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136-609: The village is occupied by the Fuliiru and Vira people, Bantu -speaking people who live on the high plateaus situated to the east of the DRC. Lubarika was traditionally inhabited by Fuliiru people . In the 1940s, during the Belgian colonial era , Lubarika was popular due to its mild climate and being a cotton-growing region based mainly on forced labour that spanned from Ruzizi Plain and reached as far as south, north and west areas of

272-537: A "Rwandan-origin" community that established themselves in the Kivu region and were not known by this name during the colonial period. Using "Banyamulenge" as an ethnic identify, they campaigned for Congolese citizenship along with land possessed by indigenous Fuliru populace. In the early stages of the First and Second Congo Wars , a large contingent of Banyamulenge traversed into Bafuliru communities to provide support to

408-627: A Banyamulenge rebel groups, reportedly torched homes and property belonging to the Bafuliru in the village of Babengwa. Between February 2019 and 2020, a large number of Bafuliru were killed and displaced, leading them to the Bijombo camp in the South Kivu Province. Despite efforts to prioritize and act on serious cases in the immediate aftermath of the ethnic violence , there have been few prosecutions and fewer convictions, as well as

544-436: A badge of their new identity. Congolese historian Jacques Depelchin traces the clan's origins to Mwami Kahamba Kalingishi, believed to have arrived in the 16th century, per Belgian colonial records, or the 17th century, as argued by historians Kingwengwe Mupe and Bosco Muchukiwa Rukakiza. Other accounts suggest that the Bafuliru and the neighboring Vira people migrated from the northeast, crossing Lwindi and settling in

680-536: A barrier to employment. Single mothers were previously marginalized in spite of their significant role in the socializing of children due to views that an individual can only contribute meaningfully to society through "gainful" employment as well as a cultural bias against unwed mothers. When the father's sole task was seen as the breadwinner, his marginalization was primarily a function of class condition. Solo fatherhood brings additional trials due to society being less accepting of males 'getting away with' not working and

816-556: A colonial administrator who extensively studied the Bantu communities in eastern Belgian Congo , noted that the Bahamba clan migrated from the direction of Lwindi, led by Chief Kikanwe, to their present territory, which they found uninhabited. Moeller de Laddersous describes the Bahamba as the region's earliest settlers, in an area known as "Bufulero". Over time, the Bahamba dynasty changes their eponym from Bahamba (Wahamba) to Bafuliru as

952-405: A fast-paced world, where fear and insecurity constantly subjugate the individual from the collective whole, perpetuating the dominant forces, while silencing the oppressed. Some individuals and groups who are not professional social workers build relationships with marginalized persons by providing relational care and support, for example, through homeless ministry . These relationships validate

1088-603: A favorable environment for growing cassava , coffee , banana , beans and maize . The High Plateau, on the other hand, form a watershed between the tributaries of the Ulindi and the Elila rivers , as well as the torrents that flow into the Ruzizi River and Lake Tanganyika . The High Plateaus are characterized by a rugged landscape with steep slopes and elevations ranging from 1800 to 2700 meters. The main villages located on

1224-413: A favorite hobby, sports team, or music genre); education, religion, and political affiliation. Globalization (global capitalism), immigration, social welfare, and policy are broader social structures that have the potential to contribute negatively to one's access to resources and services, resulting in the social exclusion of individuals and groups. Similarly, increasing use of information technology and

1360-405: A feudal system existed in which Hutus were expected to leave their land available for Tutsis to graze their cows. This arrangement was enforced through a system of clientelism , where Tutsis loaned their cows to Hutus, who in turn were required to lend their land. Wealth was measured by the number of cows one possessed, and the richest Tutsis had the largest herds. At the top of this social hierarchy

1496-427: A firm stance on naming and labeling global forces that impact individuals and communities who are then left with no support, leading to marginalization or further marginalization from the society they once knew (George, P, SK8101, lecture, October 9, 2007). The social worker should be constantly reflexive , work to raise the consciousness, empower , and understand the lived subjective realities of individuals living in

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1632-422: A form of call-and-response singing, where one group of singers will lead with a phrase, and another group will respond with a harmonized phrase . This technique creates a rich and layered sound that is both engaging and captivating. Bafuliru also have songs that praise their leaders and ancestors, and these are often performed during political rallies and other communal events. Wedding songs are central to

1768-495: A greater influence on the child and family structure by supporting fathers and enhancing a father's involvement. More broadly, many women face social exclusion. Moosa-Mitha discusses the Western feminist movement as a direct reaction to the marginalization of white women in society. Women were excluded from the labor force and their work in the home was not valued. Feminists argued that men and women should equally participate in

1904-480: A heteronormative society include suicide and drug addiction. Scientists have been studying the impact of racism on health . Amani Nuru-Jeter , a social epidemiologist at the University of California, Berkeley and other doctors have been hypothesizing that exposure to chronic stress may be one way racism contributes to health disparities between racial groups. Arline Geronimus , a research professor at

2040-517: A host society with similar language (i.e. the Hong Kong sample) demonstrated higher perceived satisfaction with opportunities for community involvement than immigrants in a society with a different language (i.e. the UK sample). Another study examined the understanding of the concept of social inclusion among Singaporean citizens through concept mapping. Results found that there was much similarities with

2176-537: A lack of normative integration. It is then regarded as the combined result of personal risk factors (age, gender, race); macro-societal changes (demographic, economic and labor market developments, technological innovation, the evolution of social norms); government legislation and social policy; and the actual behavior of businesses, administrative organisations and fellow citizens. "The marginal man...is one whom fate has condemned to live in two societies and in two, not merely different but antagonistic cultures....his mind

2312-685: A large number of people were brutally killed and displaced in Uvira, including the former Mulenge post chief, Ladislas Matalambu, who met his demise on 1 October 1998, at 7:30 p.m. Additionally, Alexis Deyidedi, the former administrative secretary of the Bafuliiru Chiefdom, was assassinated on 2 October 1998, at 11 p.m. The AFDL troops forced many Bafuliru, Babembe , Warega , and Bavira individuals to flee and take refuge in neighboring countries such as Burundi , Tanzania , Uganda , Kenya , Zambia , and Mozambique . The displacement caused

2448-514: A large number of women and children, ex- FAR / Interahamwe soldiers, who had just been defeated, and political and administrative authorities who supervised the Rwandan Genocide . Many Rwandan refugees, as well as Zairian civilians, fled the village as AFDL troops were on a rampage of killing anyone in sight. Those who attempted entry into Kakumbukumbu, a village five kilometers from Lubarika, were captured and killed by AFDL troops. After

2584-528: A local treat and are also exported to nearby countries like Rwanda and Burundi. Some are sold in Bukavu. Two species of coffee exist in the Bafuliru Chiefdom are Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora . The arabica species is the most common in Bafuliru Chiefdom. It is a culture of exporting coffee to Burundi. Bafuliru music is characterized by a variety of traditional instruments such as

2720-597: A near total lack of investigations of those who organized and financed the violence. Kifuliru is a member of the Bantu branch of the Niger-Congo language family. The English linguist Malcolm Guthrie classified it in the D50 subgroup along with Shi , Havu , Vira, Tembo , and Nyindu , placing Kifuliru among the African Great Lakes Bantu languages . Achille Emile Meeussen and linguists at

2856-724: A newly established ethnic group known as " Banyamulenge " (literally 'those who live in Mulenge ') through an entirely fabricated ethnogenesis . This emerging identity allowed them to lay claim to land and resources in the area, setting off conflicts with Fuliru, who consider Mulenge as their ancestral homeland . Following the nation's independence, the Banyarwanda, both Tutsi and Hutu, striven to establish recognition of their rights as " indigenous ", vouching they possessed two " chefferies " (traditional chiefdoms) unrecognized by other ethnic groups. The Tutsi contended that their migration to

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2992-522: A number of jurisdictions around the world. The first Minister for Social Inclusion was Premier of South Australia Mike Rann , who took the portfolio in 2004. Based on the UK's Social Exclusion Unit , established by Prime Minister Tony Blair in 1997, Rann established the Social Inclusion Initiative in 2002. It was headed by Monsignor David Cappo and was serviced by a unit within the department of Premier and Cabinet. Cappo sat on

3128-452: A person's social class , race, skin color, religious affiliation, ethnic origin, caste , educational status , childhood relationships, living standards , political opinions, and/or appearance. Such exclusionary forms of discrimination may also apply to disabled people , minorities , LGBTQ+ people, drug users , institutional care leavers, the elderly and the young . Anyone who appears to deviate in any way from perceived norms of

3264-437: A population may thereby become subject to coarse or subtle forms of social exclusion. The outcome of social exclusion is that affected individuals or communities are prevented from participating fully in the economic, social, and political life of the society in which they live. This may result in resistance in the form of demonstrations, protests or lobbying from the excluded people. The concept of social exclusion has led to

3400-527: A ripple effect of the humanitarian crisis , with many facing severe challenges, including inadequate food and water supplies , inadequate medical facilities , and substandard living conditions. On 14 May 2000, the Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie (RCD), a rebel group comprising mainly Banyamulenge child soldiers , perpetrated a massacre in the village of Katogota . The victims, numbering 375 in total, were primarily from

3536-477: A sense of embeddedness in society also revolve around their work. Many of the indicators of extreme social exclusion, such as poverty and homelessness, depend on monetary income which is normally derived from work. Social exclusion can be a possible result of long-term unemployment, especially in countries with weak welfare safety nets. Much policy to reduce exclusion thus focuses on the labour market: The EU's EQUAL Community Initiative investigated ways to increase

3672-586: A significant role in the chiefdom's customs and traditions, particularly during marriage ceremonies. In Fuliru mythology, it is believed that one cannot engage in any strenuous activities without a banana. Specifically, during a wedding ceremony or after mourning, an individual intending to marry must present a jar of fermented banana and sorghum beverage , referred to as " I mbindi ya mavu yo kudeterakwo " in Kifuliru, meaning "the jar of alcohol that allows you to speak". This jar of banana alcohol must be offered to

3808-737: A social, cultural, economic, and security nature. Human rights organizations estimate that as of May 1996, the total number of deaths from the conflict stands around 70,000. The tension within Bafuliru communities originates from the circumstance where Rwandan refugees, placed by the Belgian colonial administration and the United Nations in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, failed to uphold their designated status upon their arrival. Instead, they profess to be

3944-415: A spear attack, including his son Rubwatara. His troops were subsequently expelled from every village they had captured. However, Kinyoni's troops managed to retreat to Luvungi , where they received support from Belgian colonists , who provided them with much-needed resources and supplies. This assistance allowed Kinyoni's troops to regroup and prepare for another attempt to conquer the Bafuliru Chiefdom under

4080-627: A sub-chief under Burundian King Mwezi Gisabo from the Banyakarama Dynasty, established his own presence along the Ruzizi River's right bank. With swift prowess, he conquered southern villages like Kigoma, Mulenge, Kihanga, and Kalengera, expanding his dominion. He then launched a northward offensive, seizing Kiringye, Kabwiba, and Kigwena, nearly half of the Bafuliru Chiefdom . Facing significant territorial setbacks,

4216-495: A systemic problem, not the fault of the individual. Working under an anti-oppression perspective would then allow the social worker to understand the lived, subjective experiences of the individual, as well as their cultural, historical and social background. The worker should recognize the individual as political in the process of becoming a valuable member of society and the structural factors that contribute to oppression and marginalization (Mullaly, 2007). Social workers must take

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4352-613: A town situated in the north-western region of the Uvira Territory in South Kivu Province , resulting in the loss of several dozen lives. A total of 37 individuals, including two medical personnel , lost their lives in a hospital massacre . The armed assailants also pillaged the Lemera Hospital , the largest hospital in the region, located approximately 85 kilometers north of Uvira . In October 1998,

4488-474: A vital food source for the Bafuliru, particularly for those inhabiting the Ruzizi Plain and the entire Bafuliru Chiefdom. Having a cassava field is regarded as a treasure trove and is highly valued by the community. Besides its roots, cassava leaves are also consumable, and its stems are used for lumber . Cassava's significance goes beyond its dietary value and practical uses. It has a significant role in

4624-494: Is Kivuluga, a fusion of Shi and Kifuliru, which is predominantly spoken in the Itara-Luvungi groupement . This dialect emerged due to the region's close linguistic proximity of Shi and Kifuliru speakers. The Bafuliru economy is almost exclusively agriculturally based, although they also own and raise cattle for milk and meat; their homelands in the South Kivu Province are some of the most intensively farmed areas of

4760-533: Is as follows: Social exclusion is a multidimensional process of progressive social rupture, detaching groups and individuals from social relations and institutions and preventing them from full participation in the normal, normatively prescribed activities of the society in which they live. In an alternative conceptualization, social exclusion theoretically emerges at the individual or group level on four correlated dimensions: insufficient access to social rights , material deprivation, limited social participation and

4896-465: Is common to almost every vocational, religious or cultural group of a large city. Each develops its own sentiments, attitudes, codes, even its own words, which are at best only partially intelligible to others." Many communities experience social exclusion, such as racial (e.g. black ), caste (e.g. untouchables or dalits in some regions in India), and economic (e.g. Romani ) communities. One example

5032-402: Is forced into a new system of rules while facing social stigma and stereotypes from the dominant group in society, further marginalizing and excluding individuals (Young, 2000). Thus, social policy and welfare provisions reflect the dominant notions in society by constructing and reinforcing categories of people and their needs. It ignores the unique-subjective human essence, further continuing

5168-458: Is political" and the need for recognizing that social problems are indeed connected with larger structures in society, causing various forms of oppression amongst individuals resulting in marginalization. It is also important for the social worker to recognize the intersecting nature of oppression. A non-judgmental and unbiased attitude is necessary on the part of the social worker. The worker may begin to understand oppression and marginalization as

5304-478: Is prevalent today, despite the legislation intended to prevent it in most western countries, and the academic achievements, skills and training of many disabled people. There are also exclusions of sexual minorities because of their sexual orientation , gender identity , and/or sexual characteristics . The Yogyakarta Principles require that the states and communities abolish any stereotypes about LGBT people as well as stereotyped gender roles . "Isolation

5440-751: Is primarily an income generator rather than a food source at the CEP Kabwe, Kaliri, and at the Community Development Center ( Cenre Developpement Communautaire ; CDC) base in Kiringye . Beans are grown predominantly in the central part of Lemera , covering areas from Rubanga to Mulenge . They are marketed in Bukavu and Uvira , with a large portion exported to nearby countries like Burundi and Rwanda. While beans, alongside rice, are exported, they usually fetch lower prices due to

5576-529: Is situated in two distinct types of plateaus : the Middle Plateau and the High Plateau . The Middle Plateau spans between Luvungi and Mulenge , with the altitude gradually increasing from 100 m to 1800 meters. This plateau comprises several groupements and villages, including Namutiri, Ndolera, Bulaga, Langala, Bushokw, Bushuju, Butole, Lemera , Bwesho, Katala, Mulenge, and others. It is also

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5712-506: Is some inconsistency in historical accounts, while some sources uphold the claim that the Bahamba clan played an instrumental role in founding the chiefdom, other narratives indicate that they supplanted the Balemera clan to establish their hegemony and royal lineage in the Bafuliru Chiefdom. Kingwengwe Mupe argues that the Bahamba clan drove out (and possibly dethroned) the Balemera clan to occupy Uvira Territory. According to Mupe's account,

5848-685: Is the Aboriginal community in Australia. The marginalization of Aboriginal communities is a product of colonization . As a result of colonialism , Aboriginal communities lost their land, were forced into destitute areas, lost their sources of livelihood, were excluded from the labor market and were subjected to widespread unpunished massacres . Additionally, Aboriginal communities lost their culture and values through forced assimilation and lost their rights in society. Today, various Aboriginal communities continue to be marginalized from society due to

5984-424: Is the crucible in which two different and refractory cultures may be said to melt and, either wholly or in part, fuse." Social exclusion at the individual level results in an individual's exclusion from meaningful participation in society. An example is the exclusion of single mothers from the welfare system prior to welfare reforms of the 1900s. The modern welfare system is based on the concept of entitlement to

6120-408: Is the process in which individuals are blocked from (or denied full access to) various rights , opportunities and resources that are normally available to members of a different group, and which are fundamental to social integration and observance of human rights within that particular group (e.g. due process ). Alienation or disenfranchisement resulting from social exclusion can be connected to

6256-734: Is the social disadvantage and relegation to the fringe of society . It is a term that has been used widely in Europe and was first used in France in the late 20th century. In the EU context, the European Commission defines it as "a situation whereby a person is prevented (or excluded) from contributing to and benefiting from economic and social progress" . It is used across disciplines including education , sociology , psychology , healthcare , politics and economics . Social exclusion

6392-408: Is unjust because it blocks the opportunity to exercise capacities in socially defined and recognized way" (p. 41). There is the notion that by providing a minimal amount of welfare support, an individual will be free from marginalization. In fact, welfare support programs further lead to injustices by restricting certain behaviour, as well the individual is mandated to other agencies. The individual

6528-468: Is usually tied to that of equal opportunity , as some people are more subject to such exclusion than others. Marginalisation of certain groups is a problem in many economically more developed countries where the majority of the population enjoys considerable economic and social opportunities. The marginal, the processes of marginalisation, etc. bring specific interest in postmodern and post-colonial philosophy and social studies. Postmodernism question

6664-408: The Bantu subgroup within the Niger-Congo family , closely related to Vira, Shi , Havu , Tembo , and Nyindu . Occupationally, Fuliru primarily work in agriculture and herding , with a notable reputation in pottery and basket-weaving . Their handcrafted baskets are used for storage, decoration, and even as musical instruments. The Fuliru, like many other communities in the eastern part of

6800-757: The Belgian Congo . At the commencement of the First Congo War , on 18 October 1996, Lubarika was attacked by the AFDL ( Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo-Zaïre) , the APR, and the FAB ( Forces Armées Burundaises ). Thousands of Rwandan refugees as well as Zairian civilians were killed in Lubarika when AFDL attacked Zaire from neighboring Uganda and Rwanda . Among these refugees were

6936-466: The Berlin Conference . This "historical and scientific" apologia was unlikely intended to equate the "Banyamulenge" pseudo - tribe with the indigenous Congolese ethnic groups. Under the pressure of Gisaro Muhoza, a Rwandan university administrator and revered as the creator of the term "Banyamulenge", Rugama used the term in his thesis. According to René Lemarchand , Banyamulenge constitute

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7072-646: The Congo Basin coincided with that of their Fuliru, Vira, Bembe, and Lega counterparts, antedating the establishment of the Congo Free State , and consequently, should be entitled to equivalent ethnic rights as other communities. In 1976, Faustin Tabazi Rugama, a Munyamulenge writer, attempted to legitimize the notion of a tribe called "Banyamulenge" that presumably held sway in Mulenge prior to

7208-543: The Fizi Territory , which was further subdivided into five sectors, including Itombwe , Lulenge , Mutambala , Ndandja, and Tangani'a . Conversely, the Bafuliru Chiefdom borders Rwanda and Burundi through the Ruzizi Plain in the Uvira Territory . The sandy soil of the plain is suitable for growing crops such as groundnuts and cotton , with Luvungi , Lubarika , and Luberizi being particularly noteworthy areas for such cultivation . The Fuliru collectivity

7344-909: The Mission d'immigration des Banyarwanda (MIB), facilitated the immigration of Rwandans to other parts of the Belgian Congo. Between 10,000 of Rwandan families were established in various regions of Belgian Congo, including the current Masisi Territory , the Bwito Chiefdom in the Rutshuru Territory , the Buzi-Ziralo grouping ( groupement ) in the Kalehe Territory , and Moba in Katanga . Other eastern regions such as Baraka and Marungu were also prepared to welcome

7480-839: The Royal Museum for Central Africa in Tervuren categorized Kifuliru under J54, describing it as an "interlacustrine" language. The Fuliru are connected to the Vira in a Fuliru-Vira culture cluster. Both ethnic groups are interlacustrine, living between the African Great Lakes. Kifuliru is commonly spoken in the Uvira Territory , with over 275,000 speakers. It is mutually intelligible with several neighboring languages, including Nyindu and Vira, with which it shares 90% lexical similarity , and Shi, with which it has about 70% lexical similarity. One notable dialect of Kifuliru

7616-662: The Tutsi members of the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDLC). This influx of Banyamulenge played a pivotal role in enabling the AFDLC to seize control of the region from local chiefs and civilians who were uprooted from their ancestral lands against their will. The conflict was marked by brutal violence against the civilian population. On 6 October 1996, Banyamulenge rebels launched an assault on Lemera ,

7752-452: The ngoma (drum), xylophone , and flute , which are used to create complex rhythms and melodies . The melodic strains of traditional instrument permeate the air, accompanied by the hypnotic rhythm of indigenous dance, which envelops the senses with its entrancing cadence. The ngoma, in particular, is an essential instrument in Bafuliru music, and it is often played during various social and religious events. Bafuliru music also incorporates

7888-818: The "center" about its authenticity and postmodern sociology and cultural studies research marginal cultures, behaviours, societies, the situation of the marginalized individual, etc. Social inclusion is the converse of social exclusion. As the World Bank states, social inclusion is the process of improving the ability, opportunity, and worthiness of people, disadvantaged on the basis of their identity, to take part in society. The World Bank 's 2019 World Development Report on The Changing Nature of Work suggests that enhanced social protection and better investments in human capital improve equality of opportunity and social inclusion. Social inclusion can be measured individually. One successful attempt to measure social inclusion

8024-578: The Bafuliru Chiefdom rebuffed to capitulate and shoved forward to defend Bwesho . Led by the renowned leader Katangaza—a respected and influential figure from Bwesho—they rallied their forces and readied themselves to face the ineluctable advance of Chief Kinyoni and his dexterous warrior, Rubisha. Following their advent in Bwesho, Rubisha and his army encountered fierce resistance from Bafuliru's army, resulting in Kinyoni being callously wounded and succumbed to

8160-514: The Bafuliru and Babembe communities, who sought refuge in Burundi on 10 June 2004, to escape ongoing ethnic persecution . The ongoing violence in the Bafuliru communities has been exacerbated by political instability , resource scarcity , and deep-seated mistrust between the various groups. The situation is further complicated by the involvement of different armed groups, including militias and rebel factions, who compete for control over

8296-505: The Bafuliru community and were brutally murdered in cold blood. Some were mercilessly gunned down, while others suffered the grisly fate of having their throats slashed , and their bodies were thrown into the Ruzizi River to dispose of the evidence. The rebels also set fire to their homes, leaving many others to burn to death . The horrors of the Katogota massacre caused many to flee their homes, including up to 3,500 Congolese, mainly from

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8432-584: The Bafuliru's ethnic boundaries, which stretched along Lake Tanganyika and the Ruzizi Plain from Moira to the Luvivi River, encompassing territories that sometimes overlapped with Bavira lands. Bosco Muchukiwa Rukakiza points out that Chief Luhama—a central figure in Bafuliru history and founder of the Bahamba dynasty—consolidated power by dividing his domain among his three sons to foster stability and manage local demands for autonomy. Luhama's strategic division granted his eldest son, Nyamugira, to control

8568-533: The Balemera clan can be traced back as the indigenous people who first inhabited the region. It is believed that the Bafuliru Chiefdom, which had its stronghold in Lemera, was the very heartland of their ancestral domain. In the late 1800s, various groups established themselves in Bafuliru's lands in search of more arable soil. Led by Chief Ngabwe, the Barundi arrived from Burundi and assertively requested land from

8704-681: The Bavira, forming a unique group that did not adopt the Bafuliru's original leadership structures. Among other prominent clans, the Bazige (or Bazeke), who were given land by Chief Muluta to their leader Ngabwe, either overcame or were assimilated into the Bafuliru Chiefdom. Oral history suggests the Bazige had an autonomous chiefdom in the present-day Muhungu groupement , which they governed under Kalunga, son of Mukobesi, before being conquered and subjugated by Mahina Mukogabwe (often referred to as Nyamugira Mukogabwe II)—a Fuliru chieftain whose reign spanned

8840-798: The Bavira, which they acquired between the Kiliba and Kawezi Rivers in exchange for ivory. As the tides of colonialism encroached across the region, it sparked wars of expansion on both sides. The Mwami of the Bafuliiru tenaciously claimed jurisdiction over certain villages in the Ruzizi Plain, while the Mwami of the Plain sought to establish his own authority. In the absence of a resolution, both chiefdoms resorted to warfare to vie for dominance. After Chief Ngabwe consolidated his authority, Chief Kinyoni,

8976-414: The Belgian colonial administration as essential conditions for the establishment of any chieftaincy . This was done to prevent lawlessness and to avoid violating the ancestral realities that had existed for millennia. Belgian colonial administration's criteria for establishing chieftaincies varied based on the region and the ethnic group in question. The establishment of chieftaincies was often accompanied by

9112-405: The DRC , face ongoing challenges related to access to basic needs such as clean water, healthcare, and education. Parenthetically, they face issues related to land disputes , political marginalization , and human rights abuses. The Fuliru women and girls are particularly vulnerable to sexual and gender-based violence amplified by the region's persistent armed conflicts, which have resulted in

9248-572: The Fuliru oral tradition . Serving both an educational and entertainment function, these songs convey cultural wisdom, teaching politeness, respect, and environmental awareness to the young couple and the wider community. Before the introduction of literacy in the 20th century, these songs were memorized and performed orally. Through the medium of song, Bafuliru wedding traditions offer insight into their worldview and everyday life. Social exclusion Social exclusion or social marginalisation

9384-407: The Fuliru eventually settled in the region now known as Uvira. The origins of the Bafuliru Chiefdom , prior to its formal establishment as an administrative chiefdom of Uvira Territory in 1928 under Belgian colonial rule, are complex and subject to historical interpretation. Various hypotheses and conjectures have been proposed to explain its emergence. According to Alfred Moeller de Laddersous ,

9520-499: The Fuliru were neither conquered nor assimilated by them, but instead engaged in trade and occasional cattle raiding , leading to a deep and long-lasting social interaction that particularly impacted the Fuliru people. The Banyarwanda later acquired Mulenge and Upper Sange from the Bafuliru, and many of them settled in remote areas, including Kalamba, the Ruzizi Plain , and the Mulenge hills, before spreading to other parts of southern Kivu. The Belgian colonial administration, through

9656-574: The High Plateaus include Kagongo, Kishusha, Mulobela, and Kashekezi. These villages are known for their cool climate and are suitable for the cultivation of crops such as Irish potatoes and beans . This plateau is mostly used for grazing cattle and is less populated compared to the Middle Plateau. Bafuliru Chiefdom is subdivided in groupements (groupings) governed by customary chiefs ( chefs de groupement ) who are appointed by

9792-549: The SCOPE was administered to a sample of persons with mental health conditions in Hong Kong. It was found that social inclusion correlated highly with satisfaction with opportunities, more so than with perceived opportunities. A study comparing social inclusion among UK immigrants and recent arrivals to Hong Kong from Mainland China found that the two samples had similar level of perceived satisfaction with opportunities, perceived opportunities, and overall social inclusion. Immigrants in

9928-563: The Street to Home initiative and the ICAN flexible learning program designed to improve school retention rates. It also included major funding to revamp mental health services following Cappo's "Stepping Up" report, which focused on the need for community and intermediate levels of care and an overhaul of disability services. In 2007, Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd appointed Julia Gillard as

10064-513: The UK, Hong Kong, Poland, and Brazil), variables related to the basic needs and the safety needs were significant predictors of social inclusion. Once these needs are met, their experience of social inclusion improved significantly. The findings send out a strong message for policy makers that they should first support the disadvantaged groups with their basic needs in order to improve their experience of social inclusion Social Inclusion ministers have been appointed, and special units established, in

10200-449: The UK, Hong Kong, Poland, and Brazil, a framework inspired by Maslow's hierarchy of needs was developed to predict social inclusion among the well and unwell samples. Among the well samples (i.e. the general population, the UK immigrants, and new arrivals in Hong Kong from Mainland China), only variables related to self-actualization was useful in predicting social inclusion. However, for the unwell samples (i.e. mental health services users in

10336-465: The University of Georgia and San Diego State University found that exclusion can lead to diminished brain functioning and poor decision making. Such studies corroborate with earlier beliefs of sociologists. The effect of social exclusion have been hypothesized in various past research studies to correlate with such things as substance abuse and addiction, and crime. The problem of social exclusion

10472-458: The University of Michigan Institute for Social Research and a professor at the School of Public Health, and her colleagues found that psychosocial stress associated with living in extreme poverty can cause early onset of age-related diseases. The 2015 study titled, "Race-Ethnicity, Poverty, Urban Stressors, and Telomere Length in a Detroit Community-based Sample" was conducted in order to determine

10608-517: The already dire situation, with many facing severe challenges, including food and water insecurity, inadequate medical care, and substandard living conditions. In June 2014, 35 Fuliru were killed in an attack on the town of Mutarule . The attack was believed to be ethnically motivated . The massacres were carried out mainly by Barundi and Banyamulenge rebel groups in a determined, planned, systematic and methodical manner, and were inspired by ethnic hatred . In January 2019, Twigwaneho and Ngumino,

10744-476: The appointment of a local chief ( chefs de groupement ) or a traditional ruler who was then tasked with maintaining law and order in the area, as well as ensuring the well-being of the local population. However, the establishment of chieftains was controversial, particularly in areas where multiple ethnic groups co-exist. There were instances where the colonial administration had to navigate complex power dynamics and determine which ethnic group or faction should hold

10880-473: The area. According to the scholar Cuypers, this migration could have included a prolonged detour through Maniema rather than a direct movement. Led by an ancestral figure named Nalwindi, the group split into two: the Bafuliru, under Kahamba Kalingishi, settled around the highlands of Lemera , while the Vira, led by Kirungu, established themselves on Munanira's peak, eventually spreading to the valley lowlands and

11016-463: The attendees; otherwise, the speaker is unable to convey a meaningful message. The beverage is also called Kasigisi . Additionally, during childbirth , the banana tree is seen as holding ritual significance, as it is believed that the umbilical cords of certain children are buried near banana fields. Rice grown in the Bafuliru Chiefdom belongs to the genus Oryza and Ozyresatira species. Its various types include IR5, L9, and IRON 282. It

11152-400: The basic means of being a productive member of society both as an organic function of society and as compensation for the socially useful labor provided. A single mother's contribution to society is not based on formal employment , but on the notion that provision of welfare for children is a necessary social expense. In some career contexts, caring work is devalued and motherhood is seen as

11288-485: The case of Hutus and Tutsis, after 23 years already spent in this diocese, I am not able to say the same; how does each of these two Hutu and Tutsi groups constitute a tribe? It is up to them to understand it and convince others of it." Since the 1960s, the cohabitation between the Banyarwanda and their Congolese neighbors has been plagued by problems, resulting in serious social tensions and violence. The escalation of these tensions and violence has led to lethal conflict of

11424-993: The censure of critics. Across societies, individuals and communities can be socially excluded on the basis of their religious beliefs. Social hostility against religious minorities and communal violence occur in areas where governments do not have policies restricting the religious practise of minorities. A study by the Pew Research Center on international religious freedom found that 61% of countries have social hostilities that tend to target religious minorities. The five highest social hostility scores were for Pakistan , India , Sri Lanka , Iraq , and Bangladesh . In 2015, Pew published that social hostilities declined in 2013, but harassment of Jews increased. Parts of 2024 Summer Olympics opening ceremony have been criticized by some as divisive due to singling out one particular religion (Christianity). In gay men , results of psycho-emotional damage from marginalization from

11560-495: The colonial authorities. However, this approach had some negative consequences. The proliferation of chiefdoms and groups created administrative difficulties for the colonial administration, making it challenging to maintain control over such a vast and diverse territory. Additionally, the creation of numerous chiefdoms and groups resulted in the fragmentation of ethnic groups, further exacerbating existing inter-ethnic tensions and conflicts. The Bembe and Buyu were both grouped in

11696-539: The colonial power of Belgium in the Belgian Congo, which had guardianship over Ruanda-Urundi , officially encouraged and facilitated the immigration of Rwandans to Kivu. The Rwandans who migrated to Itombwe and Uvira during this time were predominantly Tutsis, and were favored by Belgian colonists due to their perceived superiority over the Hutus. Unusually in contacts with the Tutsi pastoralists from Banyarwanda group,

11832-427: The company outsourcing have contributed to job insecurity and a widening gap between the rich and the poor. Flobalization sets forth a decrease in the role of the state with an increase in support from various "corporate sectors resulting in gross inequalities, injustices and marginalization of various vulnerable groups" (p. 1). Companies are outsourcing, jobs are lost, the cost of living continues to rise, and

11968-408: The concept of social inclusion observed many similarities among UK and HK participants in how they viewed social inclusion as an important element in building harmony in society. However, Hong Kong participants rarely approached the concept of social inclusion from a civic right point of view. Instead, Hong Kong participants put more emphasis on civic responsibility point of view. A Chinese version of

12104-451: The country they have emigrated. Welfare states and social policies can also exclude individuals from basic necessities and support programs. Welfare payments were proposed to assist individuals in accessing a small amount of material wealth (Young, 2000). Young (2000) further discusses how "the provision of the welfare itself produces new injustice by depriving those dependent on it of rights and freedoms that others have...marginalization

12240-437: The country. More than 90% of the population makes its livelihood by producing food crops or through industrial work involving the processing of crops. Principal food crops include cassava , corn , rice , plantains , and, to a lesser extent, bananas , beans , and peanuts . According to Bafuliru folklore, cassava originated from Lwindi Chiefdom and was introduced by them during their migration. Today, cassava remains

12376-514: The cycle of dominance. Whilst recognising the multi-dimensionality of exclusion, policy work undertaken in the European Union focused on unemployment as a key cause of, or at least correlating with, social exclusion. This is because, in modern societies, paid work is not only the principal source of income with which to buy services but is also the fount of individuals' identity and feeling of self-worth. Most people's social networks and

12512-637: The development of practices, policies and programs that, according to J. Yee, "met the needs of white people and not the needs of the marginalized groups themselves". Yee also connects marginalization to minority communities, when describing the concept of whiteness as maintaining and enforcing dominant norms and discourse. Poor people living in run-down council estates and areas with high crime can be locked into social deprivation . Social exclusion has many contributors. Major contributors include race, income, employment status, social class, geographic location; personal habits, appearance, or interests (i.e.,

12648-464: The effect of dominant global discourses can cause individual and cultural displacement, as well as sex safety are jeopardized (p. 422). Insecurity and fear of an unknown future and instability can result in displacement, exclusion, and forced assimilation into the dominant group. For many, it further pushes them to the margins of society or enlists new members to the outskirts because of global-capitalism and dominant discourses (Sewpaul, 2006). With

12784-737: The ethnic group. The Fuliru people are made up of about 37 clans: The origin of the Fuliru people, like that of many ethnic groups in the Great Lakes region of Africa , is complex and multifaceted, shaped by migration , colonization , and conflict . The Fuliru are believed to have originated from the Bantu-speaking people who migrated from West - Central Africa as part of the Bantu migration to Central , Eastern and Southern Africa . Most, however, are descended from Bantu groups that had settled in Southeast Africa after

12920-448: The exclusion of individuals with disabilities from the labor force. Grandz discusses an employer's viewpoint about hiring individuals living with disabilities as jeopardizing productivity , increasing the rate of absenteeism , and creating more accidents in the workplace. Cantor also discusses employer concern about the excessively high cost of accommodating people with disabilities. The marginalization of individuals with disabilities

13056-715: The executive committee of the South Australian Cabinet and was later appointed Social Inclusion Commissioner with wide powers to address social disadvantage. Cappo was allowed to roam across agencies given that most social disadvantage has multiple causes necessitating a "joined up" rather than a single agency response. The Initiative drove a big investment by the South Australian Government in strategies to combat homelessness , including establishing Common Ground, building high quality inner city apartments for "rough sleeping" homeless people,

13192-442: The following villages: The Itara-Luvungi groupement consists of the following villages: The Lemera groupement consists of the following villages: Alternatively, Bafuliru are not a homogeneous people; it is an amalgamation of people with diverse backgrounds, a kind of multicultural state, each with distinct origins. To be considered Mufuliru one must be born into one of the thirty-seven progenitor families (clans) of

13328-531: The general invisibility/lack of acknowledgment of single fathers in society. Acknowledgment of the needs participatory fathers may have can be found by examining the changes from the original clinical report on the father's role published by the American Academy of Pediatrics in May 2004. Eight week paternity leave is a good example of one social change. Child health care providers have an opportunity to have

13464-427: The governance of the community, serving as a source of tax revenue . Eighty percent of all taxes collected come from cassava alone. This tax collection method enables tax collectors to fill the state treasury at both community and zone levels, which, in turn, supports the local markets of the Bafuliru Chiefdom. The banana plant is an adaptable crop that thrives in nearly every region of the Bafuliru Chiefdom. It has

13600-439: The government on legally expected issues of social exclusion. The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action , a document on international human rights instruments affirms that " extreme poverty and social exclusion constitute a violation of human dignity and that urgent steps are necessary to achieve better knowledge of extreme poverty and its causes, including those related to the program of development, in order to promote

13736-536: The guidance of Katangaza. Despite the setback, the Bafuliiru troops pursued the retreating army and eventually expelled them from Kiringye. During the period of European penetration , the Banyarwanda , now commonly referred to as " Banyamulenge ", emerged as a significant group in the region. The term "Banyarwanda" includes Hutus , Tutsis , and Twa people from Rwanda, who share the same common language and cultural heritage . In traditional Rwandan society,

13872-400: The immigrants. This immigration policy was officially supported by the Belgian colonial government, which aimed to promote economic development and expand its control over the region. However, the influx of Rwandans led to tensions and conflicts with the local population, contributing to the ongoing ethnic tensions in the region. Another factor that fostered this immigration of Rwandans

14008-535: The impact of living conditions on health and was performed by a multi-university team of social scientists, cellular biologists and community partners, including the Healthy Environments Partnership (HEP) to measure the telomere length of poor and moderate-income people of White, African-American and Mexican race. In 2006, there was research focused on possible connections between exclusion and brain function. Studies published by both

14144-456: The inability to access a country's resources because they are seen as "undeserving foreigners" (p. 132). With this comes a denial of access to public housing , health care benefits, employment support services, and social security benefits. Newcomers are seen as undeserving, or that they must prove their entitlement in order to gain access to basic support necessities. It is clear that individuals are exploited and marginalized within

14280-643: The inclusiveness of the labor market. Work on social exclusion more broadly is carried out through the Open Method of Coordination (OMC) among the Member State governments. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 10 is also an example of global initiatives aimed at promoting social inclusion for all by 2030. Some religious traditions recommend excommunication of individuals said to deviate from religious teaching, and in some instances shunning by family members. Some religious organizations permit

14416-459: The individuals who are marginalized and provide them a meaningful contact with the mainstream. There are countries, Italy for example, that have a legal concept of social exclusion . In Italy, " esclusione sociale " is defined as poverty combined with social alienation , by the statute n. 328 (11-8-2000), that instituted a state investigation commission named " Commissione di indagine sull'Esclusione Sociale " (CIES) to make an annual report to

14552-530: The initial expansion from Nigeria / Cameroon and settled in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in the 16th century. By the mid-1700s, the Bafuliru people had established a significant presence in the region surrounding Lake Tanganyika , specifically in the mountainous hinterland of South Kivu along the Ulindi River . The Fuliru have a unique history as one of

14688-402: The issues (George, P, SK8101, lecture, October 9, 2007). Certain language and the meaning attached to language can cause universalizing discourses that are influenced by the Western world, which is what Sewpaul (2006) describes as the "potential to dilute or even annihilate local cultures and traditions and to deny context-specific realities" (p. 421). What Sewpaul (2006) is implying is that

14824-401: The labor force, in the public and private sector, and in the home. They also focused on labor laws to increase access to employment as well as to recognize child-rearing as a valuable form of labor. In some places today, women are still marginalized from executive positions and continue to earn less than men in upper management positions. Another example of individual marginalization is

14960-651: The land from Moira to the Munyovwe River; his second son, Mutahonga, received areas from the Munyovwe to the Kise River and the eastern slopes of the Ruzizi Valley; and his third son, Lusagara, managed the mountainous regions. This arrangement retained centralized control through family ties, with power transferring from father to eldest son. Eventually, some members of the Bafuliru's Balunga clan joined

15096-511: The land is being expropriated by large companies. Material goods are made in large abundances and sold at cheaper costs, while in India for example, the poverty line is lowered in order to mask the number of individuals who are actually living in poverty as a result of globalization. Globalization and structural forces aggravate poverty and continue to push individuals to the margins of society, while governments and large corporations do not address

15232-487: The letter, he stated: "With us, the main tribes or socio-political communities are called, I quote in alphabetical order: Bahavu, Bahunde, Banande, Banyanga, Barega, Bashi, Batembo. The Banyarwanda (Hutus and Tutsis), at least those who were, those who no longer want this title and those who still identify with this term, will want to understand that, in their case, the notion of "tribe" that they give themselves when they declare themselves Hutu and Tutsi cannot be understood in

15368-706: The local population's modest consumption of these foods as dietary staples. Traditionally, a bean dish is served with cassava mbundu . Corn is a widely grown crop in the Ruzizi Plain, particularly in the Itara-Luvungi groupement , and in the Hauts Plateaux , where it acts as the primary food source. Although many Bafuliru from the Hauts Plateaux consume corn, some don't favor corn. Peanuts are mainly grown in Luvungi and Lubarika , though they are also present in Lemera and Rubanga. Peanuts are

15504-557: The massacres against Rwandan refugees and Zairian civilians during the First and Second Congo Wars , several articles and international academic research have been devoted to the mass violence against Rwandan refugees and Congolese civilians. These scholarly research and data led the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights to write and publish a report entitled " Mapping Report " on the "most serious violations of human rights and international humanitarian law committed within

15640-549: The nation's first Social Inclusion Minister . In Japan , the concept and term "social inclusion" went through a number of changes over time and eventually became incorporated in community-based activities under the names hōsetsu (包摂) and hōkatsu (包括), such as in the "Community General Support Centres" ( chiiki hōkatsu shien sentā 地域包括支援センター) and "Community-based Integrated Care System" ( chiiki hōkatsu kea shisutemu 　地域包括ケアシステム). One may explore its implications for social work practice. Mullaly (2007) describes how "the personal

15776-579: The northwest. They also form the primary constituency in the Ruzizi Plain Chiefdom, to the northeast, near the Rwanda and Burundi borders, where some Fuliru communities reside. According to a 2009 census, their population was estimated at over 250,000, while a 1999 estimate of Kifuliru -language speakers placed the number at 300,000. The Fuliru speak the Fuliru language , a branch of

15912-479: The only highland Bantu groups to have formed a single, relatively small state that was highly centralized. According to oral tradition , the epicenter of the Fuliru people's migratory dispersion in the middle Lwalaba Basin is located at the mouth of the Ulindi River . The Mushi historian Bishikwabo Chubaka has chronicled that after migrating from Lwindi near the Ulindi River in the mountainous hinterlands,

16048-480: The other two clusters. A SCOPE-B was developed and applied in Brazil by surveying among a sample of persons with mental health conditions. Respondents experienced lower levels of social inclusions especially when they are in poor economic situations and were unemployed. Pulling the samples from the UK general population, UK immigrants, new arrivals in Hong Kong from Mainland China, and mental health services users in

16184-401: The paramount chief. Groupements are subdivided in localités (villages) which are also ruled by customary chiefs. Bafuliru Chiefdom is composed of five groupements : Runingu , Itara-Luvungi , Lemera , Muhungu and Kigoma. The Muhungu groupement consists of the following villages: The Kigoma groupement consists of the following villages: The Runingu groupement consists of

16320-492: The period between 1914 and 1927. This union merged two distinct groups, with Kalunga's lineage recognized to preserve social cohesion , mutual trust, and integration within the Bafuliru. Over time, the Bazige adopted the Kifuliiru language , strengthened by intermarriage and economic exchanges, and ultimately accepted Mukogabwe as their Mwami. The formal establishment of the Bafuliru Chiefdom came on 18 August 1928, when it

16456-467: The position of chief. This led to tensions between different ethnic groups and, in some cases, even armed conflict. Each ethnic group , however small, was assigned a chiefdom or a sector , if not, a grouping (groupement) . The administrative territories were thus constituted within the limits of the chiefdom. The aim was to regroup "ethnic units" in their own geographical entities, but this led to such fragmentation that Orientale Province , which included

16592-442: The present-day Haut-Congo Province and the former Kivu , comprised up to 2,500 chiefdoms and groups. This approach by the Belgian colonial administration was based on the principle of indirect rule , which aimed to maintain control over the local population through traditional rulers. This system was viewed as a means of preserving the existing social and political structures of the colonized societies while ensuring their loyalty to

16728-465: The present-day Uvira Territory . Depelchin also observes that both "Buvira" (today's Bavira Chiefdom) and "Bufuliro" (Bafuliru Chiefdom) had multiple bami (a term equivalent to " mwami " among many eastern Congolese Bantu groups). He firmly states that this part of the country (encompassing Bavira and Bafuliru chiefdoms) has never had one paramount chief, as the Bafuliru retained their own independent paramount chief. By 1907, colonial surveys delineated

16864-403: The prevailing notion of globalization, we now see the rise of immigration as the world gets smaller and smaller with millions of individuals relocating each year. This is not without hardship and struggle of what a newcomer thought was going to be a new life with new opportunities. Immigration has had a strong link to the access of welfare support programs. Newcomers are constantly bombarded with

17000-402: The prevalence of a pervasive culture of impunity. At the onset of Belgian colonization , the establishment of chieftaincies was the primary method of governance , reflecting the decentralized nature of the colonial policy. These chieftaincies were established with due respect to the customs and traditions of each area, particularly based on three principal criteria defined and established by

17136-541: The region's resources and strategic locations. The proliferation of weapons and the absence of effective governance has allowed these groups to act with impunity, perpetrating horrific acts of violence against civilians and engaging in illicit activities, including the illegal exploitation of mineral resources. The impact of the conflict on the local population has been devastating, with many families displaced from their homes, and their livelihoods destroyed. The absence of adequate humanitarian assistance has only exacerbated

17272-420: The researcher's conclusion that in many European countries the impact of social disadvantages, that influence the well-being of all people, including with special needs, has an increasingly negative impact. Most of the characteristics listed in this article are present together in studies of social exclusion, due to exclusion's multidimensionality. Another way of articulating the definition of social exclusion

17408-686: The results found among UK and Hong Kong participants. One striking difference was that Singaporean participants expected the government to take the lead in driving social inclusion. Singaporean participants' perception of social inclusion was highly nation-centric, showing lack of concern to foreign workers in Singapore. A SCOPE-P was developed and applied in Poland by surveying among mental health services users in Poland. The Polish sample were generally satisfied with their level of social inclusion, in particular for those who are well situated economically. This

17544-575: The same sense as that of the other communities mentioned above. Indeed, unlike that of the Hutus and Tutsis, the Havu, Hunde, Nande, Nyanga and Tembo communities each have their "Mwami" and their "Balu" or "Vakama", who are respectively their heads of state and leading executives in the precolonial context. These communities have their traditional values which are based on their languages, their territories, their customs and their own family, matrimonial, cultural, economic, political and religious organizations. For

17680-500: The territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo between March 1993 and June 2003". Furiiru people The Fuliru people (also spelled Fuliiru ) are a Bantu ethnic group native to the South Kivu Province of the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo . They predominantly inhabit the Uvira Territory , forming the largest ethnic group within the Bafuliiru Chiefdom , located centrally and to

17816-591: Was also facilitated by the establishment of a chiefdom for the Banyarwanda after the arrival of numerous laborers brought by missionaries from neighboring Rwanda. Monsignor Faustin Ngabu , who was the president of the Episcopate of Congo and the bishop of the Diocese of Goma , acknowledged this historical event in his Easter pastoral letter of 11 April 1998 (French: Lettre Pastorale du 11 avril 1998 ). In

17952-404: Was recognized by the colonial authorities. Kingwengwe Mupe, a Fuliru historian, notes that Chief Matakambo, identified as the son of Mahina Mukogabwe, grandson of Nyamugira I—the first Bahamba leader—received his official appointment on 19 March 1933. Later, on 4 March 1940, Nyamugira, another of Mahina's descendants, was also made chief, consolidating Bahamba leadership over the chiefdom. There

18088-539: Was the development of the Social and Community Opportunities Profile (SCOPE). The framework of SCOPE focuses on the perceived opportunities that a person can access to exercise his or her rights, the objective measures of opportunities, and the person's subjective perception of satisfaction toward the opportunity in various life domains. The SCOPE (short version) developed in the U.K. was tested and demonstrated to have good construct validity. Using concept mapping methodology,

18224-593: Was the first empirical study in Poland that measured social inclusion. The study in Poland also examined the impact of the use of communication technology on perceived social inclusion and health. The Polish sample were identified as three different clusters based on their internet usage activities and the internet use motivations. These three clusters were labelled as leisure-seeking omnivores, gamers, and passive selective users. The three clusters had no significant difference in social inclusion or satisfaction with opportunities. Gamers had better physical and mental health than

18360-618: Was the king, known as the " Mwami ", who was believed to possess divine powers and symbolized national unity. The king surrounded himself with Tutsi warlords and Hutu advisers who oversaw the distribution of land. Over time, the Tutsis established a system of serfdom that further marginalized the Hutu people. The Belgian colonial administration formalized and solidified this social system , ultimately leading to its being perceived as an ethnic divide between Hutus and Tutsis. Between 1935 and 1955,

18496-605: Was the recruitment of labor . Between the 1920s and 1950s, the colonial authorities in Belgian Congo actively recruited labor for large mining companies such as the Union Minière du Haut-Katanga and Kivu , particularly in Kalima and Kamituga . Many of these workers were Rwandan and were hired under contract, but they did not renounce their nationality or property , which remained in Rwanda. This immigration of Rwandans

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