation between the concentration of Ni, the granddaughter of Fe, and the abundance of the stable iron isotopes provided evidence for the existence of Fe at the time of formation of the Solar System . Possibly the energy released by the decay of Fe, along with that released by Al , contributed to the remelting and differentiation of asteroids after their formation 4.6 billion years ago. The abundance of Ni present in extraterrestrial material may bring further insight into
8200-559: The necessary levels, human iron metabolism requires a minimum of iron in the diet. Iron is also the metal at the active site of many important redox enzymes dealing with cellular respiration and oxidation and reduction in plants and animals. At least four allotropes of iron (differing atom arrangements in the solid) are known, conventionally denoted α , γ , δ , and ε . The first three forms are observed at ordinary pressures. As molten iron cools past its freezing point of 1538 °C, it crystallizes into its δ allotrope, which has
8300-436: The orbitals of those two electrons (d z and d x − y ) do not point toward neighboring atoms in the lattice, and therefore are not involved in metallic bonding. In the absence of an external source of magnetic field, the atoms get spontaneously partitioned into magnetic domains , about 10 micrometers across, such that the atoms in each domain have parallel spins, but some domains have other orientations. Thus
8400-539: The origin and early history of the Solar System . The most abundant iron isotope Fe is of particular interest to nuclear scientists because it represents the most common endpoint of nucleosynthesis . Since Ni (14 alpha particles ) is easily produced from lighter nuclei in the alpha process in nuclear reactions in supernovae (see silicon burning process ), it is the endpoint of fusion chains inside extremely massive stars . Although adding more alpha particles
8500-444: The other hand, the pale green iron(II) hexaquo ion [Fe(H 2 O) 6 ] does not undergo appreciable hydrolysis. Carbon dioxide is not evolved when carbonate anions are added, which instead results in white iron(II) carbonate being precipitated out. In excess carbon dioxide this forms the slightly soluble bicarbonate, which occurs commonly in groundwater, but it oxidises quickly in air to form iron(III) oxide that accounts for
8600-405: The other world. Therefore, it was common to have two priestess figures adorned on a headrest on which one slept. Luba staffs, usually owned by kings, village chiefs or court dignitaries, were also carved with dual or paired female figures. Single figures on art pieces, specifically staffs, represented dead kings whose spirits are carried in a woman's body. Among the Luba, the name "Nkole" appears at
8700-581: The oxidizing power of Fe and the high reducing power of I : Ferric iodide, a black solid, is not stable in ordinary conditions, but can be prepared through the reaction of iron pentacarbonyl with iodine and carbon monoxide in the presence of hexane and light at the temperature of −20 °C, with oxygen and water excluded. Complexes of ferric iodide with some soft bases are known to be stable compounds. The standard reduction potentials in acidic aqueous solution for some common iron ions are given below: The red-purple tetrahedral ferrate (VI) anion
8800-497: The past work on isotopic composition of iron has focused on the nucleosynthesis of Fe through studies of meteorites and ore formation. In the last decade, advances in mass spectrometry have allowed the detection and quantification of minute, naturally occurring variations in the ratios of the stable isotopes of iron. Much of this work is driven by the Earth and planetary science communities, although applications to biological and industrial systems are emerging. In phases of
8900-414: The principal ores for the production of iron (see bloomery and blast furnace). They are also used in the production of ferrites , useful magnetic storage media in computers, and pigments. The best known sulfide is iron pyrite (FeS 2 ), also known as fool's gold owing to its golden luster. It is not an iron(IV) compound, but is actually an iron(II) polysulfide containing Fe and S 2 ions in
9000-481: The rapid destruction of the Luba Kingdom. In 1889 it was split in two by a succession dispute, ending the unified state, and later joined the Belgian Congo Free State . Iron Iron is a chemical element ; it has the symbol Fe (from Latin ferrum 'iron') and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of
9100-463: The ruins of Khami in Rhodesia . The people of Songye believe in a supreme being Ele-ife, however, he is not praised as much as ancestral spirits. Ancestral worship is very prevalent within Songye culture, it is believed that the spirit of their ancestors is more accessible to them due to their shared experience of being alive. As a result of this, these spirits have a connection to both the land of
9200-407: The same names followed. People moved west with each generation until reaching the lands of the Luba. An offspring of this line named Mwamba took the name Nkongolo (lit "The rainbow"). He was red-skinned and was notorious for his cruelty. He used a nkololo curved knife to mutilate people. Nkongolo came to rule over many people as a mukalanga (a conquerer/self-made ruler, as opposed to mulopwe ,
9300-437: The second half of the 3d transition series, vertical similarities down the groups compete with the horizontal similarities of iron with its neighbors cobalt and nickel in the periodic table, which are also ferromagnetic at room temperature and share similar chemistry. As such, iron, cobalt, and nickel are sometimes grouped together as the iron triad . Unlike many other metals, iron does not form amalgams with mercury . As
9400-430: The spirits of the dead, the underworld and the struggle between good and evil (Community vs antisocial practices and witchcraft), each element of the mask symbolized these aspects in a certain way. the intertwining of the rhythmic colors of red, black and white was meant to symbolize the struggle between good (white) and evil (black and red), the combination of these colors embody the positive and dangerous force held with in
9500-564: The surface of Mars is derived from an iron oxide-rich regolith . Significant amounts of iron occur in the iron sulfide mineral pyrite (FeS 2 ), but it is difficult to extract iron from it and it is therefore not exploited. In fact, iron is so common that production generally focuses only on ores with very high quantities of it. According to the International Resource Panel 's Metal Stocks in Society report ,
9600-548: The titleholder hid him at Bisonge , near the southern border with the Songye people . Kazadi died accidentally, with Shinta becoming a kitenta . Mwine Munza was upset he wouldn't have an heir to continue sacral kingship . The titleholder brought back Ilunga Mwila and Mwine Munza was overjoyed, with Ilunga Mwila succeeding him on his death. "Ilunga the Ugly One" ruled for a short time, and was succeeded by Kasongo Mwine Kibanza ("Kasongo lord of Kibanza "), with Kalongo becoming
9700-480: The villages from which they ruled were transformed into living shrines devoted to their legacies. The Luba heartland was dotted with these landmarks. Central to Luba regalia for kings and other nobles were mwadi , female incarnations of the ancestral kings. Staffs, headrests, bow stands and royal seats featuring this subject represented the divine status of the ruler and the elegant refinement of his court. The Luba Kingdom kept official "men of memory" who were part of
9800-455: The volume of the lower mantle of the Earth, which makes it the second most abundant mineral phase in that region after silicate perovskite (Mg,Fe)SiO 3 ; it also is the major host for iron in the lower mantle. At the bottom of the transition zone of the mantle, the reaction γ- (Mg,Fe) 2 [SiO 4 ] ↔ (Mg,Fe)[SiO 3 ] + (Mg,Fe)O transforms γ-olivine into a mixture of silicate perovskite and ferropericlase and vice versa. In
9900-427: Was his grandfather's favourite. Kasongo Bisonwe was declared his successor and was protected from the wrath of his uncles. Kasongo Mwine Kibanza died and there ensued dynastical conflict. The other claimants died, one from a snake bite, one from a leopard. Kasongo Bisonwe, now Kasongo Kabundulu, defeated another claimant in battle to become ruler. Kabanda became his kitenta . According to the historian Thomas Reefe ,
10000-554: Was so successful that it was adopted by the Lunda Kingdom and spread throughout the region that is today northern Angola, northwestern Zambia , and southern Democratic Republic of Congo. Law and order were handled by the king, known as the Mulopwe ('sacred king'), with the assistance of a court of nobles known as Bamfumus . The kings reigned over their subjects through clan kings known as Balopwe . The diverse populations of
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