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46-730: The word " Hu " (胡) is often translated to English as "barbarian" and was a term used in ancient times to refer to non- Han Chinese people living north or west of the Central Plains , and the Lushuihu resided in an area known as the "Lushui" (盧水) or "Lu River". Due to the wide distribution of the Lushuihu population, there are three locations generally believed to be where the Lu River flowed; Huangzhong in Qinghai , Zhangye in Gansu , or

92-685: A Hu (胡), and a Yidi (夷狄). Indo-European "Scythian" Sakas from Central Asia , or the Yuezhi would also be referred as "Hu". Some northeastern barbarians were also referred as the Donghu ("Eastern Hu"). During the Han dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE) and Jin dynasty (266–420 CE) "Hu" tends to refer to the Five Barbarians (五胡), which are the Xiongnu , Xianbei , Jie , Di , and Qiang . Later, "Hu"

138-590: A Lushuihu from Anding, Liu Chao (劉超) also rebelled but was quickly suppressed. In 447, the Wei had many members of the Juqu clan, including Juqu Mujian put to death, and by 460, the Juqu in Wei and Gaochang were wiped out. During the reign of Emperor Wencheng of Northern Wei (452–465), more than 800 tribes of the Lushuihu in Xingcheng submitted to Wei. However, during the reign of Emperor Xianwen of Northern Wei (465–471),

184-649: A dominant confederacy empire during the Chu-Han contention and the early Han dynasty . During the reign of Emperor Wen of Han , Modu's son Laoshang Chanyu defeated Yuezhi again in 162 BCE , forcing the westward exodus of majority of the Yuezhi survivors (later known as the Greater Yuezhi) into Central Asia, while the small portion of Yuezhi population that didn't migrate (known as the Lesser Yuezhi)

230-615: A formal peace treaty in 821. The terms of this treaty, including fixed borders between the two countries, are recorded in a bilingual inscription on a stone pillar outside the Jokhang in Lhasa . The Western Xia dynasty was established in the 11th century by the Tangut people . Western Xia controlled from 1038 CE up to 1227 CE the areas in what are now the northwestern Chinese provinces of Gansu , Shaanxi , and Ningxia . Genghis Khan began

276-404: A rebellion broke out in Xingcheng led by Gai Pingding (蓋平定) that was eventually put down. From here on after, the Lushuihu ceased to be mentioned in history, as they presumably assimilated into the rest of Chinese society. Hu (people) Hu ( Chinese : 胡 ; pinyin : Hú ; Wade–Giles : Hu ; IPA : [xǔ] ) also Huren (胡人, "Hu people") or Huzu (胡族, "Hu tribes"),

322-586: A specific group or tribe, which the records allow us to identify as early steppe nomads. The Hu were the source of the introduction of cavalry in China." During the pre- Qin dynasty (before 221 BCE) period, the term "Hu" (胡) came to be used to designate the Xiongnu barbarians to the north of China. The vassal of the Xiongnu, and later confidant of Emperor Han Wudi , Jin Midi (134–86 BCE) would be described as both

368-656: Is a string of oases along the northern edges of the Qilian Mountains and Altyn-Tagh , with the high and desolate Tibetan Plateau further to the south. To the north are the Longshou, Heli and Mazong Mountains separating it from the arid Badain Jaran Desert , Gobi Desert and the cold steppes of the Mongolian Plateau . At the western end, the route splits into three, going either north of

414-724: The Northern Chanyu , who retreated into the Altai Mountains . The Han forces, allied with the subjugated Southern Xiongnu, again defeated the Northern Chanyu twice in 90 CE and 91 CE, forcing him to flee west into Wusun and Kangju territories. The Tang dynasty fought the Tibetan Empire for control of areas in Inner and Central Asia. There was a long string of conflicts with Tibet over territories in

460-628: The Northern Liang dynasty , the Juqu held considerable power over his reign. In 401, Juqu Mengxun seized the throne after killing Juqu Nancheng and Duan Ye, and the Juqu ruled Northern Liang for the majority of its existence. The Northern Liang gained full control over the Hexi Corridor after destroying their rival Western Liang in 421. However, as the Northern Wei dynasty encroached on their borders, they submitted as vassals to

506-810: The Rouran Khaganate in 460. The Juqu had a strong interest in Buddhism , with Juqu Mengxun appointing a monk, Dharmakṣema , as a trusted political advisor and translator of Buddhist literature . It was under them that the first Buddhist cave shrines began appearing in Gansu, the most famous of them being Tiantishan (天梯山石窟; "Celestial Ladder Mountain") in Wuwei and Wenshushan (文殊山石窟; " Manjushri's Mountain") in Zhangye . The earliest decorated Mogao Caves , caves 268, 272 and 275, were also built and decorated by

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552-661: The Tarim Basin between 670 and 692. In 763 the Tibetans even captured the Tang capital of Chang'an for fifteen days during the An Lushan Rebellion . It was during this rebellion that the Tang withdrew its western garrisons stationed in what is now Gansu and Qinghai , which the Tibetans then occupied along with the area that is modern Xinjiang . Hostilities between the Tang and Tibet continued until they signed

598-655: The Tianshan Mountains or south on either side of the Tarim Basin . At the eastern end, the mountains around Lanzhou grants access to the Longxi Basin , which leads east through Mount Long along the Wei River valley into the populous Guanzhong Plain , and then into the Central Plain . The Hexi Corridor is located in western Gansu province, bordered to the south by the Qilian Mountains and to

644-673: The conquest of the Jin dynasty around 1207 and Ögedei Khan continued it after his death in 1227. The Jurchen -led Jin dynasty fell in 1234 CE with help from the Han -ruled Southern Song dynasty . Ögedei also conquered the Western Xia dynasty in 1227, pacifying the Hexi Corridor region, which was later absorbed into the Yuan dynasty . The Hexi Corridor is a long, narrow passage stretching for some 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) from

690-549: The 7th century CE. Hexi Corridor The Hexi Corridor ( / h ə ˈ ʃ iː / hə-SHEE ), also known as the Gansu Corridor , is an important historical region located in the modern western Gansu province of China . It refers to a narrow stretch of traversable and relatively arable plain west of the Yellow River 's Ordos Loop (hence the name Hexi , meaning 'west of the river'), flanked between

736-517: The Hexi Corridor typically farmed millet and wheat, while keeping livestock such as sheep, pigs, cattle and horses as well as producing bronze objects. Bronze age societies in the Hexi Corridor at this time include the Qijia , Xichengyi , Siba , Shajing , and Shanma cultures. The Hexi Corridor underwent further aridification around 3500 BP during the Iron Age , and cultures at the time (such as

782-482: The Hexi Corridor, and he was held a captive for ten years, until he finally escaped and continued his mission further west. He eventually arrived at Yuezhi territory, but was unable to convince the Yuezhi leaders to ally against Xiongnu. On his return journey he was once again captured by Xiongnu while traversing the Hexi Corridor, but again managed to escape two years later. He finally returned to Chang'an in 125 BCE , bringing back invaluable detailed information about

828-614: The Hexi corridor at this time, such as the Majiayao , Banshan , and Machang . The oldest bronze object to be discovered in China, dating to around 5000-4500   BP, was found at a Majiayao site in the Hexi Corridor, and the Bronze Age began in the Hexi Corridor around 4200   BP with the arrival of bronze-smelting technology. Domesticated livestock were also introduced to the area around this time, so Bronze Age cultures of

874-607: The Northern Liang between 419 and 439. The last ruler of Northern Liang, Juqu Mujian and 30,000 of his subjects were relocated near the Northern Wei capital, Pingcheng . In the years following the Liang's demise, a series of Lushuihu rebellions would break out in Wei. In 444, Mujian's brother, Juqu Bing (沮渠秉) plotted a rebellion but was discovered and executed. In 445, a Lushuihu from Xingcheng, Hao Wen (郝溫) revolted and

920-650: The Northern Xiongnu in 73 AD. While a subject of the Chinese court, the Lushuihu were also known to occasionally rebel. In 77 AD, they joined the Qiang leader, Miwu in rebellion, and rebelled again in 86. The Lushuihu later came under the rule of the Cao Wei dynasty , and in 222, led by their leaders Zhiyuanduo (治元多) and Yijiianjiqie (伊健妓妾), they rebelled in the Hexi Corridor but was defeated by Wei forces. After

966-645: The Peng (彭) clan of Anding Commandery and the Hao (郝) clan of Xingcheng (杏城, in modern Yan'an , Shaanxi ). The Juqu clan was a Lushuihu family from Linsong Commandery (臨松郡) in modern-day Zhangye, Gansu. Their ancestors once served under the Xiongnu empire holding the title of "Juqu" of the Right of Xiongnu (匈奴左沮渠), and so they adopted it as their family name. The Juqu then submitted to the Han dynasty, and centuries later, they entered

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1012-557: The Shajing culture) saw a decrease in their number of settlements and became dominated by nomadic production rather than agriculture. At the end of the Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE), the Yuezhi overcame previous settlers, the Wusun and Qiang , occupying the western Hexi Corridor. Later, the newly risen Xiongnu armies under Modu Chanyu vanquished and expelled the Yuezhi , and established

1058-571: The Wei and their southern counterpart, the Liu Song dynasty . The Juqu had access to trade with the Western Regions , and they engaged in a cultural exchange with the Song by trading literature. They were ultimately conquered by Wei in 439, but remnants of the Juqu continued to resist before fleeing and occupying the oasis city of Gaochang in 442, where they remained until their destruction to

1104-676: The Wei was succeeded by the Western Jin dynasty , the Lushuihu colluded with the Xiongnu chief, Hao Duyuan (郝度元) and the Malan Qiang (馬蘭羌) people to rebel in 296, which escalated into Qi Wannian's rebellion and devastated the Guanzhong region. Apart from the imperial family of the Northern Liang , there were several recorded Lushuihu leaders during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Specifically, these Lushuihu people were from

1150-589: The Western Regions, and also cutting the Xiongnu off from their Qiang allies. Again in 111 BCE , Han forces repelled a joint Xiongnu-Qiang invasion, and to consolidate the control of the region, four new commanderies were established in the Hexi Corridor, namely (from east to west) Wuwei , Zhangye , Jiuquan and Dunhuang , collectively known as the Four Commanderies of Hexi ( Chinese : 河西四郡 ). From roughly 115–60 BCE, Han forces fought

1196-657: The Xiongnu again at the Battle of Yiwulu in 73 CE, evicting them from Turpan and chasing them as far as Lake Barkol before establishing a garrison at Hami . After the new Protector General of the Western Regions Chen Mu was killed in 75 CE by allies of the Xiongnu in Karasahr and Kucha , the garrison at Hami was withdrawn. At the Battle of the Altai Mountains in 89 CE, Dou Xian defeated

1242-538: The Xiongnu empire in the 2nd-century BC, the Lesser Yuezhi branch moved to the areas of Xiping (西平; around present-day Xining , Qinghai ) and Zhangye where they intermingled with the Qiang people. While Tang Changru agreed with Zhou's theory, he pointed out that the ancestors of the Lushuihu were once a part of the Xiongnu empire, and that it would not be wrong to broadly refer to them as a Xiongnu branch based on

1288-551: The Xiongnu over control of the oasis city-states in the Tarim Basin . Han was eventually victorious and established the Protectorate of the Western Regions in 60 BCE, which dealt with the region's defense and foreign affairs. During the turbulent reign of Wang Mang , Han lost control over the Tarim Basin, which was reconquered by the Xiongnu in 63 CE and used as a base to invade the Hexi Corridor. Dou Gu defeated

1334-534: The ancient commanderies of Anding and Beidi in Ningxia . Modern Chinese scholars have come up with several theories regarding the Lushuihu. Chen Yinke believed that "Lushuihu" was simply a generic term for non-Han ethnic groups that were living around the Lu River. However, Zhou Yiliang suggested that the Lushuihu were specifically descendants of the Lesser Yuezhi , as after the Yuezhi were defeated by

1380-524: The customs of the time. The Lushuihu first appeared in history in around 57 BC, when they were recorded attacking the Shaohe Qiang (烧何羌) people near modern-day Huangzhong, Qinghai. By 30 AD, they were already vassals of the Han dynasty as evidenced by bamboo inscriptions found in Gansu, likely around the time when the Han official, Dou Rong was governing the Hexi Corridor . They notably served as auxiliaries for his son, Dou Gu in his campaign against

1426-671: The much more elevated and inhospitable terrains of the Mongolian and Tibetan Plateaus. As part of the Northern Silk Road , running northwest from the western section of the Ordos Loop between Yinchuan and Lanzhou , the Hexi Corridor was the most important trade route in Northwest China . It linked China proper to the historic Western Regions for traders and military incursions into Central Asia . It

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1472-498: The north by the Gobi Desert . It extends for approximately 1,000–1,200 kilometres (620–750 mi) from Wushao Mountain in the south to Dunhuang in the north, and covers approximately 5,100 square kilometres (2,000 sq mi). There are several major cities along the Hexi Corridor. From west to east, the major cities are: Dunhuang, Yumen , Jiayuguan , Jiuquan , Zhangye , Jinchang , Wuwei , and finally Lanzhou in

1518-600: The preferred term to designate them was the " Four Barbarians " ( Chinese : 四夷 ; pinyin : sìyí ), each was named for a cardinal direction: the Dongyi (東夷, "Eastern Barbarians"), Nanman (南蠻, "Southern Barbarians"), Xirong (西戎, "Western Barbarians"), and Beidi (北狄, "Northern Barbarians"). According to Di Cosmo , the Chinese considered the Hu as "a new type of foreigner" and "This term, whatever its origin, soon came to indicate an 'anthropological type' rather than

1564-442: The rest of Eurasia and Africa . Wheat and barley from the Fertile Crescent arrived in the Hexi Corridor via Central Asia around 4000 BP, and later spread into China proper . By 3700 BP, most likely due to the weakening and retreat of the East Asian monsoon in the area, the more drought-resistant wheat and barley had replaced millet as the main staple crop in the Hexi Corridor. Several Neolithic cultures developed in

1610-448: The same negative overtones of the English term, this was not always the case. Most frequently, it was used to denote people, usually of Caucasoid or partial Caucasoid appearance, living to the north and west of China. Ancient Chinese dynasties such as the Shang dynasty and Zhou dynasty , into the Spring and Autumn period , recount of numerous encounters with the nomadic tribes of the northern steppes and other alien tribes. At that time,

1656-406: The service of the Di -led Later Liang dynasty . In 397, after the Liang's disastrous campaign against the Western Qin dynasty , two of their members were falsely accused and executed. The cousins, Juqu Mengxun and Juqu Nancheng , rebelled in response, and they backed the Administrator of Jiankang, Duan Ye , who was Han Chinese , as their leader. While Duan Ye is recognized as the first ruler of

1702-461: The south; the Beishan ("northern mountains") mountainous area, the Alashan Plateau , and the vast expanse of the Gobi desert to the north. Geologically, the Hexi Corridor belongs to a Cenozoic foreland basin system on the northeast margin of the Tibetan Plateau . The ancient trackway formerly passed through Haidong , Xining and the environs of Juyan Lake , serving an effective area of about 215,000 km (83,000 sq mi). It

1748-428: The southeast. Just south of the provincial boundary of Gansu lies Xining , the capital of Qinghai Province, which served as the chief commercial hub of the Hexi Corridor along the Northern Silk Road . The Hexi Corridor was first settled around 4800 BP by Chinese millet farmers from the Yangshao Culture in the western Loess Plateau , who enabled the transfer of millet to Central Asia , and consequently to

1794-409: The southeast. In the past, Dunhuang was part of the area known as the Western Regions . South of Gansu Province, in the middle just over the provincial boundary, lies the city of Xining , the capital of Qinghai Province. Xining used to be the chief commercial hub of the Hexi Corridor. The Jiayuguan fort guards the western entrance to China. It is located in Jiayuguan pass at the narrowest point of

1840-454: The steep Wushaolin hillside near the modern city of Lanzhou to the Jade Gate at the border of Gansu and Xinjiang . There are many fertile oases along the path, watered by rivers flowing from the Qilian Mountains , such as the Shiyang , Jinchuan , Ejin (Heihe), and Shule Rivers. A strikingly inhospitable environment surrounds this chain of oases: the snow-capped Qilian Mountains (the so-called "southern mountains" or "Nanshan") to

1886-416: The various Central Asian kingdoms such as Dayuan , Daxia and Kangju , as well as other farther countries such as Anxi , Tiaozhi , Shendu and Wusun . During the Han–Xiongnu War , Han general Huo Qubing expelled the Xiongnu from the Hexi Corridor and even drove them from Lop Nur when King Hunye surrendered to Huo Qubing in 121 BCE . The Han Empire acquired a new territory with trade access to

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1932-467: Was a rather vague term to designate ancient barbarians, namely populations beyond the Central Plains , generally to the north and west of the Huaxia realm. The Hu are usually horse or mounted nomads. According to Hill (2009): The term hu 胡 was used to denote non- Han Chinese populations. It is, rather unsatisfactorily, commonly translated as 'barbarian'. While sometimes it was used in this general way to describe people of non-Han descent, and carried

1978-496: Was also used to designate various groups of Iranians in China , especially the Sogdians , whose cultural practices would be qualified as "Hu", such as their dance the " Huteng " (胡腾, "Barbarian hopping"), or the Sogdian Whirl dance (胡旋, Húxuăn , "Whirling Barbarian", also 胡旋舞, Húxuănwǔ , "Dance of the Whirling Barbarian"), but known as "Sogdian Whirl dance" or simply "Sogdian whirl" to Western scholars. The " Jihu " (稽胡) were indigenous inhabitants of Shaanbei and Western Shanxi in

2024-436: Was an area where mountain and desert limited caravan traffic to a narrow trackway , where relatively small fortifications could control passing traffic. There are several major cities along the Hexi Corridor. In western Gansu Province is Dunhuang (Shazhou), then Yumen , then Jiayuguan , then Jiuquan ( Suzhou ), then Zhangye ( Ganzhou ) in the center, then Jinchang , then Wuwei ( Liangzhou ) and finally Lanzhou in

2070-431: Was defeated, but later that year, another Xingcheng Lushuihu, Gai Wu staged an even bigger rebellion. With support from the various "Hu" people, Gai Wu's followers reached 100,000 and spread throughout the Guanzhong, lasting until late the following year. Buddhist monks in Chang'an were accused of conspiring with Gai Wu, which led to their execution in the First Buddhist Persecution . Shortly after Gai Wu's defeat in 446,

2116-450: Was forced to mixed among the Qiang people and become the subjects of Xiongnu's Worthy Prince of the Right . At this point, the Hexi Corridor was under complete Xiongnu control, mainly occupied by the two tribes of Hunye and Xiutu . In 138 BCE , Emperor Wu sent Zhang Qian as the ambassador to the Western Regions in an attempt to make contact with Greater Yuezhi. Zhang Qian's envoy was intercepted by Xiongnu while travelling through

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