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87-632: Lucrezia Borgia (18 April 1480 – 24 June 1519) was an Italian noblewoman of the House of Borgia who was the illegitimate daughter of Pope Alexander VI and Vannozza dei Cattanei . She reigned as the governor of Spoleto , in her own right, a position usually held by Cardinals . Her family arranged several marriages for her that advanced their own political position including Giovanni Sforza , Lord of Pesaro and Gradara, Count of Cotignola ; Alfonso of Aragon , Duke of Bisceglie and Prince of Salerno ; and Alfonso I d'Este , Duke of Ferrara. Alfonso of Aragon

174-606: A considerable time, two great factions, or associations of families. The Orsini , Cesarini , Borghese , Aldobrandini , Ludovisi , and Giustiniani were with the Pamphili ; while opposed to them, was the house of Colonna and the Barberini . Popes commonly elevated members of prominent families to the position of Cardinal ; especially second and third sons who would not otherwise inherit hereditary titles. Popes also elevated their own family members – especially nephews – to

261-561: A high court ruling in 1967 definitively established that the heraldic-nobiliary legislation of the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946) is not current law, the title of the head of the noble family is still accorded to all descendants as courtesy titles . The southern kingdoms of Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia, as well as the Papal states, granted titles as in monarchies such as Spain, France, or England: duke, marquis, count, baron. The title of viscount

348-546: A love affair with the poet Pietro Bembo during her third marriage. Their love letters were deemed "the prettiest love letters in the world" by the Romantic poet Lord Byron when he saw them in the Ambrosian Library of Milan on 15 October 1816. On the same occasion Byron claimed to have stolen a lock of Lucrezia's hair – "the prettiest and fairest imaginable" – that was also held there on display. Lucrezia met

435-404: A marriage from being validly contracted at all and renders the union a putative marriage, while a prohibitory impediment renders a marriage valid but not licit . The union resulting is called a putative marriage. An invalid marriage may be subsequently convalidated , either by simple convalidation (renewal of consent that replaces invalid consent) or by sanatio in radice ("healing in the root",

522-535: A marriage invalid and constitutes legal grounds for a declaration of nullity. Accordingly, apart from the question of diriment impediments dealt with below, there is a fourfold classification of contractual defects: defect of form, defect of contract, defect of willingness, defect of capacity. For annulment, proof is required of the existence of one of these defects, since canon law presumes all marriages are valid until proven otherwise. Canon law stipulates canonical impediments to marriage. A diriment impediment prevents

609-585: A matter of social courtesy and are not recognised under the law. A limited number of noble titles granted by the pope were formally acknowledged according to Article 42 of the Lateran Treaty until its abrogation in 1985. Before the unification of Italy (1861) there were many members of the nobility in Italy. In the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, Italy was home to a myriad of noble families that had risen to prominence via judicial appointment, election to

696-547: A more ancient descent, or were generally traced to an obscure, or even a low origin. The Sicilian nobility was a privileged hereditary class in the Kingdom of Sicily , the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and the Kingdom of Italy , whose origins may be traced to the 11th century AD. The Romans , Byzantines and Saracens exported different elements of their aristocratic structures to the island of Sicily , however, it

783-492: A number of titles borne by families in the pre-unification states (Two Sicilies, Papal State, etc.) still had not been matriculated by the Consulta Araldica . Annulment Annulment is a legal procedure within secular and religious legal systems for declaring a marriage null and void . Unlike divorce , it is usually retroactive , meaning that an annulled marriage is considered to be invalid from

870-453: A papal relative. Families that had previously been limited to agricultural or mercantile ventures found themselves, sometimes within only one or two generations, elevated to the Roman nobility when a relative was elected to the papal throne. Modern Italy is dotted with the fruits of their success – various family palazzi stand today as a testament to their sometimes meteoric rise to power. In

957-474: A party to void a marriage include entry into the marriage as a result of threat or coercion. Some jurisdictions have a distinction between legal age of majority and legal age of marriage; in this case, it is usually the custom that the marriage can proceed with parental or guardian consent, and the marital parties being able to ratify or void the marriage upon reaching the age of majority. These are also considered voidable marriages. The principal difference between

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1044-575: A sign of distinction between the nobility granted "to the Milanese by their duke" and that granted by "foreigners". The Venetian Patriciate was one of the three social bodies into which the society of the Republic of Venice was divided, together with citizens and foreigners. Patrizio was the noble title of the members of the aristocracy ruling the city of Venice and the Republic. The title

1131-536: A specific legal status and held most of the wealth and various privileges denied to other classes, mainly politicians. In most of the former Italian pre-unification states, it was the only class that had access to high-level government positions. They also practically monopolized the most distinguished positions in the city-states and in the Catholic Church for a long time. There were several different systems of nobility over time and in different regions. From

1218-457: A uniform nobiliary law, was created, including male succession (although it was possible for ancient titles to be transferred to an heir in the female line by royal authority), and some acknowledgement was made by the King of Italy of titles conferred by Francis II of the Two Sicilies in exile by making new grants in the same name. Those nobles who maintained allegiance to the pope became known as

1305-430: A void and voidable marriage is that, as a void marriage is invalid from the beginning, no legal action is required to set the marriage aside. A marriage may be challenged as void by a third party, for example in probate proceedings during which a party to the void marriage is claiming inheritance rights as a spouse. In contrast, a voidable marriage may be ended only through the judgment of a court, and may be voided only upon

1392-459: Is a marriage that can be canceled at the option of one of the parties. The marriage is valid, but may be annulled if contested in court by one of the parties to the marriage. The petition to void the marriage must be brought by one of the parties to the marriage, and a voidable marriage thus cannot be annulled after the death of one of the parties. A marriage may be voidable for a variety of reasons, depending on jurisdiction. Common reasons for allowing

1479-401: Is described as having heavy blonde hair that fell past her knees, a beautiful complexion, hazel eyes that changed colour, a full, high bosom, and a natural grace that made her appear to "walk on air". These physical attributes were highly appreciated in Italy during that period. Another description said, "her mouth is rather large, the teeth brilliantly white, her neck is slender and fair, and

1566-441: Is necessary first before considering divorce when there is dissention/contention between spouses (Qu'ran 4:35 ). The marriage contract clauses agreed upon must be honored when divorce is invoked. Also, Sharia does grant a Muslim woman simple ways to end her marital relationship and without declaring the reason. Faskh or (kholo) (annulment) doctrine specifies certain situations when a Sharia court can grant her request and annul

1653-501: Is void as a matter of law, in some jurisdictions an annulment is required to establish that the marriage is void or may be sought in order to obtain formal documentation that the marriage was voided. Under the laws of most nations, children born during a void marriage are considered legitimate. Depending upon the jurisdiction, reasons for why a marriage may be legally void may include consanguinity ( incestual marriage), bigamy , group marriage , or child marriage . A voidable marriage

1740-527: The Anglican Catholic Church , offer annulments, which are granted by the bishop . Methodist Theology Today , edited by Clive Marsh, states that: when ministers say, "I pronounce you husband and wife," they not only announce the wedding—they create it by transforming the bride and groom into a married couple. Legally they are now husband and wife in society. Spiritually, from a sacramental point of view, they are joined together as one in

1827-590: The Black Nobility . After the unification of Italy, its kings continued to create titles of nobility for eminent Italians, this time valid for all Italian territory. For example, General Enrico Cialdini was created Duca di Gaeta for his role during unification. The practice continued until the 20th century, when nominations would be made by the Prime Minister of Italy and approved by the Crown. In

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1914-648: The Evangelical Catholic Church . The Church of England , the mother church of the worldwide Anglican Communion , historically had the right to grant annulments, while divorces were "only available through an Act of Parliament." Examples in which annulments were granted by the Anglican Church included being under age, having committed fraud, using force, and lunacy. Certain Continuing Anglican denominations, such as

2001-538: The Middle Ages until March 1861, Italy was not a single country. It was a region consisting of a number of separate kingdoms and other states, with many reigning dynasties . These were often related by marriage to each other and to other European royal families. Recognition of Italian nobility ceased with the creation of the Italian Republic in 1946. Although many titles still exist, they are used as

2088-503: The Qadi (religious judge), who has the discretion to declare the evidence unacceptable. In Sunni Maliki school of jurisprudence ( fiqh ), cruelty, disease, life-threatening ailment and desertion are additional Sharia approved grounds for the wife or the husband to seek annulment of the marriage. In these cases too, the wife must provide two male witnesses or one male and two female witnesses or in some cases four witnesses, acceptable to

2175-516: The Qadi (religious judge), who has the discretion to declare the evidence unacceptable. In certain circumstances, an unrelated Muslim can petition a Qadi to void (faskh) the marriage of a Muslim couple who may not want the marriage to end. For example, in case the third party detects apostasy from Islam by either husband or wife (through blasphemy , failure to respect Sharia, or conversion of husband or wife or both from Islam to Christianity , etc.). In cases of apostasy, in addition to annulment of

2262-586: The Risorgimento on 17 March 1861, when most of the states of the peninsula and Kingdom of the Two Sicilies were united under King Victor Emmanuel II of the Savoy dynasty, hitherto monarch of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which included Piedmont . The architect of Italian unification was Count Camillo Benso di Cavour , the Chief Minister of Victor Emmanuel. Rome itself remained for a further decade under

2349-524: The dower he gave her before marriage; alternatively, he can invoke the Lian doctrine in case of adultery, either by bringing four witnesses who saw the wife committing adultery or by self-testifying and swearing by Allah four times. Sharia law then requires the court to grant the divorce requested by the man. Talaq is controversial, though it is a widely held belief, the Qu'ran insists counseling between two parties

2436-498: The marriage of baptized persons is a sacrament and, once consummated and thereby confirmed, cannot be dissolved as long as the parties to it are alive. A "Declaration of Nullity" is not dissolution of a marriage, but merely the legal finding that a valid marriage was never contracted. This is analogous to a finding that a contract of sale is invalid, and hence, that the property for sale must be considered to have never been legally transferred into another's ownership. A divorce, on

2523-560: The "new" noble homelands: Sansepolcro , San Miniato , Livorno , Pescia and Prato . Overall, the Florentine nobility was divided into feudal, senatorial and priority. In Milan , the first officially drawn up list of nobility was the " Matricula nobilium familiarum Mediolani" by Ottone Visconti , dated 20 April 1377, in which, however, only the noble Milanese families who helped the Visconti family in their seizure of power over

2610-795: The Borgias would later accuse her of being pregnant at the time her marriage was annulled for non-consummation. She is known to have retired to the convent of San Sisto in June 1497 to await the outcome of the annulment proceedings, which were finalized in December of the same year. The bodies of Pedro Calderon and a maid, Pantasilea, were found in the Tiber in February 1498. In March 1498, the Ferrarese ambassador claimed that Lucrezia had given birth, but this

2697-475: The French seigneur , a title introduced into Italy by the 11th century Normans), vassalli ( vassals ) or cavalieri (knights). Eventually, this class came to be known collectively as the baroni (barons); in Italy barone was not always a title descriptive of a particular feudal rank. During the 14th century, most minor feudal lands became baronies, their holders barons. It must be observed that

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2784-692: The Papacy , "Lucrezia… was personally popular through her beauty and her affability. Her long golden hair, her sweet childish face, her pleasant expression and her graceful ways, seem to have struck all who saw her." Several rumours have persisted throughout the years, primarily speculating as to the nature of the extravagant parties thrown by the Borgia family. One example is the Banquet of Chestnuts . Many of these allegations concern accusations of Lucrezia's involvement in incest, poisoning, and murder. For example it

2871-540: The Papacy, and became part of the Kingdom of Italy only in 1870. In September of that year, invading Italian troops entered the Papal state, and the ensuing occupation forced Pope Pius IX to his palace where he declared himself a prisoner in the Vatican, as did his successors, until the Lateran Pacts of 1929. Under the united Kingdom of Italy a new national nobility, an attempt (not wholly successful) to impose

2958-510: The Republic was in fact ruled as an oligarchy by about 20 to 30 families of Venice's urban nobility, who elected the Doge , held political and military offices and directly participated in the daily governing of the state. They were predominantly merchants , with their main source of income being trade with the East and other entrepreneurial activities, on which they became incredibly wealthy. Some of

3045-919: The Sicilian nobility. Over the centuries many families emerged as landed aristocracy or nobility similar to the English gentry and peerage . During this period, throughout Italy various influential families came to positions of power through the election of a family member as Pope or were elevated into the ranks of nobility through ecclesiastical promotion. These families freely intermarried with aristocratic nobility. Like other noble families, those with both papal power and money were able to purchase comunes or other tracts of land and elevate family patriarchs and other relatives to noble titles. Hereditary patriarchs were appointed Duke , Marquis and even Prince of various 16th and 17th century principalities . According to Ranke: Under Innocent X there existed, for

3132-641: The aftermath of the First World War , most Italians who were ennobled received their titles through the patronage of the Mussolini government. Examples include General Armando Diaz ( Duca della Vittoria ), Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel ( Duca del Mare ), Commodore Luigi Rizzo ( Conte di Grado e di Premuda ), Costanzo Ciano ( Conte di Cortellazzo i Buccari ), Dino Grandi ( Conte di Mordano ) and Cesare Maria de Vecchi ( Conte di Val Cismon ). Many of these were victory titles for services rendered to

3219-508: The age of 12. After the death of Lucrezia's second husband, her father, Pope Alexander VI, arranged a third marriage. She then married Alfonso I d'Este , Duke of Ferrara , in early 1502 in Ferrara . She had eight children during this marriage and was considered a respectable and accomplished Renaissance duchess, effectively rising above her previous reputation and surviving the fall of the Borgias following her father's death. Neither partner

3306-399: The beginning almost as if it had never taken place. In legal terminology, an annulment makes a void marriage or a voidable marriage null. A difference exists between a void marriage and a voidable marriage . A void marriage is a marriage that was not legally valid under the laws of the jurisdiction where the marriage occurred, and is void ab initio . Although the marriage

3393-643: The bust is admirably proportioned." One painting, Portrait of a Youth by Dosso Dossi at the National Gallery of Victoria , was identified as a portrait of Lucrezia in November 2008. This painting may be the only surviving formal portrait of Lucrezia Borgia; however, doubts have been cast on that attribution. Several other paintings, such as Veneto 's fanciful portrait, have also been said to depict her, but none have been accepted by scholars at present. According to Mandell Creighton in his History of

3480-493: The case of the Republic of Genoa , through the Constitutional Reform and the laws of 1528, 1548 and 1575, an aristocratic republic was inaugurated, which would last until 1797. With the constitutional reform of 1528, belonging to a albergo became from optional to compulsory, effectively transforming the alberghi into lists of registration to the city nobility recognized by the government. The reform required that

3567-425: The city was increasingly predisposed to become court nobility, in the direct service of the duke, especially in the field of arms and alliances for war purposes. These families, during this period, played a fundamental role in the politics of the territory, without ever completely outclassing the figure of the duke. Most of the Milanese patriciate is linked to this period, which in the following centuries will constitute

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3654-423: The execution of Giovanni: the generally accepted version is that Lucrezia was informed of this by her brother Cesare , and she warned her husband, who fled Rome. Alexander asked Giovanni's uncle, Cardinal Ascanio Sforza , to persuade Giovanni to agree to an annulment of the marriage. Giovanni refused and accused Lucrezia of paternal incest. The pope asserted that his daughter's marriage had not been consummated and

3741-653: The existence of the Kingdom of Sardinia , the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (before 1816: the Kingdom of Naples and the Kingdom of Sicily ), the Grand Duchy of Tuscany , the Duchy of Parma , the Duchy of Modena , the Duchy of Savoy , the Papal States and the Austrian Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia led to parallel nobilities with different traditions and rules. Modern Italy became a nation-state during

3828-480: The faithful Pars dynamica (trial procedure) Canonization Election of the Roman Pontiff Academic degrees Journals and Professional Societies Faculties of canon law Canonists Institute of consecrated life Society of apostolic life In the canon law of the Catholic Church , an annulment is properly called a "Declaration of Nullity", because according to Catholic doctrine ,

3915-578: The famed French soldier, the Chevalier Bayard while the latter was co-commanding the French allied garrison of Ferrara in 1510. According to his biographer, the Chevalier became a great admirer of Lucrezia's, considering her a "pearl on this Earth". After a long history of complicated pregnancies and miscarriages, on 14 June 1519 Lucrezia gave birth to her tenth child, named Isabella Maria in honor of Alfonso's sister Isabella d'Este . The child

4002-432: The fevered love letters the pair wrote one another. It has been claimed that the affair ended when Francesco contracted syphilis and had to end sexual relations with Lucrezia. This last assertion is troublesome as Francesco had contracted syphilis before 1500 as it was known that he passed the disease onto his eldest son Federico Gonzaga who was born in 1500. Francesco did not meet Lucrezia until 1502. Lucrezia also had

4089-603: The former being noted for traditionally electing the first Doge in 697 AD. The New houses were no less significant, as many became very prominent and important in influencing the history of the Republic of Venice . The families were furthermore divided into several other "categories", including Ducal houses (which gave Doges), Newest houses ( Case nuovissime ), Non-Venetian patricians, and "Houses made for money" (usually very wealthy landowning or bourgeoise families enriched through trade). Although there were numerous noble houses across Venice's home and overseas land possessions,

4176-698: The king of Italy for titles of nobility. For example, Marshal Pietro Badoglio was created Marchese del Sabotino and later Duke of Addis Abeba , while General Rodolfo Graziani became Marchese di Neghelli . In 1946, the Kingdom of Italy was replaced by a republic . Under the Italian Constitution adopted in 1948, titles of nobility, although still used as a courtesy, are not legally recognised. Certain predicati ( territorial designations ) recognised before 1922 may continue to be attached to surnames and used in legal documents. Often these were historic feudal territories of noble families. Although

4263-455: The lute, poetry, and oration. The biggest testament to her intelligence is her ability in administration, as later on in life she took care of Vatican City correspondence and governance of Ferrara . On 26 February 1491, a matrimonial arrangement was drawn up between Lucrezia and the Lord of Val D'Ayora , in the Kingdom of Valencia , Don Cherubino Joan de Centelles (d. 1522). The arrangement

4350-402: The marriage. Grounds for Faskh are: (a) irregular marriage ( fasid ), (b) forbidden marriage ( batil ), (c) the marriage was contracted by non-Muslim husband who adopted Islam after marriage, (d) the husband or wife became an apostate after marriage, (e) husband is unable to consummate the marriage. In each of these cases, the wife must provide four independent witnesses acceptable to

4437-466: The mistresses of Lucrezia's father, Cardinal Rodrigo de Borgia (later Pope Alexander VI ). During her early life, Lucrezia Borgia's education was entrusted to Adriana Orsini de Milan, a close confidant of her father. Her education would primarily take place in the Palazzo Pizzo de Merlo, a building adjacent to her father's residence. Unlike most educated women of her time, for whom convents were

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4524-428: The moment depicted (a Franciscan friar kissing Lucrezia's feet) was invented by the artist. Lucrezia was mother to seven or eight known children: Giovanni Borgia , " infans Romanus " ("Child of Rome", c. 1498–1548) had his paternity acknowledged by Alexander and Cesare in two Papal bulls, but it was rumoured that he was the child of Lucrezia and Perotto. The child (identified in later life as Lucrezia's half-brother)

4611-597: The most important families, who dominated the politics and the history of the state, include those such as the Contarini , Cornaro , Dandolo , Giustiniani , Loredan , Mocenigo , Arellano , Morosini and the Venier families. In the years preceding the political and social movement that resulted in the consolidation of different states of the Italian Peninsula into a single state, the Kingdom of Italy ,

4698-578: The municipality of Milan were listed, therefore considered the most faithful and ancient nobility in the future lifetime of the city. From 5 September 1395 the Dukes of Milan officially obtained the right to grant nobility to as many nobles as there were, consistent with the recognition of the Duchy of Milan . During the whole ducal period, first of the Visconti and then of the Sforza , the nobility residing in

4785-475: The nation in the Great War. The writer and aviator Gabriele d'Annunzio was created Principe di Montenevoso in 1924, and the physicist, inventor, and Nobel laureate Guglielmo Marconi was also ennobled in 1924 as Marchese Marconi . In 1937, Ettore Tolomei was ennobled as Conte della Vetta . When Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli became Pope in 1939, Mussolini had the title of Principe posthumously bestowed on

4872-551: The new Pontiff's brother Francesco Pacelli , who had already been made a Marchese by the Holy See during his lifetime. In 1929, the Lateran Treaty acknowledged all Papal titles created before that date and undertook to give unquestioned recognition to titles conferred by the Holy See on Italian citizens in the future. After the successful Italian invasion of Abyssinia , the Mussolini government recommended some Italians to

4959-533: The other Italian states, the Consulta Araldica (the Italian college of arms) integrated these different and varied systems into the hierarchy described below. The official ranks under the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946) were: This hierarchy resulted from the overlapping of titles granted by the pre-unification states, though these were different from each other. By 1946, with abolition of the monarchy,

5046-491: The other hand, is viewed as returning the property after a consummated sale. The Pope may dispense from a marriage ratum sed non consummatum since, having been ratified ( ratum ) but not consummated ( sed non-consummatum ), it is not absolutely unbreakable. A valid natural marriage is not regarded as a sacrament if at least one of the parties is not baptized . In certain circumstances it can be dissolved in cases of Pauline privilege and Petrine privilege , but only for

5133-399: The petition of one of the parties to the marriage or, if a party is under a legal disability, by a third party representative such as a parent or legal guardian. The legal distinction between void and voidable marriages can be significant in relation to forced marriage . In a jurisdiction that classifies forced marriages as void, then the state can cancel the marriage even against the will of

5220-602: The primary source for knowledge, her education came from within the sphere of intellectuals in the court and close relatives, and it included a solid grounding in the Humanities , which the Catholic Church was reviving at the time. She was a thoroughly accomplished princess, fluent in Spanish, Catalan , Italian, and French, which prepared her for advantageous marriage to any European monarch or prince, and literate in both Latin and Greek . She would also become proficient in

5307-429: The relationship was a putative marriage , which gives rise to "natural obligations". In canon law, children conceived or born of either a valid or a putative marriage are considered legitimate, and illegitimate children are legitimized by a putative marriage of their parents, as by a valid marriage. Certain conditions are necessary for the marriage contract to be valid in canon law. Lack of any of these conditions makes

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5394-555: The retroactive dispensation from a diriment impediment). Some impediments may be dispensed from, while those de jure divino (of divine law) may not be dispensed. In some countries, such as Italy , in which Catholic Church marriages are automatically transcribed to the civil records, a Church declaration of nullity may be granted the exequatur and treated as the equivalent of a civil divorce. Annulments are granted by certain Independent Catholic denominations, such as

5481-432: The sake of the higher good of the spiritual welfare of one of the parties. The Church holds the exchange of consent between the spouses to be the indispensable element that "makes the marriage". The consent consists in a "human act by which the partners mutually give themselves to each other": "I take you to be my wife" – "I take you to be my husband." This consent that binds the spouses to each other finds its fulfillment in

5568-506: The sight of God. A minute before they say their vows, either can call off the wedding. After they say it, the couple must go through a divorce or annulment to undo the marriage. Faskh means "to annul" in Islam . It is a Sharia -granted procedure to judicially rescind a marriage. A man does not need grounds to divorce his wife in Islam. To divorce, he can simply invoke Talaq and part with

5655-534: The situation by the competent ecclesiastical tribunal, can declare the nullity of a marriage, i.e., that the marriage never existed. In this case the contracting parties are free to marry, provided the natural obligations of a previous union are discharged. – Catechism of the Catholic Church , 1626–1629 Although an annulment is thus a declaration that "the marriage never existed", the Church recognizes that

5742-536: The son of Pope Alexander VI. Lucrezia's name is not mentioned in either, and rumours that she was his mother have never been proven. The second bull was kept secret for many years, and Giovanni was assumed to be Cesare's son. This is supported by the fact that in 1502 he became Duke of Camerino , one of Cesare's recent conquests, hence the natural inheritance of the Duke of Romagna 's oldest son. Giovanni went to stay with Lucrezia in Ferrara after Alexander's death, where he

5829-510: The special position of Cardinal-Nephew . Prominent families could purchase curial offices for their sons and regularly did, hoping that the son would rise through Church ranks to become a Bishop or a Cardinal, from which position they could dispense further titles and positions of authority to other family members. The period was famous for papal nepotism and many families, such as the Barberini and Pamphili, benefited greatly from having

5916-657: The spouses. In contrast, if the law provides that a forced marriage is voidable then, even if it can be proved that the marriage was forced, the state cannot act to end the marriage in the absence of an application by a spouse. Jus novum ( c.  1140 -1563) Jus novissimum ( c.  1563 -1918) Jus codicis (1918-present) Other Sacraments Sacramentals Sacred places Sacred times Supra-diocesan/eparchal structures Particular churches Juridic persons Philosophy, theology, and fundamental theory of Catholic canon law Clerics Office Juridic and physical persons Associations of

6003-403: The two "becoming one flesh". If consent is lacking there is no marriage. The consent must be an act of the will of each of the contracting parties, free of coercion or grave external fear. No human power can substitute for this consent. If this freedom is lacking the marriage is invalid. For this reason (or for other reasons that render the marriage null and void) the Church, after an examination of

6090-529: The use of these titles usually required some form of sovereign award or feudal tenure. During the Renaissance, noble families conquered most of the Italian city-states except the republics of Venice, Genoa , Lucca , San Marino and Ragusa . Until 1806, parts of the present-day Italy formed the Kingdom of Italy, belonging to the Holy Roman Empire . When in 1861 the king of Sardinia annexed

6177-504: The various regional senates or appointment to Catholic Church office. There were also families which had been part of Italian nobility for many decades or even centuries. Writing in the 19th century, Leopold von Ranke recorded: In the middle of the 17th century there were computed to be fifty noble families in Rome of three hundred years' standing, thirty-five of two hundred, and sixteen of one hundred years. None were permitted to claim

6264-418: The wealthiest citizens who owned six or more houses should originate a distinct albergo. On that occasion, it was decided to establish a single Order of noble citizens, otherwise known as Old Nobles, divided into twenty-three old and already existing alberghi and five new ones were created for the occasion. These associations were to prevent the resurgence of ancient hostilities and protect the wealth and power of

6351-500: The wealthiest families. The Florentine , and later Tuscan nobility distinguished itself in the two classes of Patricians, recognized as noble since before 1532, belonging to the Order of Saint Stephen , and residing only in the ancient noble homelands: Florence , Siena , Pisa , Pistoia , Arezzo , Volterra , Montepulciano and Cortona . And of the nobles, simple nobility, civic nobility, senators and commanders, with residence of

6438-477: Was Lord of Pesaro and titled Count of Catignola. Giovanni was an illegitimate son of Costanzo I Sforza and therefore a Sforza of the second rank. He married Lucrezia on 12 June 1493 in Rome. Before long, the Borgia family no longer needed the Sforzas, and the presence of Giovanni Sforza in the papal court was superfluous. The Pope needed new, more advantageous political alliances, so he might have covertly ordered

6525-434: Was abbreviated, in front of the name, by the initials N.H. ( Nobil Homo ), together with the feminine variant N.D. ( Nobildonna ). Holding the title of a Venetian patrician was a great honour and many European kings and princes, as well as foreign noble families, are known to have asked for and obtained the prestigious title. The noble houses were primarily divided into Old ( Case vecchie ) and New houses ( Case nuove ), with

6612-523: Was accepted as her half-brother. Following her annulment from Sforza, Lucrezia was married to the Neapolitan Alfonso of Aragon , the half-brother of Sancha of Aragon who was the wife of Lucrezia's brother Gioffre Borgia . The marriage was a short one. They were married in 1498, making Lucrezia the Duchess consort of Bisceglie and Princess consort of Salerno. Lucrezia – not her husband –

6699-480: Was an illegitimate son of the King of Naples and tradition has it that Lucrezia's brother Cesare Borgia may have had him murdered after his political value waned. Rumors about her and her family cast Lucrezia as a femme fatale , a role in which she has been portrayed in many artworks, novels and films. Lucrezia Borgia was born on 18 April 1480 at Subiaco , near Rome . Her mother was Vannozza dei Cattanei , one of

6786-409: Was annulled less than two months later in favor of a new contract engaging Lucrezia to Don Gaspare Aversa, Count of Procida (1476-1534). When Rodrigo became Pope Alexander VI, he sought to be allied with powerful princely families and founding dynasties of Italy. He therefore called off Lucrezia's previous engagements and arranged for her to marry Giovanni Sforza , a member of the House of Sforza who

6873-496: Was appointed governor of Spoleto in 1499; Alfonso fled Rome shortly afterwards but returned at Lucrezia's request, only to be murdered in 1500. It was widely rumoured that Lucrezia's brother Cesare was responsible for Alfonso's death, as he had recently allied himself (through marriage) with France against Naples. Lucrezia and Alfonso had one child, Rodrigo of Aragon , who was born in 1499 and predeceased his mother in August 1512 at

6960-433: Was denied by other sources. A child was born, however, in the Borgia household the year before Lucrezia's marriage to Alfonso of Aragon . He was named Giovanni but is known to historians as the " Infans Romanus ". In 1501, two papal bulls were issued concerning the child, Giovanni Borgia. In the first, he was recognized as Cesare's child from an affair before his marriage. The second, contradictory, bull recognized him as

7047-399: Was faithful: beginning in 1503, Lucrezia enjoyed a long relationship with her brother-in-law, Francesco II Gonzaga, Marquess of Mantua . Francesco's wife was the cultured intellectual Isabella d'Este , the sister of Alfonso, to whom Lucrezia had made overtures of friendship to no avail. The affair between Francesco and Lucrezia was passionate, more sexual than sentimental as can be attested in

7134-432: Was most likely the result of a liaison between Rodrigo Borgia (Pope Alexander VI, Lucrezia's father) and an unknown mistress and was not Lucrezia's child. Maria Bellonci and maybe other biographers claim that Lucrezia gave birth to three children who did not survive infancy, one by Alfonso of Aragon and two by Alfonso d'Este. She is also thought to have had at least four miscarriages. Italian nobility Nobles had

7221-525: Was not until the Norman invasion of 1061, led by Roger I de Hauteville , that the Sicilian aristocracy and feudal system took root. Over the centuries, established noble families were advanced through the aristocratic ranks. By the 18th century, the titles principe , duca and marchese were held by many men whose ancestors, only several centuries earlier, had been barons and lords. Conte , signore and cavaliere are titles that have been used by

7308-499: Was not, however, as frequent in Italy as elsewhere. Joseph Bonaparte conferred the title "prince" to be hereditary on his children and grandchildren. Often, Italian comunes (also in the Kingdom of Naples ) and republics granted or recognised the title of Patrician (post-Roman Europe) The Republic of Venice also granted feudal titles. In the Middle Ages: The majority of feudatories were simply signori (from

7395-563: Was rumoured that Lucrezia was in possession of a hollow ring that she used to poison drinks. However, no historical basis for these accusations exists beyond the attacks of her enemies. An early 20th-century painting by Frank Cadogan Cowper that hangs in the Tate Britain art gallery in London portrays Lucrezia taking the place of her father, Pope Alexander VI, at an official Vatican meeting. This apparently documents an event, although

7482-422: Was sickly and – fearing she would die unbaptised – Alfonso ordered her to be baptized immediately, with Eleonora Pico della Mirandola and Count Alexandro Serafino as godparents. Lucrezia had become very weak during the pregnancy and fell seriously ill after the birth. After seeming to recover for two days, she worsened again and died on 24 June the same year. She was buried in the convent of Corpus Domini . She

7569-547: Was thus invalid. Giovanni was offered her dowry in return for his cooperation. The Sforza family threatened to withdraw their protection should he refuse. Giovanni finally signed confessions of impotence and documents of annulment before witnesses. There has been speculation that during the prolonged process of the annulment, Lucrezia consummated a relationship with someone, perhaps Alexander's chamberlain Pedro Calderon, also named Perotto. In any case, families hostile to

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