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62-507: The Luckenbooths were a range of tenements which formerly stood immediately to the north of St. Giles' Kirk in the High Street of Edinburgh from the reign of King James II in the 15th century to the early years of the 19th century. They were demolished in 1802, apart from the east end of the block which was removed in 1817. The building which housed them originated as a two storey, timber-fronted tenement built in 1440 and known as

124-407: A family in each room and contain a population of between 40 and 50 souls. We have visited one house that we found to be occupied by 98 persons, another by 74 and a third by 73. The entrance to all tenement houses is by a common door off either a street, lane or alley, and, in most cases, the door is never shut, day or night. The passages and stairs are common and the rooms all open directly either off

186-521: A few feet wide and often filled with privies . Interior rooms were unventilated. Early in the 19th century, many of the poor were housed in cellars, which became even less sanitary after the Croton Aqueduct brought running water to wealthier New Yorkers: the reduction in well use caused the water table to rise, and the cellar dwellings flooded. Early housing reformers urged the construction of tenements to replace cellars, and beginning in 1859

248-815: A five-story brick former tenement building in Manhattan that is a National Historic Site , is a museum devoted to tenements in the Lower East Side. Other famous tenements in the US include tenement housing in Chicago , in which various housing areas were built to the same affect as tenements in New York. Tenements make up a large percentage of the housing stock of Glasgow and Edinburgh in Scotland. Glasgow tenements were built to provide high-density housing for

310-482: A low-pitched roof so that the clock on St. Giles' (since removed) could be seen by passers-by in the High Street while its neighbour to the west rose to six storeys. The two most easterly lands were newer and substantial building of polished ashlar . The first of these was apparently built not later than the reign of Charles I . The east-most was built at the end of the 17th century and presented its main front down

372-399: A museum of Dublin tenement life. The last tenements were closed in the 1970s, families being rehoused in new suburbs such as Ballymun . In Buenos Aires the tenements, called conventillos , developed from subdividing one- or two-story houses built around courtyards for well-off families. These were long and narrow, three to six times as long as they were wide, and the size of the patios

434-561: A number of open stalls known as the crames or krames (cf. old German krâmer for pedlar) which were positioned between the buttresses of the church. Walter Scott 's novel The Heart of Midlothian , published in 1818, includes the following description of the Luckenbooths shortly before their disappearance, He stood now before the Gothic entrance of the ancient prison, which, as is well known to all men, rears its ancient front in

496-511: A quarter of workers were housed in tenements. One reason New York had so many tenements was the large number of immigrants; another was that the grid plan on which streets were laid out, and the economic practice of building on individual 25-by-100-foot (7.6 by 30.5 m) lots, combined to produce high land coverage. Prior to 1867, tenements often covered more than 90 percent of the lot, were five or six stories high, and had 18 rooms per floor, of which only two received direct sunlight. Yards were

558-548: A reputation as shanty towns. The expression "tenement house" was used to designate a building subdivided to provide cheap rental accommodation, which was initially a subdivision of a large house. Beginning in the 1850s, purpose-built tenements of up to six stories held several households on each floor. Various names were introduced for better dwellings, and eventually modern apartments predominated in American urban living. In parts of England, especially Devon and Cornwall ,

620-505: A reputation for being inhabited by poor people and families that depend on government money and welfare programs to support them; kamienice are often used as public housing. Those areas are often considered dangerous. The buildings are often neglected, in bad shape (both the exteriors and the interiors), in need of general renovations, sometimes without access to heating or hot water. Quoin (architecture) Quoins ( / k ɔɪ n / or / k w ɔɪ n / ) are masonry blocks at

682-531: A toilet and a bath or shower; 19 percent had only a toilet, and 66 percent shared staircase toilets. Heating was provided by stoves burning charcoal briquettes. By the 19th and early 20th century, Dublin's tenements ( Irish : tionóntán ) were infamous, often described as the worst in Europe. Many tenement buildings were originally the Georgian townhouses of upper-class families, neglected and subdivided over

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744-469: A vault that often became clogged) were squeezed into the small open spaces between buildings. In parts of the Lower East Side, buildings were older and had courtyards , generally occupied by machine shops, stables, and other businesses. Such tenements were particularly prevalent in New York, where in 1865 a report stated that 500,000 people lived in unhealthy tenements, whereas in Boston in 1845, less than

806-505: A window in every room. There were also fire-safety requirements. These rules are still the basis of New York City law on low-rise buildings, and they have made single-lot development uneconomical. Most of the purpose-built tenements in New York were not slums, although they were not pleasant to be inside, especially in hot weather, so people congregated outside, made heavy use of the fire escapes, and slept in summer on fire escapes, roofs, and sidewalks. The Lower East Side Tenement Museum ,

868-407: Is a Polish term describing a type of residential tenement building made of brick or stone , with at least two floors. There are two basic types: one designed as a single-family residence, which existed until the 1800s (a burgher house ), and the other designed as multi-family housing, which emerged in the 19th century and was the basic type of housing in cities. From the architectural point of view,

930-553: Is an area of approximately 1 km and at one time had an estimated 90,000 people living in its tenements, leading to very poor living conditions. The population now is roughly 10,000. Tenement demolition was to a significantly lesser extent in Edinburgh, thus making its later World Heritage designations in 1985 possible. Largely, such clearances were limited to pre-Victorian buildings outside the New Town area and were precipitated by

992-643: Is most prevalent especially in centers of historical cities such as Kraków , Poznań , Wrocław , and Toruń , whereas the second type is most prominent in Łódź . City which is known for beautiful kamienice in Art Nouveau style is Bydgoszcz . The name derives from the Polish word kamień (stone) and dates from the 15th century. Late 19th century and early 20th century kamienice often took form of city palaces with ornamental facades, high floors and spacious, representative and heavily decorated interiors. Later in

1054-540: Is no uncommon thing to find halls and landings, yards and closets of the houses in a filthy condition, and, in nearly every case, human excreta is to be found scattered about the yards and in the floors of the closets and, in some cases, even in the passages of the house itself. Tenement life often appeared in fiction, such as the "Dublin trilogy" of plays by Seán O'Casey , Oliver St. John Gogarty 's play Blight , and James Plunkett 's novel Strumpet City ( adapted for television in 1980). 14 Henrietta Street serves as

1116-437: Is no yard, when it is to be found in the basement where there is little light or ventilation. The closet accommodation is common not only to the occupants of the house, but to anyone who likes to come in off the street, and is, of course, common to both sexes. The roofs of the tenement houses are, as a rule, bad . . . Having visited a large number of these houses in all parts of the city, we have no hesitation in saying that it

1178-706: The Garnethill area of Glasgow preserves the interior, fittings and equipment of a well-kept, upper middle-class tenement from the late 19th century. Many tenements in Glasgow were demolished in the 1960s and 1970s because of slum conditions, overcrowding and poor maintenance of the buildings. Perhaps the most striking case of this is seen in the Gorbals , where virtually all the tenements were demolished to make way for tower blocks, many of which have in turn have been demolished and replaced with newer structures. The Gorbals

1240-536: The tolbooth and the adjacent houses on the one side, and the buttresses and projections of the old Cathedral upon the other. To give some gaiety to this sombre passage (well known by the name of the Krames), a number of little booths, or shops, after the fashion of cobblers' stalls, are plastered, as it were, against the Gothic projections and abutments, so that it seemed as if the traders had occupied with nests, bearing

1302-412: The "Buith Raw" ( Scots for booth row). Over the years, the row was extended and heightened until it consisted of seven tenement buildings of varying height, date and form, stretching the full length of St. Giles' from which it was separated by a narrow alleyway. At some point, the row of tenements took on the name of "Luckenbuiths" from the lockable booths situated at street level. The earliest reference to

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1364-466: The 19th century, immigrants and workers from the countryside were housed in former middle-class houses and other buildings, such as warehouses, which were bought up and divided into small dwellings. Beginning as early as the 1830s in New York City 's Lower East Side or possibly the 1820s on Mott Street , three- and four-story buildings were converted into " railroad flats ," so called because

1426-555: The 20th century, especially after the Second World War , large apartments would be divided into several smaller flats due to general lack of habitable space caused by vast destruction of cities, thus lowering the generally high standard of living in so-called grand city tenements ( Polish : kamienice wielkomiejskie ). Examples of kamienice include Korniakt Palace and Black Kamienica in Lviv . Some kamienice in some areas have

1488-538: The High Street. The frontages of the Luckenbooths were in line with the north front of the Old Tolbooth but the buildings were not as deep, leaving an alleyway between their rear and St. Giles'. A passage or pend known as the Auld Kirk Style provided access from the front of the Luckenbooths through to the old north door of St. Giles'. This passage was also known as the "Stinking Style", as criticised by

1550-558: The Lower East Side having 800 inhabitants per acre (2,000/ha), denser than Bombay . It used both charts and photographs, the first such official use of photographs. Together with the publication in 1895 by the US Department of Labor of a special report on housing conditions and solutions elsewhere in the world, The Housing of Working People, it ultimately led to the passage of the Tenement House Act of 1901 , known as

1612-583: The New Law, which implemented the Tenement House Committee's recommendation of a maximum of 70 percent lot coverage and mandated strict enforcement, specified a minimum of 12 feet (3.7 m) for a rear yard and 6 feet (1.8 m) for an air and light shaft at the lot line or 12 feet (3.7 m) in the middle of the building (all of these being increased for taller buildings), and required running water and water closets in every apartment and

1674-527: The Tenement House Act of 1879, known as the Old Law, which required lot coverage of no more than 65 percent. As of 1869, New York State law defined a "tenement house" as "any house or building, or portion thereof, which is rented, leased let or hired out, to be occupied, or is occupied as the home or residence of three families or more living independently of each other, and doing their cooking upon

1736-573: The best of which had windows facing the street. One notorious Berlin Mietskaserne was Meyers Hof  [ de ] in Gesundbrunnen , which at times housed 2,000 people and required its police officer to keep order. Between 1901 and 1920, a Berlin clinic investigated and documented in photographs the living conditions of its patients, revealing that many lived in damp basements and garrets, spaces under stairs, and apartments where

1798-413: The center (usually fitted to the shafts in the adjacent buildings), and it typically covered 80 percent of the lot. James E. Ware is credited with the design; he had won a contest the previous year held by Plumber and Sanitary Engineer Magazine to find the most practical improved tenement design, in which profitability was the most important factor to the jury. Public concern about New York tenements

1860-552: The centuries to house dozens of Dublin's poor. Henrietta Street 's fifteen buildings housed 835 people. In 1911 nearly 26,000 families lived in inner-city tenements, and 20,000 of these families lived in a single room. Disease was common, with death rates of 22.3 per thousand (compared with 15.6 for London at the same time). The collapse of 65–66 Church Street in 1913, which killed seven residents, led to inquiries into housing. A housing committee report of 1914 said, There are many tenement houses with seven or eight rooms that house

1922-486: The city in its subtitle as "the largest tenement city in the world." They were built during a period of great increases in population between 1860 and 1914, particularly after German unification in 1871, in a broad ring enclosing the old city center, sometimes called the Wilhelmian or Wilhelmine Ring . The buildings are almost always five stories high because of the mandated maximum height. The blocks are large because

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1984-437: The corner of a wall. Some are structural, providing strength for a wall made with inferior stone or rubble , while others merely add aesthetic detail to a corner. According to one 19th-century encyclopedia, these imply strength, permanence, and expense, all reinforcing the onlooker's sense of a structure's presence. Stone quoins are used on stone or brick buildings. Brick quoins may appear on brick buildings, extending from

2046-410: The corners. This results in an alternate, quoining pattern. Courses of large and small corner stones are used, alternating between stones of different thickness, with typically the larger cornerstones thinner than the smaller. The long and short quoining method instead places long stone blocks with their lengths oriented vertically, between smaller ones that are laid flat. This load-bearing quoining

2108-407: The cross looks of the withered pantaloon , or spectacled old lady, by whom these tempting stores are watched and superintended. But, in the times we write of, the hosiers , the glovers, the hatters, the mercers , the milliners , and all who dealt in the miscellaneous wares now termed haberdashers' goods, were to be found in the narrow alley. The east end of the block, facing down the High Street,

2170-400: The facing brickwork in such a way as to give the appearance of generally uniformly cut ashlar blocks of stone larger than the bricks. Where quoins are decorative and non-load-bearing a wider variety of materials is used, including timber , stucco , or other cement render . In a traditional, often decorative use, large rectangular ashlar stone blocks or replicas are laid horizontally at

2232-524: The large number of people immigrating to the city in the 19th and early 20th century as a result of the Industrial Revolution , when the city's population boomed to more than 1 million people. Edinburgh's tenements are much older, dating from the 17th century onwards, and some were up to 15 storeys high when first built, which made them among the tallest houses in the world at that time. Glasgow tenements were generally built no taller than

2294-656: The name Luckenbooths is in a sasine of 1521 where it is said (in Latin) to be commonly known as the Lukkynbuthis . These ancient buildings, with their varied frontages and roof-lines, formed a picturesque feature in the High Street. The west-most tenement was contiguous with the Belhouse of the Old Tolbooth . The timber-fronted "land" immediately in front of the steeple of St. Giles' was only three storeys high with

2356-413: The number of people living in cellars began to decline. The Tenement House Act of 1866, the state legislature's first comprehensive legislation on housing conditions, prohibited cellar apartments unless the ceiling was 1 foot (30 cm) above street level; required one water closet per 20 residents and the provision of fire escapes; and paid some attention to space between buildings. This was amended by

2418-399: The passages or landings. Most of these houses have yards at the back, some of which are a fair size, while others are very small, and some few houses have no yards at all. Generally, the only water supply of the house is furnished by a single water tap, which is in the yard. The yard is common and the closet accommodation [ toilet ] is to be found there, except in some few cases in which there

2480-476: The poet William Dunbar in his address To the Merchants of Edinburgh , c.1500 ("Your Stinkand Stull that standis dirk [darkly], Haldis the lycht fra your parroche kirk."). From early times, the traders of Edinburgh would have sold their goods from stalls set up in one of the city's market places. The Buith Raw provided a more permanent base and incorporated shops as an integral part of the ground floor. Part of

2542-423: The premises, or by more than two families upon a floor, so living and cooking and having a common right in the halls, stairways, yards, water-closets, or privies, or some of them. In Scotland, it continues to be the most common word for a multiple-occupancy building , but elsewhere it is used as a pejorative in contrast to apartment building or block of flats . Tenement houses were either adapted or built for

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2604-435: The premises, or by more than two families upon any floor, so living and cooking, but having a right in the halls, stairways, yards, water-closets or privies, or some of them." L 1867, ch 908. The New York City Board of Health was empowered to enforce these regulations, but it declined to do so. As a compromise, the " Old Law tenement " became the standard: this had a "dumbbell" shape, with air and light shafts on either side in

2666-523: The publications of the day, or newspapers - all congregated there, lawyers, doctors, clergymen and authors." Smollett wrote that the High Street "would undoubtedly be one of the noblest streets in Europe, if an ugly mass of mean buildings, called the Lucken-Booths, had not thrust itself, by what accident I know not, into the middle of the way, like Middle-Row in Holborn ". The Luckenbooths reduced

2728-477: The rooms were linked together like the cars of a train, with windowless internal rooms. The adapted buildings were also known as " rookeries ," and these were a particular concern, as they were prone to collapse and fire. Mulberry Bend and Five Points were the sites of notorious rookeries that the city worked for decades to clear. In both rookeries and purpose-built tenements, communal water taps and water closets (either privies or "school sinks," which opened into

2790-462: The same proportion to the building, every buttress and coign of vantage, as the martlet did in Macbeth's Castle. Of later years these booths have degenerated into mere toy-shops, where the little loiterers chiefly interested in such wares are tempted to linger, enchanted by the rich display of hobby-horses, babies [i.e. dolls], and Dutch toys, arranged in artful and gay confusion; yet half-scared by

2852-482: The so-called "Penny Tenement" incident of 1959 in which a tenement collapsed. Apartments in tenement buildings in both cities are now often highly sought after, due to their locations, often large rooms, high ceilings, ornamentation and period features. In German, the term corresponding to tenement is Mietskaserne , "rental barracks", and the city especially known for them is Berlin. In 1930, Werner Hegemann 's polemic Das steinerne Berlin (Stony Berlin) referred to

2914-472: The street frontage consisted of heavy folding boards which would be open by day, one board being drawn up to form an overhang to protect the stock, another let down to form a counter board to display goods, with others folded back to the side. A reconstruction of this form of shop front can be seen at Gladstone's Land in the Lawnmarket . The alleyway between the Luckenbooths and St. Giles' was occupied by

2976-414: The streets were required to be able to handle heavy traffic, and the lots are therefore also large: required to have courtyards large enough for a fire truck to turn around, the buildings have front, rear, and cross buildings enclosing several courtyards. Buildings within the courtyards were the location of much of Berlin's industry until the 1920s, and noise and other nuisances affected the apartments, only

3038-509: The tenement was abandoned in the 1850s. The term tenement originally referred to tenancy and therefore to any rented accommodation. The New York State legislature defined it in the Tenement House Act of 1867 in terms of rental occupancy by multiple households, as Any house, building, or portion thereof, which is rented, leased, let, or hired out to be occupied or is occupied, as the home or residence of more than three families living independently of one another and doing their own cooking upon

3100-461: The thousands to house people migrating to the large city because of its booming cotton mills and overall strong economy. A typical chawl tenement consists of one all-purpose room, which functions both as a living and sleeping space, and a kitchen which also serves as a dining room. A frequent practice is for the kitchen to also serve as a bedroom for a newly married couple in order to give them some degree of privacy. Kamienica (plural kamienice )

3162-468: The unit over in the late 18th century and it was thereafter known as "Creech's Land", much visited by Robert Burns . Henry Cockburn recalled Creech's shop as "the natural resort of lawyers, authors, and all sorts of literary idlers... All who wished to see a poet or a stranger, or to hear the public news, the last joke by Erskine , or yesterday's occurrences in the Parliament House , or to get

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3224-523: The vanished krames. 55°56′59″N 3°11′28″W  /  55.9497°N 3.1910°W  / 55.9497; -3.1910 Tenement In the United States, the term tenement initially meant a large building with multiple small spaces to rent. As cities grew in the nineteenth century, there was increasing separation between rich and poor . With rapid urban growth and immigration , overcrowded houses with poor sanitation gave tenements

3286-405: The very middle of the High Street, forming, as it were, the termination to a huge pile of buildings called the Luckenbooths, which, for some inconceivable reason, our ancestors had jammed into the midst of the principal street of the town, leaving for passage a narrow street on the north, and on the south, into which the prison opens, a narrow crooked lane, winding betwixt the high and sombre walls of

3348-461: The width of the High Street on the other side of the building to only 14/15 feet, thus causing congestion, especially to wheeled traffic. The block was consequently demolished by 1817 after the Town Council, desirous of city street improvements, had deemed it a major obstruction. James Ballantine 's poem Lament For Ancient Edinburgh , published in 1856, expressed a nostalgic sense of loss for

3410-641: The width of the street on which they were located; therefore, most are about 3–5 storeys high. Virtually all Glasgow tenements were constructed using red or blonde sandstone, which has become distinctive. In Edinburgh, residential dwellings in the UNESCO World Heritage Sites of the medieval Old Town and Georgian New Town (as well as the Victorian city centre districts immediately surrounding them) are almost exclusively tenements. The Tenement House historic house museum in

3472-562: The windows were blocked by courtyard businesses. Many apartments in the Wilhelmian Ring were very small, only one room and a kitchen. Also, apartments were laid out with their rooms reached via a common internal corridor, which even the Berlin Architects' Association recognized was unhealthy and detrimental to family life. Sanitation was inadequate: in a survey of one area in 1962, only 15 percent of apartments had both

3534-432: The word is usually used to describe a building that abuts other similar buildings forming the street frontage , in the manner of a terraced house . The ground floor often consists of shops and other businesses, while the upper floors are apartments, oftentimes spanning the entire floor. Kamienice have large windows in the front, but not in the side walls, since the buildings are close together. The first type of kamienica

3596-498: The word refers to an outshot, or additional projecting part at the back of a terraced house, normally with its roof. One of the earliest examples of a tenement is Morris Castle in Swansea , Wales . The castle was built sometime before 1775 by Sir John Morris to house workers in the rapidly industrializing area. The castle's location was hazardous and impractical and many workers preferred to live in individual cottages. As such,

3658-433: The working class as cities industrialized, and came to be contrasted with middle-class apartment houses, which started to become fashionable later in the 19th century. Late-19th-century social reformers in the United States were hostile to both tenements (for fostering disease, and immorality in the young) and apartment houses (for fostering "sexual immorality, sloth, and divorce"). As the United States industrialized during

3720-661: Was reduced until as many as 350 people could be living on a lot that had originally housed 25. Purpose-built tenements copied their form. By 1907 there were some 2,500 conventillos, with 150,000 occupants. El conventillo de la Paloma was particularly famous and is the title of a play by Alberto Vaccarezza . "Chawls" are found in India . They are typically four to five story buildings with 10 to 20 kholis (tenements) on each floor, kholis literally meaning ' rooms '. Many chawl buildings can be found in Mumbai , where chawls were constructed by

3782-520: Was stirred by publication in 1890 of Jacob Riis 's How the Other Half Lives , and in 1892 by Riis's The Children of the Poor. The New York State Assembly Tenement House Committee report of 1894 surveyed 8,000 buildings with approximately 255,000 residents and found New York to be the most densely populated city in the world, at an average of 143 inhabitants per acre (350/ha), with part of

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3844-438: Was the tenement where the wigmaker and poet Allan Ramsay had his shop on the first floor. It was here in 1752 that he established Scotland's first "circulating library" (for borrowing books), which became a favourite meeting-place for the literati of the time. Patrons included the poet John Gay of The Beggar's Opera fame during his residence in the city and the novelist Tobias Smollett . The publisher William Creech took

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