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27-766: The Lucani spoke a variety of the Umbrian - Oscan language , like their neighbours, the Samnites , who had absorbed the Osci in the 5th century BC. The few Oscan inscriptions and coins in the area that survive from the 4th or 3rd century BC use the Greek alphabet . Around the middle of the 5th century BC, the Lucani moved south into Oenotria , driving the indigenous tribes, known to the Greeks as Oenotrians , Chones, and Lauternoi, into

54-872: A number of innovations , some of them shared by its neighbor to the west, Latin. (Below, following convention, bold text for Umbrian and Oscan indicates words written in the native, Etruscan derived script, while italics represents words written in Latin-derived script.) All diphthongs are simplified into monophthongs , a process only partly seen in Latin, and only very rarely in Oscan. So Proto-Italic * ai and * ei become Umbrian low ē : kvestur  : Oscan kvaísstur , Latin quaestor 'official in charge of public revenue and expenditure'; prever 'single' : Oscan preivatud , Latin prīvus ; furthermore, Proto-Italic * oi , * ou and * au become ō (written u in

81-476: Is known from about 30 inscriptions dated from the 7th through 1st centuries BC. The largest cache by far is the Iguvine Tablets , seven inscribed bronze tablets found in 1444 near the village of Scheggia or, according to another tradition, in an underground chamber at Gubbio (ancient Iguvium ). The seven tablets contain notes on the ceremonies and statutes for priests of the ancient religion in

108-556: The Iguvine Tablets , the most important document of the Umbrian language . Pascelupo , autonomous municipality until 1878, merged with Scheggia forming the current municipality. Scheggia e Pascelupo, located close to the borders with the Marche region, borders with the following municipalities: Cantiano , Costacciaro , Frontone , Gubbio , Sassoferrato , and Serra Sant'Abbondio . The abbey of Sant'Emiliano in Congiuntoli

135-592: The Italic languages it is closely related to the Oscan group and is therefore associated with it in the group of Osco-Umbrian languages , a term generally replaced by Sabellic in modern scholarship. Since that classification was first formulated, a number of other languages in ancient Italy were discovered to be more closely related to Umbrian. Therefore, a group, the Umbrian languages, was devised to contain them. Umbrian

162-574: The Social War , in which the Lucanians took part with the Samnites against Rome (91 - 88 BC), gave the finishing stroke. In the time of Strabo (63 BC – 24 AD) the Greek cities on the coast had fallen into insignificance and, owing to the decrease of population and cultivation, malaria began to obtain the upper hand. The few towns of the interior were of no importance. A large part of the province

189-580: The 3rd person: singular primary -ter , singular secondary -(n)tur , plural -endi . Perfect stems are derived from the present stem in different ways. Latin -vī- perfects are not attested in Umbrian. Instead, Umbrian uses its own set of forms, including reduplicated perfects such as dede 'gave', the -s- suffix, as in sesu-s-t 'will have sat', and the -nçi- suffix, as in purdi-nçi-ust 'will have presented'. Some verbs also use suppletive forms. Other tenses are formed by suffixation: The following non-finite forms are attested (all of them are based on

216-540: The Latin alphabet on the tablet): In Latin: In English: Scheggia e Pascelupo Scheggia e Pascelupo is a comune (municipality) in the Province of Perugia in the Italian region Umbria , located about 40 km northeast of Perugia . The municipal seat is located in the main village of Scheggia , just below Scheggia Pass on Route SS/SR 3 Flaminia , following the ancient Via Flaminia . The site

243-544: The Lucanians suffered by choosing the losing side in the various wars on the peninsula in which Rome took part. During the Samnite wars they were sometimes in alliance with Rome but more frequently engaged in hostilities. The Lucanians and Bruttians laid siege to Thurii in 282 BC and a Roman army sent to its relief under Gaius Fabricius Luscinus defeated them. When Pyrrhus of Epirus landed in Italy in 281, they were among

270-716: The Neo-Etruscan, but using a letter shaped like a 'P' from the Archaic Etruscan alphabet for the unique Umbrian sound discussed below. The newer was written in the Latin script . The texts are sometimes called Old Umbrian and New Umbrian. The differences are mainly orthographic. For example, rs in the Latin alphabet is represented by a single character in the native script (generally transcribed as ř ; this represents an unknown sound that developed regularly from intervocalic *-d- in most cases). To clearly distinguish them,

297-477: The city" (note that Umbrian continues the PIE case, while Latin innovates here to -ae); Dat. tute "to the city"; Abl. asa "from the altar"; Loc. tote "in the city"; Voc. Prestota "Oh, Prestota" Plural: Nom. fameřias "families"; Acc. porca "pigs"; Gen. pracatarum "of the ramparts"?; Dat.-Abl. plenasier "for the annual festival" (with final rhotacism from -s; thought to be related to Latin plenus "full" with

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324-519: The first to declare in his favour and after his abrupt departure they were reduced to subjection in a ten-year campaign (272). Enmity continued to run deep; they espoused the cause of Hannibal during the Second Punic War (216), and Lucania was ravaged by both armies during several campaigns. The region never recovered from these disasters and under the Roman government fell into decay to which

351-432: The initial syllable of words as a stress accent, since non-initial syllables are regularly lost or weakened. Since the same pattern occurs in the history of Etruscan , this must be assumed to be an areal feature. (By the time of classical Latin, the accent had shifted in that language to more of an Ancient Greek pattern--on the third syllable from the end (antepenult) unless the last syllable was long, in which case it fell on

378-460: The language, final -s also becomes -r (a change not seen in Latin). For example, the genitive plural ending of -ā stems: Umbrian -arum , Latin -arum vs Oscan -asúm (compare Sanskrit - āsām ). While initial * d- is preserved (spelled t in the native alphabet), earlier intervocalic *-d- (and sometimes *-l-) show up in the native alphabet as a character generally transliterated as ř , but as

405-569: The mountainous interior. The Lucanians were engaged in hostilities with the Greek colony of Taras/Tarentum and with Alexander, king of Epirus who was called in by the Tarentine people to their assistance in 334 BC. In 331, treacherous Lucanian exiles killed Alexander of Epirus. In 298 they made alliance with Rome, and Roman influence was extended by the colonies of Venusia (291), Paestum (Greek Posidonia, refounded in 273), and above all Roman Tarentum (refounded in 272). Subsequently, however,

432-657: The native script is generally transcribed in bold, the Latin in italics. The exact phonetics of much of what follows are not completely clear. The consonant inventory of Umbrian is as follows: Pure: i, e, a, o, u; ā, ē, ī, ō, ū Diphthongs: ai, ei, ou Classes of nouns roughly match those in Latin: long a-stems matching Latin first declension, historical o-stems matching Latin second declension, consonant- and i-stems matching Latin third declension, with some more sparse attestation of u-stem (Latin fourth) and long e-stem (Latin fifth) declensions. There are seven attested cases in

459-637: The native script) in initial syllables: unu 'one' : Old Latin oinus ; ute 'or' : Oscan auti , Latin aut ; tuta 'city' : Oscan touto . Velars are palatalized and spirantized before front vowels and the front glide /j/ to probably a palatalized sibilant (perhaps the postalveolar /ʃ/), written ç , ś or simply s . (A similar change happened later in most Romance languages.) For example: Umbrian śesna 'dinner' : Oscan kersnu , Latin cēna ; Umbrian façiu 'I do, I make' : Latin faciō . Like Latin, but unlike Oscan, intervocalic -s- rhotacized to -r- in Umbrian. In late forms of

486-421: The present stem): Umbrian shares some phonological changes with its sister language Oscan. This change is shared with Umbrian, and so is a common Sabellic change, reminiscent of the k/p split between Goidellic (Irish, etc) and Cymric (Welsh, etc). piře , pirse "what"; Oscan pídum vs Latin quid. At some point early in the history of all Indo-European Italic languages, the accent seems to have shifted to

513-537: The region. Sometimes they are called the Eugubian tablets after the medieval name of Iguvium/Eugubium. The tablets contain 4000–5000 words. Other minor inscriptions are from Todi , Assisi and Spoleto . The Iguvine tablets were written in two alphabets. The older, the Umbrian alphabet, like other Old Italic script , was derived from the Etruscan alphabet , and was written right-to-left, essentially equivalent to

540-603: The second to last syllable (the penult).) The degree to which these shifts can be connected to similar shifts to initial stress in Celtic and Germanic is unclear; for discussion see J. Salmons' Accentual Change and Language Contact . Examples: Loss of unstressed short -e-: * onse "shoulder" < * omesei , compare Latin umerus ; destre "on the right" < * deksiterer ; ostendu "present" (imperative) < * obs-tendetōd , compare Latin ostendito . But compared to its highly conservative sister language Oscan, Umbrian exhibits

567-405: The semantic development > "of the full (year)"). Verbs in Umbrian are inflected for the following categories: Present, future and future perfect forms in the active voice use the following set of personal endings (primary): Imperfect, perfect indicative and all tenses of the subjunctive in the active voice use a different set of endings (secondary): Passive endings are attested only for

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594-443: The sequence rs in Umbrian texts using the Latin alphabet. The exact pronunciation is unknown: piře , pirse "what" vs. Oscan pídum , Latin quid. Proto-italic *ū became /i/, sim (accusative singular) <PI *sūm "pig" Taken from the Iguvine Tablets , tablet Va, lines 6–10 (written in the native alphabet on the tablet): In Latin: In English: Taken from the Iguvine Tablets , tablet VIa, lines 25–31 (written in

621-603: The singular: nominative , accusative (along with the nom-acc neuter case), genitive , dative , ablative , locative , and vocative . In the plural, there are only four distinct cases: nominative; accusative; genitive; and dative-and-ablative combined into one form. There are no attested locative or vocative plurals. Examples from long a-stems (for use of bold versus italic script, see above under "Alphabet"): Singular: Nom. muta/mutu "fine" (related to Latin molta "fine"); Acc. tuta / totam "city, state"; Gen. tutas / totar (the later with rhotacism, on which see below) "of

648-588: The village was a possession of the Hermitage of Fonte Avellana , founded by Saint Romuald on the slope of Monte Catria . This retreat later became a large Benedictine monastery, which ruled on the whole territory around Scheggia. Later the village became a possession of Perugia and then of the Montefeltro , until it became part of the Papal States . In 1444 near the village were possibly found

675-650: Was a Roman Mansio (an official stopping place) named Mutatio ad Hensem on the Via Flaminia , at the crossing with the path Gubbio – Sassoferrato , which here crossed the Appennini . Near the pass, according to the Tabula Peutingeriana , lay the temple of Jupiter Apenninus , one of the largest sanctuaries of the Umbrians , of which no traces have been found so far. In the 12th century

702-549: Was given up to pasture , and the mountains were covered with forests, which abounded in wild boars, bears and wolves. Lucanian art mainly survives in Lucanian vase painting and paintings from tombs, which the elite commissioned in rather large numbers, like the Etruscans but unlike their Roman and Greek neighbours. There is a good display in the museum at Paestum . A high proportion feature horses, often racing. Vase painting

729-514: Was practiced between about 420 BC and 335 BC, and at its height vases were exported to all Apulia . The painters, some of whom have been assigned notnames , were probably Greek emigres, or trained in Greece - probably Athens to judge by their styles. Umbrian language Umbrian is an extinct Italic language formerly spoken by the Umbri in the ancient Italian region of Umbria . Within

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