The Lusones ( Greek : Lousones ) were an ancient Celtiberian (Pre- Roman ) people of the Iberian Peninsula (the Roman Hispania ), who lived in the high Tajuña River valley, northeast of Guadalajara . They were eliminated by the Romans as a significant threat in the end of the 2nd century BC.
39-697: They spoke a variety of the Celtiberian language and were a subdivision of the Celtiberians . There is an overwhelming amount of evidence that the ancestors of the Celtiberian groups were installed in the Meseta area of the Iberian Peninsula from at least 1000 BC and probably much earlier. A mixed people, they included elements of early Italic ( Osco - Latin ) and Gallic affiliation,
78-434: A vernacular language . The revival of Hebrew has been largely successful due to extraordinarily favourable conditions, notably the creation of a nation state (modern Israel in 1948) in which it became the official language, as well as Eliezer Ben-Yehuda 's extreme dedication to the revival of the language, by creating new words for the modern terms Hebrew lacked. Revival attempts for minor extinct languages with no status as
117-420: A historical language may remain in use as a literary or liturgical language long after it ceases to be spoken natively. Such languages are sometimes also referred to as "dead languages", but more typically as classical languages . The most prominent Western example of such a language is Latin , and comparable cases are found throughout world history due to the universal tendency to retain a historical stage of
156-407: A language as the liturgical language . In a view that prioritizes written representation over natural language acquisition and evolution, historical languages with living descendants that have undergone significant language change may be considered "extinct", especially in cases where they did not leave a corpus of literature or liturgy that remained in widespread use (see corpus language ), as
195-693: A list of names. (K.01.01.A) An inscription in the Latin alphabet in the Celtiberian sanctuary of Peñalba de Villastar , in the current municipality of Villastar , Teruel province. (K.03.03) Other translations, which differ dramatically from this and from each other, may be found in P. Sims-Williams' treatment of the Celtic languages in The Indo-European Languages . A bronze plaque found in Torrijo del Campo, Teruel province in 1996, using
234-509: A liturgical language typically have more modest results. The Cornish language revival has proven at least partially successful: after a century of effort there are 3,500 claimed native speakers, enough for UNESCO to change its classification from "extinct" to "critically endangered". A Livonian language revival movement to promote the use of the Livonian language has managed to train a few hundred people to have some knowledge of it. This
273-518: A new generation of native speakers. The optimistic neologism " sleeping beauty languages" has been used to express such a hope, though scholars usually refer to such languages as dormant. In practice, this has only happened on a large scale successfully once: the revival of the Hebrew language . Hebrew had survived for millennia since the Babylonian exile as a liturgical language, but not as
312-501: A reduplicated infinitive form in ti-za-unei if from * d i-d h 1 -mn-ei "to place." Celtiberian syntax is considered to have the basic order subject–object–verb . Another archaic Indo-European feature is the use of the relative pronoun jos and the repetition of enclitised conjunctions such as k e . One of four bronze plaques found in Botorrita , this text was written in eastern Celtiberian script . The other side consists of
351-416: A substantial trace as a substrate in the language that replaces it. There have, however, also been cases where the language of higher prestige did not displace the native language but left a superstrate influence. The French language for example shows evidence both of a Celtic substrate and a Frankish superstrate. Institutions such as the education system, as well as (often global) forms of media such as
390-489: Is paraphyletic : no evidence suggests the two shared any common innovation separately from Insular Celtic . According to Ranko Matasovic in the introduction to his 2009 Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic : "Celtiberian...is almost certainly an independent branch on the Celtic genealogical tree, one that became separated from the others very early." Celtiberian has a fully inflected relative pronoun ios (as does, for instance, Ancient Greek), an ancient feature that
429-399: Is a dead language that still serves as a symbol of ethnic identity to an ethnic group ; these languages are often undergoing a process of revitalisation . Languages that have first-language speakers are known as modern or living languages to contrast them with dead languages, especially in educational contexts. In the modern period , languages have typically become extinct as a result of
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#1732772074629468-404: Is an s - subjunctive , gabiseti "he shall take" (Old Irish gabid ), robiseti , auseti . Compare Umbrian ferest "he/she/it shall make" or Ancient Greek δείξῃ deiksēi (aorist subj.) / δείξει deiksei (future ind.) "(that) he/she/it shall show". Celtiberian was a Celtic language that shows the characteristic sound changes of Celtic languages such as: Final *-m
507-507: Is preserved in Celtiberian (and Lepontic), a further indication of these dialects' conservatism. It is generally fronted to -n in Gaulish (exceptional cases, for instance on the Larzac tablet , are probably due to influence from Latin): boustom "stable." An -n- stem can be seen in melmu nom.sg. < *-ōn, melmunos gen. sg. (from Botorrita III, probably a name). It is notable that
546-540: Is the case with Old English or Old High German relative to their contemporary descendants, English and German. Some degree of misunderstanding can result from designating languages such as Old English and Old High German as extinct, or Latin dead, while ignoring their evolution as a language or as many languages. This is expressed in the apparent paradox "Latin is a dead language, but Latin never died." A language such as Etruscan , for example, can be said to be both extinct and dead: inscriptions are ill understood even by
585-894: Is the nominative singular masculine of the relative pronoun from Proto-Indo-European *yo- (Sanskrit ya- , Greek hos ), which shows up in Old Irish only as the aspiration for leniting relative verb forms. Line 7 has the accusative singular io-m and the dative singular io-mui of the same root. The Indo-European third person verbal ending system seems to be evident, though the exact meaning of many verbs remains unclear: primary singular active * -ti in ambitise-ti (Botorrita I, A.5), '(that someone) builds around > encloses' from *h₂m̥b i-dʰingʰ-s-e-ti, and auzeti , secondary * -t > /θ/ written <z> in terbere-z (SP.02.08, B-4) and perhaps kombalke-z ; primary plural active *- nti in ara-nti (Z.09.24, A-4) and zizonti "they sow" (or perhaps "they give" with assimilation of
624-624: The Arevaci and Pellendones the anti-Roman uprisings that rocked Celtiberia throughout most of the 1st Century BC. These revolts served only to weaken the Lusones' military however, and by mid-Century they had been driven out from the right bank of the Ebro by the Vascones , who seized four of their key border towns including Grachurris. The Lusones virtually disappear from the historical record upon
663-477: The Celtiberian Wars against Rome , until the destruction of Numantia brought the collapse of the alliance in 134-133 BC. Prior to that, they were defeated by Proconsul Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus in 142 BC and despite being forcibly incorporated into Hispania Citerior province, they continued to resist Roman authority for decades. Remaining warlike as ever, the Lusones plotted with
702-501: The "kill the Indian, save the man" policy of American Indian boarding schools and other measures was to prevent Native Americans from transmitting their native language to the next generation and to punish children who spoke the language of their culture of origin. The French vergonha policy likewise had the aim of eradicating minority languages. Language revival is the attempt to re-introduce an extinct language in everyday use by
741-468: The Internet, television, and print media play a significant role in the process of language loss. For example, when people migrate to a new country, their children attend school in the country, and the schools are likely to teach them in the majority language of the country rather than their parents' native language. Language death can also be the explicit goal of government policy. For example, part of
780-714: The Lusones near the Tajo headwaters, whereas the historian Appian places them along the Ebro . In fact, their lands were located in the Aragonese region along the middle Ebro , on the Moncayo range (Latin: Mons Chaunus ) between the Queiles and Huecha rivers, occupying the western Zaragoza and most of Soria , stretching to the northeastern fringe of nearby Guadalajara and southern Navarre provinces. Their presumed capital
819-550: The currently spoken languages will have become extinct by 2050. Normally the transition from a spoken to an extinct language occurs when a language undergoes language death by being directly replaced by a different one. For example, many Native American languages were replaced by Dutch , English , French , Portuguese , or Spanish as a result of European colonization of the Americas . In contrast to an extinct language, which no longer has any speakers, or any written use,
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#1732772074629858-496: The dominant lingua francas of world commerce: English, Mandarin Chinese , Spanish, and French. In their study of contact-induced language change, American linguists Sarah Grey Thomason and Terrence Kaufman (1991) stated that in situations of cultural pressure (where populations are forced to speak a dominant language), three linguistic outcomes may occur: first – and most commonly – a subordinate population may shift abruptly to
897-453: The dominant language, leaving the native language to a sudden linguistic death. Second, the more gradual process of language death may occur over several generations. The third and most rare outcome is for the pressured group to maintain as much of its native language as possible, while borrowing elements of the dominant language's grammar (replacing all, or portions of, the grammar of the original language). A now disappeared language may leave
936-771: The early 1st century BC, labeled Botorrita I, III and IV (Botorrita II is in Latin ). Shorter and more fragmentary is the Novallas bronze tablet . Under the P/Q Celtic hypothesis , and like its Iberian relative Gallaecian , Celtiberian is classified as a Q Celtic language, putting it in the same category as Goidelic and not P-Celtic like Gaulish or Brittonic . Under the Insular/Continental Celtic hypothesis , Celtiberian and Gaulish are grouped together as Continental Celtic languages but this grouping
975-409: The eastern Celtiberian script. Extinct language An extinct language is a language with no living descendants that no longer has any first-language or second-language speakers. In contrast, a dead language is a language that no longer has any first-language speakers, but does have second-language speakers or is used fluently in written form, such as Latin . A dormant language
1014-570: The end of the Sertorian Wars in 72 BC, and little is known from them afterwards though is likely that they merged with – or were absorbed by – their neighbours the Belli and Titii. Celtiberian language Celtiberian or Northeastern Hispano-Celtic is an extinct Indo-European language of the Celtic branch spoken by the Celtiberians in an area of the Iberian Peninsula between
1053-589: The foundations of both the ‘bandit town’ of Complega (site unknown; Celtiberian mint: Kemelon ) and the Roman colony of Grachurris ( Eras de San Martín , Alhama – La Rioja ) by Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus the Elder in 181 BC. The Lusones joined their neighbours the Arevaci , Belli and Titii into the Celtiberian Confederacy in the 3rd-2nd centuries BC and fought alongside their allies in
1092-414: The genitive singular -o- stem ends in -o in Celtiberian, unlike the rest of Celtic (and Italic) where this ending is -ī There is also a potential Vocative case, however this is very poorly attested, with only an ambiguous -e ending for o-stem nouns being cited in literature. Forms of the masculine singular relative pronoun *yo- can be found in the first Botorrita plaque : The form io-s in line 10
1131-523: The headwaters of the Douro , Tagus , Júcar and Turia rivers and the Ebro river. This language is directly attested in nearly 200 inscriptions dated from the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD, mainly in Celtiberian script , a direct adaptation of the northeastern Iberian script , but also in the Latin alphabet . The longest extant Celtiberian inscriptions are those on three Botorrita plaques , bronze plaques from Botorrita near Zaragoza , dating to
1170-602: The initial do the medial <z>), secondary * -nt perhaps in atibio-n (Z.09.24, A-5), middle voice *- nto in auzanto (Z.09.03, 01) and perhaps esianto (SP.02.08 A-2). A third person imperative *-tо̄d > -tuz perhaps is seen in da-tuz "he must give" (Bronze plaque of Torrijo del Campo), usabituz , bize-tuz (Botorrita I A.5) and dinbituz 'he must build' < *dʰingʰ-bī-tōd. A possible third person singular subjunctive -a-ti may be asekati , and another in -e-ti may be seen in auzeti < * aw-d h 1 -e-ti "he may bestow." From
1209-548: The language in question must be conceptualized as frozen in time at a particular state of its history. This is accomplished by periodizing English and German as Old; for Latin, an apt clarifying adjective is Classical, which also normally includes designation of high or formal register . Minor languages are endangered mostly due to economic and cultural globalization , cultural assimilation, and development. With increasing economic integration on national and regional scales, people find it easier to communicate and conduct business in
Lusones - Misplaced Pages Continue
1248-550: The latter possibly related to the namesake Helvetic Lusones from present-day Switzerland or from Pannonia , who migrated to the Iberian Peninsula around the 4th Century BC. Some scholars also reasoned that they might bear a connection with the Lusitani , with the latter people being actually an off-shot of the Lusones that migrated to the west of the Peninsula during the 4th Century BC. The Greek geographer Strabo located
1287-446: The most knowledgeable scholars, and the language ceased to be used in any form long ago, so that there have been no speakers, native or non-native, for many centuries. In contrast, Old English, Old High German and Latin never ceased evolving as living languages, thus they did not become extinct as Etruscan did. Through time Latin underwent both common and divergent changes in phonology, morphology, syntax, and lexicon, and continues today as
1326-420: The native language of hundreds of millions of people, renamed as different Romance languages and dialects (French, Italian, Spanish, Corsican , Asturian , Ladin , etc.). Similarly, Old English and Old High German never died, but developed into various forms of modern English and German, as well as other related tongues still spoken (e.g. Scots from Old English and Yiddish from Old High German). With regard to
1365-402: The process of cultural assimilation leading to language shift , and the gradual abandonment of a native language in favor of a foreign lingua franca , largely those of European countries. As of the 2000s, a total of roughly 7,000 natively spoken languages existed worldwide. Most of these are minor languages in danger of extinction; one estimate published in 2004 expected that some 90% of
1404-490: The same root, we may have a truncated form of an athematic active third person singular aorist if auz is from * auzaz < * aw-d h 1 - t . Also from the same root, an example of the genitive plural of the present active participle ending - nt-om may be found on the Novallas bronze tablet in audintum < *awd eh 1 -nt-ōm. Possible infinitive form -u-nei perhaps from * -mn-ei may be seen in ambi-tinko-unei (Botorrita I A.5), and in ta-unei ‘to give’,
1443-492: The written language, skills in reading or writing Etruscan are all but non-existent, but trained people can understand and write Old English, Old High German, and Latin. Latin differs from the Germanic counterparts in that an approximation of its ancient form is still employed to some extent liturgically. This last observation illustrates that for Latin, Old English, or Old High German to be described accurately as dead or extinct,
1482-456: Was Turiaso or Turiasso ( La Oruña , Vera de Moncayo – Zaragoza; Celtiberian mint: Turiazu ); other key Lusones towns were Calagurris/Galagorina ( Calahorra – La Rioja ; Celtiberian mint: Kalacoricos ), Cascantum/Cascanton ( Cascante – Navarre; Celtiberian mint: Caiscata ), Bursau/Bursada ( Borja – Zaragoza; Celtiberian mint: Burzao ), Carabis/Caravis ( Magallón – Zaragoza; Celtiberian mint: Carauez ). They were also involved in
1521-481: Was not preserved by the other Celtic languages, and the particles -kue 'and' < * kʷe (cf. Latin - que , Attic Greek τε te ), nekue 'nor' < * ne-kʷe (cf. Latin neque ), ekue 'also, as well' < * h₂et(i)-kʷe (cf. Lat. atque , Gaulish ate , OIr. aith 'again'), ve "or" (cf. Latin enclitic -ve and Attic Greek ἤ ē < Proto-Greek *ē-we ). As in Welsh , there
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