111-469: Léal Souvenir (also known as Timotheus or Portrait of a Man ) is a small oil-on-oak panel portrait by the Early Netherlandish painter Jan van Eyck , dated 1432. The sitter has not been identified, but his highly individual features suggest a historical person rather than the hypothetical ideal usual at the time in northern Renaissance portraiture; his slight and unassuming torso
222-468: A canon at St. Donatian's Cathedral , Bruges. Campbell is sceptical, disclaiming that the sitter "is not dressed as a cleric". Other theories include that the man was a Greek or Lucchese merchant, Henry the Navigator , Jean de Croÿ or, less likely, that it is a self-portrait. Though there is much disagreement, it is probable that he was a native French speaker, and a notary, poet, or member of
333-410: A posthumous portrait. Roman tombstones often showed a representation of the deceased behind a parapet with a carved inscription, and van Eyck may have known of these from travels to France. The lower inscription reads "Actu[m] an[n]o d[omi]ni.1432.10.die octobris.a.ioh[anne] de Eyck" ( Finished in the year of our Lord 1432 on the 10th day of October by Jan van Eyck ). Campbell observes that
444-407: A " size " to isolate the canvas from the acidic qualities of the paint. Traditionally, the canvas was coated with a layer of animal glue (modern painters will use rabbit skin glue) as the size and primed with lead white paint, sometimes with added chalk. Panels were prepared with a gesso , a mixture of glue and chalk. Modern acrylic " gesso " is made of titanium dioxide with an acrylic binder. It
555-472: A canvas and can also be used for application. Oil paint remains wet longer than many other types of artists' materials, enabling the artist to change the color, texture, or form of the figure. At times, the painter might even remove an entire layer of paint and begin anew. This can be done with a rag and some turpentine for a time while the paint is wet, but after a while the hardened layer must be scraped off. Oil paint dries by oxidation , not evaporation , and
666-412: A chip in the imitation stone, a touch described by Panofsky as a "terminal flourish". This makes the meaning of the inscription difficult to discern. A general consensus among art historians is that the final character is a square C or sigma sign. "TYΜ.ωΘΕΟC" was interpreted in 1857 by Charles Eastlake as "Timotheos", a proper name. Campbell points out that van Eyck "appears to have employed
777-500: A complicated and rather expensive process with the panel constructed from several pieces of wood, although such support tends to warp. Panels continued to be used well into the 17th century, including by Rubens , who painted several large works on wood. The artists of the Italian regions moved towards canvas in the early 16th century, led partly by a wish to paint larger images, which would have been too heavy as panels. Canvas for sails
888-446: A difference. For example, a "round" is a pointed brush used for detail work. "Flat" brushes are used to apply broad swaths of color. "Bright" is a flat brush with shorter brush hairs, used for "scrubbing in". "Filbert" is a flat brush with rounded corners. "Egbert" is a very long, and rare, filbert brush. The artist might also apply paint with a palette knife, which is a flat metal blade. A palette knife may also be used to remove paint from
999-699: A free partial copy in tapestry (Bern, Historisches Museum) and from other free and partial copies in drawing and painting. The paintings probably measured about 4.5 m each, which was an enormous scale for a painting on panel at that time. They served as 'examples of justice' for the aldermen of the city who had to speak justice in this room. The paintings were praised or described by a series of commentators until their destruction, including Dürer (1520), Vasari (1568), Molanus ( c. 1570 –1580), and Baldinucci (1688). In his commissioned portraits, van der Weyden typically flattered his sitters. He often idealised or softened their facial features, allowing them
1110-573: A geographical error in Vasari 's Vite de' più eccellenti pittori, scultori e architettori where he states that the artist 'Rugiero da Brugia' lived in Bruges. Van Mander , who knew that Rogier van der Weyden resided in Brussels, read Vasari's text and believed that there were two different artists with the same name, who both appear separately in his Schilder-boeck of 1604. Châtelet explains how
1221-419: A group of works of art to the "Maître de Flémalle"; despite discrepancies, these works are similar to those of Van der Weyden and so it was believed that these works were in fact by Rogier and that he was the "Maître de Flémalle". It was only in 1913 that Hulin de Loo indicated that these works were actually painted by Rogier's teacher Robert Campin. There was still a divide in critical opinion over whether there
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#17327869286111332-1017: A handsomeness or beauty, or interest or intelligence they might not have been blessed with in life. He often enlargened the eyes, better defined the contours of the face, and gave a much stronger jaw than the subject may have possessed in life. Among his most celebrated portraits are those of Philip the Good , his third wife Isabella of Portugal and their son Charles the Bold . His vigorous, subtle, expressive painting and popular religious conceptions had considerable influence on European painting, not only in France and Germany but also in Italy and in Spain. Panofsky writes how Rogier van der Weyden introduced new religious iconography in his painting; he depicted patrons participating in sacred events and combined half-portraits of
1443-723: A known motto of the Vilain family. Eastlake's translation is generally accepted. The possibility of it being a variant of "Timothy" has been discounted, as that word was not used in Northern Europe before the Reformation . There is no Germanic name that might imply a humanistic imitation of a Greek word, so art historians have sought to identify the man from Greek history or legend. Although some have suggested certain Athenian and Syrian generals, these have been discounted as
1554-671: A number of figures in the lower portions of the "Adoration of the Lamb" panel in the Ghent Altarpiece . Agreeing with Panofsky, he observes a "thoughtfulness on the high, wrinkled forehead, visionary force in the dreamy yet steady eyes, [and] a formidable strength of passion in the wide, firm mouth". According to Panofsky, the man's face is not that of an intellectual, yet he detects a pensive and lonely nature, "the face of one who feels and produces rather than observes and dissects". The parapet has three horizontal rows of inscriptions; on
1665-521: A painter and a goldsmith. On moving to Brussels, Rogier began using the Flemish version of his name: "Rogier van der Weyden". From 2 March 1436 onward, Rogier held the title of 'painter to the town of Brussels' ( stadsschilder ), a very prestigious post since Brussels was at that time the most important residence of the splendid court of the Dukes of Burgundy . Little is known about Rogier's training as
1776-437: A painter. The archival sources from Tournai were completely destroyed during World War II, but had been partly transcribed in the 19th and early 20th century. The sources on his early life are confusing and have led to different interpretations by scholars. It is known that the city council of Tournai offered eight pitchers of wine in honour of a certain 'Maistre Rogier de le Pasture' on 17 November 1426. However, on 5 March of
1887-507: A studio, because while outside, an artist did not have the time to let each layer of paint dry before adding a new layer. Several contemporary artists use a combination of both techniques to add bold color (wet-on-wet) and obtain the depth of layers through glazing. When the image is finished and has dried for up to a year, an artist often seals the work with a layer of varnish that is typically made from dammar gum crystals dissolved in turpentine. Such varnishes can be removed without disturbing
1998-402: A sympathetic expression, while he is known for his expressive pathos and naturalism . His portraits tend to be half length and half profile, and he is as sympathetic here as in his religious triptychs. Van der Weyden used an unusually broad range of colours and varied tones; in his finest work the same tone is not repeated in any other area of the canvas, so even the whites are varied. Due to
2109-793: A tactile, almost sculptural quality, was groundbreaking at the time and had a lasting impact on 20th-century movements such as Expressionism and Fauvism. His iconic works like Starry Night (1889) and Sunflowers (1888) showcase his emotional intensity, using exaggerated colors and dramatic compositions to convey psychological depth. Early 20th-century Expressionists, such as Edvard Munch and Ernst Ludwig Kirchner , were inspired by Van Gogh’s ability to express inner turmoil and existential angst through distorted forms and vibrant hues. Rogier van der Weyden Rogier van der Weyden ( Dutch: [roːˈɣiːr vɑn dər ˈʋɛidə(n)] ; 1399 or 1400 – 18 June 1464), also known as Roger de la Pasture ( French: [ʁɔʒe d(ə) la pastyʁ] ),
2220-528: A very well defined style, and the majority of the attributions are generally accepted. Van der Weyden left no self-portraits. However it has been suggested that he painted a self-portrait into one of the Justice panels, which was subsequently copied into the Bern tapestry. A drawing with the inscription " Recueil d'Arras " is also said to depict Van der Weyden. Many of his most important works were destroyed during
2331-644: A wide range of pigments and ingredients and even include the use of a final varnish layer. The application technique and refined level of the paint media used in the murals and their survival into the present day suggest that oil paints had been used in Asia for some time before the 7th century. The technique used, of binding pigments in oil, was unknown in Europe for another 900 years or so. In Northern Europe, practitioners of Early Netherlandish painting developed oil painting techniques which other Europeans adopted from around
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#17327869286112442-627: Is The Descent from the Cross in the Museo del Prado , Madrid. Campbell points out that this painting's provenance can be traced in some detail from the 16th century. Originally hung in the church Notre-Dame-hors-des-Murs in Leuven , The Descent from the Cross was sent to the King of Spain. While the ship on which it was travelling sank, the painting fortunately floated, and careful packaging meant that it
2553-431: Is apparent in its realism and acute observation of the details of the man's everyday appearance. Van Eyck worked in the early Renaissance tradition and pioneered the manipulation of oil paint. Oil allowed smooth translucent surfaces, could be applied across a range of thicknesses and was manipulable while wet, which allowed far more subtle detail than available to previous generations of painters. The parapet dominates
2664-400: Is as 'Nordic' as his dress is Burgundian." Though he has neither eyebrows nor stubble, he does have eyelashes that are believed to have been added by a 19th-century restorer. Van Eyck's cool observation of the man's narrow shoulders, pursed lips, and thin eyebrows extends to detailing the moisture on his blue eyes. Unlike Rogier van der Weyden , who paid especially close attention to detail in
2775-645: Is contrasted with a sophisticated facial expression. His features have been described as "plain and rustic", yet thoughtful and inward-looking. The sitter was apparently significant enough a member of the Burgundian duke Philip the Good 's circle that his court painter portrayed him. The man sits before an imitation parapet with three sets of painted inscriptions, each rendered to look as if chiselled or scratched into stone. Van Eyck did not have full command of either classical Greek or Latin and made errors, so readings by modern scholars vary. The first inscription
2886-466: Is divided into separate "runs" for figures ( figure ), landscapes ( paysage ), and marines ( marine ) that more or less preserve the diagonal. Thus a 0 figure corresponds in height with a paysage 1 and a marine 2 . Although surfaces like linoleum , wooden panel , paper , slate , pressed wood , Masonite , and cardboard have been used, the most popular surface since the 16th century has been canvas , although many artists used panel through
2997-461: Is frequently used on canvas, whereas real gesso is not suitable for canvas. The artist might apply several layers of gesso, sanding each smooth after it has dried. Acrylic gesso is very difficult to sand. One manufacturer makes a "sandable" acrylic gesso, but it is intended for panels only and not canvas. It is possible to make the gesso a particular color, but most store-bought gesso is white. The gesso layer, depending on its thickness, will tend to draw
3108-534: Is in Greek and seems to spell "TYΜ.ωΘΕΟϹ", which has not been satisfactorily interpreted but has led some to title the work Timotheus . The middle reads in French "Leal Souvenir" ("Loyal Memory") and indicates that the portrait is a posthumous commemoration. The third records van Eyck's signature and the date of execution. The 19th-century art historian Hippolyte Fierens-Gevaert identified the lettering "TYΜ.ωΘΕΟC" with
3219-689: Is made by mixing pigments of colors with an oil medium. Since the 19th century the different main colors are purchased in paint tubes pre-prepared before painting begins, further shades of color are usually obtained by mixing small quantities as the painting process is underway. An artist's palette , traditionally a thin wood board held in the hand, is used for holding and mixing paints. Pigments may be any number of natural or synthetic substances with color, such as sulfides for yellow or cobalt salts for blue. Traditional pigments were based on minerals or plants, but many have proven unstable over long periods. Modern pigments often use synthetic chemicals. The pigment
3330-417: Is made from linen , but less expensive cotton fabric has been used. The artist first prepares a wooden frame called a "stretcher" or "strainer". The difference between the two names is that stretchers are slightly adjustable, while strainers are rigid and lack adjustable corner notches. The canvas is then pulled across the wooden frame and tacked or stapled tightly to the back edge. Then the artist applies
3441-719: Is mixed with oil, usually linseed, but other oils may be used. The various oils dry differently, which creates assorted effects. A brush is most commonly employed by the artist to apply the paint, often over a sketched outline of their subject (which could be in another medium). Brushes are made from a variety of fibers to create different effects. For example, brushes made with hog bristles might be used for bolder strokes and impasto textures. Fitch hair and mongoose hair brushes are fine and smooth, and thus answer well for portraits and detail work. Even more expensive are red sable brushes ( weasel hair). The finest quality brushes are called " kolinsky sable "; these brush fibers are taken from
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3552-440: Is not handsome; he has a flattish face, a stubby yet pointed nose, and prominent cheekbones that might, according to Panofsky, belong to a " Flemish peasant". Dhanens describes him as having an honest expression. A number of art historians have noted the apparent contradiction between the man's plain looks and enigmatic expression. Meiss describes him as "plain and rustic", and finds a resemblance between his rather generic face and
3663-411: Is painted with whites and vermilion , and traced with greys, blacks, blues, and some ultramarine over a red-lake glaze. The portrait is not particularly well preserved. There are yellowish layers of glaze over the face, probably later additions. The varnishes have degraded and lost their original colours. The panel has undergone a number of detrimental retouchings. In some instances, these have altered
3774-456: Is probably a member of the middle class, he must have been highly regarded in Philip's court, given that such portraits rarely depicted non-nobles. The panel consists of a single 8-millimetre (0.3 in)-thick oak board, cut vertically down close to the painted surface. It has a small unpainted area at the upper left. The support's encasing was probably changed in the 19th century; today four of
3885-614: Is sometimes identified as Roger of Helmarshausen ) gives instructions for oil-based painting in his treatise, De diversis artibus ('on various arts'), written about 1125. At this period, it was probably used for painting sculptures, carvings, and wood fittings, perhaps especially for outdoor use. Surfaces exposed to the weather or of items like shields—both those used in tournaments and those hung as decorations—were more durable when painted in oil-based media than when painted in traditional tempera paints. However, early Netherlandish paintings with artists like Van Eyck and Robert Campin in
3996-422: Is this fact that puts de la Pasture and van der Weyden as one and the same painter. The post of city painter was created especially for Van der Weyden and was meant to lapse on his death. It was linked to a huge commission to paint four justice scenes for the "Golden Chamber" of Brussels City Hall . Different properties and investments are documented and witness his material prosperity. The portraits he painted of
4107-610: Is usually dry to the touch within two weeks (some colors dry within days). The earliest known surviving oil paintings are Buddhist murals created c. 650 AD in Bamiyan , Afghanistan. Bamiyan is a historic settlement along the Silk Road and is famous for the Bamiyan Buddhas, a series of giant statues, behind which rooms and tunnels are carved from the rock. The murals are located in these rooms. The artworks display
4218-573: The Calouste Gulbenkian Museum (Lisbon), of Saint Catherine and of St Joseph. It is now widely believed that these three fragments came from the same large altarpiece depicting the "Virgin and Child with Saints", partly recorded in a later drawing now in Stockholm . At some unknown date before 1811, this altarpiece was carved up into these three fragments. The lost The Justice of Trajan and Herkinbald , which survived until
4329-533: The Compagnie du Chapel Vert ("Society of the Green Hat") at Tournai . Dhanens rejects the theory that the man was a musician on the basis that van Eyck would have made this explicit, portraying him holding a device or emblem clearly symbolising music. She concludes that he is an accountant or lawyer holding a legal or financial document. From the first two inscriptions, the panel is generally accepted as
4440-595: The Escorial Palace , was donated by Rogier to the Charterhouse of Scheut outside Brussels. In his catalogue raisonné of van der Weyden, the Belgian art historian Dirk de Vos agrees with Campbell about the authenticity of these three paintings. Rogier's apprenticeship under Campin instilled a number of preoccupations, most noticeably his approach to feminine beauty, which was often expressed both through
4551-583: The Medici family commissioned paintings from him. After interventions from both the Duke of Burgundy and the Dauphin of France, the future Louis XI , Rogier van der Weyden was persuaded to accept the request of Bianca Maria Visconti , Duchess of Milan, that her court painter Zanetto Bugatto go to Brussels to become an apprentice in his workshop. Rogier's international reputation increased progressively. In
Léal Souvenir - Misplaced Pages Continue
4662-464: The flax seed, a common fiber crop . Linen , a "support" for oil painting (see relevant section), also comes from the flax plant. Safflower oil or the walnut or poppyseed oil or Castor Oil are sometimes used in formulating lighter colors like white because they "yellow" less on drying than linseed oil, but they have the slight drawback of drying more slowly and may not provide the strongest paint film. Linseed oil tends to dry yellow and can change
4773-557: The "mosaic" is completed and then left to dry before applying details. Artists in later periods, such as the Impressionist era (late 19th century), often expanded on this wet-on-wet method, blending the wet paint on the canvas without following the Renaissance-era approach of layering and glazing. This method is also called " alla prima ". This method was created due to the advent of painting outdoors, instead of inside
4884-690: The 1450s and 1460s humanist scholars such as Nicolas Cusanus , Filarete and Bartolomeo Facio referred to him in superlatives: 'the greatest', 'the most noble' of painters. Van der Weyden died on 18 June 1464 at Brussels, and was buried in St. Catherine's Chapel of the Cathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula . No single work can be attributed with certainty to van der Weyden on 15th-century documentary evidence alone. However, Lorne Campbell has stated that three well-authenticated paintings are known, but each has been doubted or underestimated. The best documented
4995-622: The 15th century. Very few details of van der Weyden's life are known. The few facts we know come from fragmentary civic records. Yet the attribution of paintings now associated to him is widely accepted, partly on the basis of circumstantial evidence, but primarily on the stylistic evidence of a number of paintings by an innovative master. Van der Weyden worked from life models, and details were closely observed. Yet he often idealised certain elements of his models' facial features, who were typically statuesque, especially in his triptychs. All of his forms are rendered with rich, warm colourisation and
5106-458: The 17th century and beyond. The panel is more expensive, heavier, harder to transport, and prone to warp or split in poor conditions. For fine detail, however, the absolute solidity of a wooden panel has an advantage. Some artists are now painting directly onto prepared Aluminium Composite Material (ACM) panels. Others combine the perceived benefits of canvas and panel by gluing canvas onto panels made from ACM, Masonite or other material. Oil paint
5217-407: The 17th century, and largely due to changing taste, he was almost totally forgotten by the mid-18th century. His reputation was slowly rebuilt during the 200 years that followed; today he is known, with Robert Campin and van Eyck, as the third (by birth date) of the three great Early Flemish artists ( Vlaamse Primitieven or "Flemish Primitives"), and widely as the most influential Northern painter of
5328-466: The Brussels archivist Alphonse Walters discovered in 1846 that there was a Rogier van der Weyden who lived in Brussels but that he had died earlier than stated in the Schilder-Boeck ; this led Alfred Michiels to claim that there were two Rogier van der Weyden painters, a father and son. A further complication arose at the end of the 19th century when William Bode and Hugo von Tschudi attributed
5439-629: The Burgundian Dukes, their relatives and courtiers, demonstrate a close relationship with the elite of the Netherlands. Whilst Rogier van der Weyden became increasingly wealthy, he also gave generously in alms to the poor. Further testimony of his philanthropy is van der Weyden's position as administrator of the hospital and charitable foundation Ter Kisten of the Beguine convent in Brussels between 1455 and 1457. The Miraflores Altarpiece
5550-455: The Cross in their emotional depictions of anguish. The resemblance was to such an extent – compare Campin's Portrait of a Woman' s similarity to Rogier's Berlin portrait – that Campin's works were for a period attributed to Rogier's early career. Châtelet illustrates how subsequent generations of art historians have conflated and confused Rogier van der Weyden's identity, thereby mis-attributing works of art. It can be traced back to
5661-508: The Greek alphabet systematically", and always employed the square sigma C for the Latin "S", and a majuscule omega ω (in the uncial form) for the Latin "O". The inscription may be meant to read "Honour God", or "Be Honoured, O God", as written in the passive imperative . Panofsky gives some consideration to the hypothesis that the final letter is a " N ", and that the lettering forms two words rather than one. In this interpretation,
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#17327869286115772-417: The Greek musician Timotheus of Miletus . Panofsky drew the same conclusion, eliminating other Greeks bearing the name Timothy; they were of religious or military background, professions that do not match the civilian dress of the sitter. Panofsky believed the man was probably a highly placed musician in Philip's court, possibly Gilles Binchois . More recent research focuses on the legalistic wording in one of
5883-587: The Madonna with portraits of people in prayer to form diptychs. He also reformulated and popularised the subject of Saint Jerome removing the thorn from the lion's paw. Hans Memling was his greatest follower, although it is not proven that he studied under Rogier. Van der Weyden had also a large influence on the German painter and engraver Martin Schongauer whose prints were distributed all over Europe from
5994-460: The artist sketching the subject onto the canvas with charcoal or thinned paint. Oil paint is usually mixed with linseed oil, artist grade mineral spirits , or other solvents to make the paint thinner, faster or slower drying. (Because the solvents thin the oil in the paint, they can also be used to clean paint brushes.) A basic rule of oil paint application is ' fat over lean ', meaning that each additional layer of paint should contain more oil than
6105-461: The boundaries of traditional representational painting. Artists like Jackson Pollock drew inspiration from Monet’s large-scale canvases and his focus on the physical process of painting, using techniques that emphasized the action of creating art over the final product. Vincent van Gogh's influence on modern art is equally significant, particularly through his emotive use of color and texture. His impasto technique, where thick layers of paint create
6216-409: The canvas and to cover the white of the gesso. Many artists use this layer to sketch out the composition. This first layer can be adjusted before proceeding further, an advantage over the "cartooning" method used in fresco technique. After this layer dries, the artist might then proceed by painting a "mosaic" of color swatches, working from darkest to lightest. The borders of the colors are blended when
6327-451: The canvas when necessary. A variety of unconventional tools, such as rags, sponges, and cotton swabs, may be used to apply or remove paint. Some artists even paint with their fingers . Old masters usually applied paint in thin layers known as "glazes" that allow light to penetrate completely through the layer, a method also simply called "indirect painting". This technique is what gives oil paintings their luminous characteristics. This method
6438-409: The daughter of a Brussels shoemaker, Jan Goffaert and his wife Cathelyne van Stockem. Rogier and Elisabeth had four children, the first being Cornelius (b. 1427), who became a Carthusian monk and Margaretha, born in 1432. By 21 October 1435, the family had settled in Brussels, where the two younger children were born: Pieter in 1437 and Jan in 1438. These latter two would go on to become respectively
6549-490: The early and mid-15th century were the first to make oil the usual painting medium and explore the use of layers and glazes , followed by the rest of Northern Europe, and then Italy. Such works were painted on wooden panels , but towards the end of the 15th century canvas began to be used as a support , as it was cheaper, easier to transport, allowed larger works, and did not require complicated preliminary layers of gesso (a fine type of plaster). Venice , where sail-canvas
6660-408: The eight supports are fixed to the edges of the interior borders, forming inner mouldings . The other four act as inner pins. The varnish is severely degraded, with key areas of paint and ground either removed or overpainted. Infrared photography of the reverse reveals traces of short vertical hatching and underdrawings, but no hint as to the identity of the sitter. Its ground is mostly chalk-based;
6771-442: The elegant form of the model herself as well as her dress. Both painters positioned their models within strong diagonal lines, rendered either through headdress or folds of surrounding draperies or cloth. Both emphasised the vivacity of their model's character by contrasting them against dark flat backgrounds and throwing strong light from the near left hand side. Campbell compares Campin's Thief with Rogier's Prado The Descent from
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#17327869286116882-772: The end of the 17th century, consisted of four large panels representing the Justice of Trajan and Justice of Herkenbald . These were commissioned by the City of Brussels for the Gulden Camere (Golden Chamber) of the Brussels Town Hall . The first and third panels were signed, and the first dated 1439. All four were finished before 1450. They were destroyed in the French Bombardment of Brussels in 1695, but are known from many surviving descriptions, from
6993-455: The fact that during the 1420s the city of Tournai was in crisis and as a result the guilds were not functioning normally. The late apprenticeship may have been a legal formality. Also Jacques Daret was then in his twenties and had been living and working in Campin's household for at least a decade. It is possible that Rogier obtained an academic title (Master) before he became a painter and that he
7104-410: The following year, the records of the painters' guild show a "Rogelet de le Pasture" entered the workshop of Robert Campin together with Jacques Daret . Records show that de le Pasture was already established as a painter. Only five years later, on the first of August 1432, de le Pasture obtained the title of a "Master" ( Maistre ) painter. His later entry into apprenticeship might be explained by
7215-656: The head is large in relation to the torso. He is dressed in typically Burgundian fashion, with a red robe and a green wool chaperon with a bourrelet and cornette hanging forward. The headdress is trimmed with fur, fastened with two buttons, and extends to the parapet. His right hand might be holding the end of the cornette. Neither the shape of his head nor his facial features correspond to contemporary standard types, let alone canons of ideal beauty. The sitter appears to be bald, although there are some faint traces of fair hair, leading Erwin Panofsky to conclude that his "countenance
7326-437: The hue of the color. In some regions, this technique is referred to as the drying oil technique. Recent advances in chemistry have produced modern water miscible oil paints that can be used and cleaned up with water. Small alterations in the molecular structure of the oil create this water miscible property. The earliest oil paintings were almost all panel paintings on wood, which had been seasoned and prepared in
7437-608: The illusionistic carving on the parapet for his 1446 Portrait of a Carthusian . A c. 1449–50 portrait of the Venetian Doge Marco Barbarigo attributed to a follower of van Eyck is also heavily indebted to Léal Souvenir in that it is also unusually tall and narrow, with a large space above the sitter's head. The painting is first recorded in the notes of Charles Eastlake , the National Gallery's collector and later director, in 1857,
7548-411: The influence of classical Roman funerary art , particularly stone memorials. The parapet gives the work gravitas , the chips and cracks conveying a sense of the venerable, or, according to art historian Elisabeth Dhanens , a sense of the "fragility of life or of memory itself". The man is positioned within an undefined narrow space and set against a flat black background. Typically for van Eyck,
7659-473: The inscriptions, suggesting to some that he was in some way connected to the legal profession, or an employee of Philip the Good . The panel was acquired in 1857 by the National Gallery , London, where it is on permanent display. Léal Souvenir is one of the earliest surviving examples of secular portraiture in medieval European art and one of the earliest extant unidealised representations. This
7770-480: The late 15th century. From the Renaissance on, oil painting technology had almost completely replaced the earlier use of tempera paints in the majority of Europe. Most European Renaissance sources, in particular Vasari , falsely credit northern European painters of the 15th century, and Jan van Eyck in particular, with the invention of oil paints. However, Theophilus Presbyter (a pseudonymous author who
7881-592: The late 17th century. He is first mentioned in historical records in 1427 when, relatively late in life, he studied painting under Campin during 1427–32, and soon outshone his master and, later, even influenced him. After his apprenticeship, he was made master of the Tournai Guild of St Luke. He moved to Brussels in 1435, where he quickly established his reputation for his technical skill and emotional use of line and colour. He completed his Deposition in 1435, which as he had deliberately intended, made him one of
7992-427: The layer below to allow proper drying. If each additional layer contains less oil, the final painting will crack and peel. The consistency on the canvas depends on the layering of the oil paint. This rule does not ensure permanence; it is the quality and type of oil that leads to a strong and stable paint film. Other media can be used with the oil, including cold wax, resins, and varnishes. These additional media can aid
8103-406: The left, leaving traces of shadow on the side of the man's face, a device commonly found in van Eyck's early portraits. He is youthful, and his face has a soft fleshiness achieved through shallow curves and flowing, harmonious brushstrokes, giving the appearance of a relaxed, warm, and open personality, which Meiss describes as evoking an almost " Rembrandtesque warmth and sympathy". The sitter
8214-409: The letters spell TYΜω ΘΕΟN, meaning "Honour God". While this would be more straightforward than "Timotheus", he rejects the possibility. He writes that "the presence of a shorter horizontal line connecting with the slightly tapering top of the vertical stroke and completing it into a Γ form ... evidently precludes a " N ". Dhanens suggests the inscription can be read as " Time Deum " ("Fear God"),
8325-555: The loss of archives in 1695 and again in 1940, there are few certain facts of van der Weyden's life. Rogelet de le Pasture (Roger of the Pasture) was born in Tournai (in present-day Belgium) in 1399 or 1400. His parents were Henri de le Pasture and Agnes de Watrélos. The Pasture family had earlier settled in the city of Tournai where Rogier's father worked as a maître-coutelier (knife manufacturer). In 1426, Rogier married Elisabeth,
8436-523: The mark of "an early Italian, probably Venetian owner". An early provenance in Italy would not imply that the man came from that country; van Eyck's works were often purchased by collectors from that region. Oil painting Oil painting is a painting method involving the procedure of painting with pigments with a medium of drying oil as the binder . It has been the most common technique for artistic painting on canvas , wood panel or copper for several centuries, spreading from Europe to
8547-483: The most sought after and influential artists in northern Europe and is still considered his masterpiece. The fragment of the London National Gallery 's The Magdalen Reading has been described by Campbell as "one of the great masterpieces of fifteenth-century art and among Rogier's most important early works". Since the 1970s, this painting has been linked to two small heads in the collection of
8658-435: The oil paint into the porous surface. Excessive or uneven gesso layers are sometimes visible on the surface of finished paintings as a change that's not from the paint. Standard sizes for oil paintings were set in France in the 19th century. The standards were used by most artists, not only the French, as it was—and still is—supported by the main suppliers of artists' materials. Size 0 ( toile de 0 ) to size 120 ( toile de 120 )
8769-435: The oil painting itself, to enable cleaning and conservation . Some contemporary artists decide not to varnish their work, preferring the surface unvarnished to avoid a glossy look. Oil painters such as Claude Monet and Vincent van Gogh revolutionized the medium in ways that profoundly shaped the evolution of modern art. Their groundbreaking innovations in technique, color, and form redefined traditional oil painting and set
8880-492: The painted surface. Among the earliest impasto effects, using a raised or rough texture in the surface of the paint, are those from the later works of the Venetian painter Giovanni Bellini , around 1500. This became much more common in the 16th century, as many painters began to draw attention to the process of their painting, by leaving individual brushstrokes obvious, and a rough painted surface. Another Venetian, Titian ,
8991-481: The painter in adjusting the translucency of the paint, the sheen of the paint, the density or 'body' of the paint, and the ability of the paint to hold or conceal the brushstroke. These aspects of the paint are closely related to the expressive capacity of oil paint. Traditionally, paint was most often transferred to the painting surface using paintbrushes , but there are other methods, including using palette knives and rags. Palette knives can scrape off any paint from
9102-411: The paintings attributed to Robert Campin and van der Weyden are the main arguments to consider Rogier van der Weyden as a pupil of Campin. The final mention of Rogier de la Pasture in the financial records of Tournai, on 21 October 1435, lists him as demeurrant à Brouxielles ("living in Brussels"). At the same time, the first mention of Rogier de Weyden places him as the official painter of Brussels. It
9213-434: The parapet. In 1927 Hippolyte Fierens Gevaert put forward Timotheus of Miletus , a Greek musician and dithyrambic poet born c. 446. Gevaert held that the portrait was a commemoration of a court artist who had recently died and that the classical reference was intended to flatter his memory. Panofsky largely went with this position in 1949. He speculated that the sitter was the celebrated musician Gilles Binchois , by 1430
9324-458: The phrasing of this extended signature is surprisingly reminiscent of legalese , and that van Eyck seems to be reinforcing the idea that the man was a legal professional, who may have worked for the Dukes of Burgundy . Jacques Paviot notes that it is written in the Gothic cursive script bastarda , then favoured by the legal profession. In either case, although he is not grandly dressed and
9435-399: The pigments are predominantly blacks, red lake, and blues. The final portrait differs in many ways from the underdrawing – the fingers are shorter, the right thumb and the parapet are lower, and the right arm once extended over a larger area. In the final portrait, the ear is elevated, and the scroll occupies a larger pictorial space. Analysis of the pigment shows that the flesh of his face
9546-433: The portrait, and his head seems oversized compared to his upper body. Some art historians speculate that this is a result of van Eyck's then inexperience; it was only his second known portrait. Meiss speculates that van Eyck may have "los[t] control of [the] design as a whole by indulging his astounding virtuosity." The decayed parapet allows van Eyck to display his skill at mimicking stone chiselling and scarring, and shows
9657-450: The previous method for painting on panel (tempera) had become all but extinct, although Italians continued to use chalk-based fresco for wall paintings, which was less successful and durable in damper northern climates. Renaissance techniques used several thin almost transparent layers or glazes , usually each allowed to dry before the next was added, greatly increasing the time a painting took. The underpainting or ground beneath these
9768-641: The range of painting media . This made portability difficult and kept most painting activities confined to the studio . This changed when tubes of oil paint became widely available following the American portrait painter John Goffe Rand 's invention of the squeezable or collapsible metal tube in 1841. Artists could mix colors quickly and easily, which enabled, for the first time, relatively convenient plein air painting (a common approach in French Impressionism ) The linseed oil itself comes from
9879-656: The rendering of his models' fingers, to van Eyck hands were often something of an afterthought. They are generically rendered, do not contain much detail and may have been a later workshop addition. Yet they are very similar to those of the sitter in his c. 1435 Portrait of Baudouin de Lannoy . The man holds a scroll that might be a legal document, letter, or pamphlet. In his early portraits, van Eyck's sitters are often shown holding objects indicative of their profession. The scroll contains six lines of illegible writing. The abbreviations are more prominent and seem to be in Latin, but may be vernacular. Light falls from
9990-488: The rest of the world. The advantages of oil for painting images include "greater flexibility, richer and denser color, the use of layers, and a wider range from light to dark". But the process is slower, especially when one layer of paint needs to be allowed to dry before another is applied. The oldest known oil paintings were created by Buddhist artists in Afghanistan and date back to the 7th century AD. Oil paint
10101-434: The same painting depending on specific pigments and effects desired. The paints themselves also develop a particular consistency depending on the medium. The oil may be boiled with a resin , such as pine resin or frankincense , to create a varnish to provide protection and texture. The paint itself can be molded into different textures depending on its plasticity . Traditional oil painting techniques often begin with
10212-412: The sitter is not wearing military clothing. Saint Timothy , first Bishop of Ephesus and an associate of Saint Paul , has been suggested but eliminated as the man is not dressed as a high cleric. The larger middle inscription is in French, using a 12th-century script. It reads " LEAL SOVVENIR " ( Loyal Remembrance , or Faithful Souvenir ), and is painted to give the impression that it was carved into
10323-426: The sitter's appearance, most especially the removal of strands of fair hair below the chaperon. It has sustained structural damage, especially to the marble on the reverse. The National Gallery repaired some "slight injuries" when it came into their possession in 1857. Campbell notes a number of efforts by later restorers were imperfect and "rather disfiguring", including touchings to the man's nostrils and eyelashes, and
10434-508: The stage for various art movements that followed. Their influence extends through Expressionism, Fauvism, Abstract Expressionism, and beyond, fundamentally altering how contemporary artists approach color, texture, and emotional expression. Monet’s works, especially his later series like Water Lilies , are considered a precursor to abstract art. His emphasis on capturing the transient effects of light and his near-abstraction of form in his late works, such as Water Lilies: The Clouds (1920), pushed
10545-601: The tail of the Siberian weasel . This hair keeps a superfine point, has smooth handling, and good memory (it returns to its original point when lifted off the canvas), known to artists as a brush's "snap". Floppy fibers with no snap, such as squirrel hair, are generally not used by oil painters. In the past few decades, many synthetic brushes have been marketed. These are very durable and can be quite good, as well as cost efficient . Brushes come in multiple sizes and are used for different purposes. The type of brush also makes
10656-418: The tip of his nose. There is a yellowish glaze over the eyes that seems to be either damage or overpaint. The panel is discoloured overall and suffers from aged and degenerated varnishes that make the original pigments hard to discern. The painting was widely copied and imitated during the 15th century. Near-contemporary copper reproductions are known from Bergamo and Turin . Petrus Christus borrowed
10767-408: The upper and lower rows is smaller lettering that is often not visible in reproductions. In places, the Greek characters are unclear and have been subject to much speculation by art historians, not least due to van Eyck's sometimes erratic spelling and unusual spacing. The top lettering is in chalk white and Greek script that reads "TYΜ.ωΘΕΟC" . The last character is deliberately concealed by
10878-415: The usual choice. Commonly used drying oils include linseed oil , poppy seed oil , walnut oil , and safflower oil . The choice of oil imparts a range of properties to the paint , such as the amount of yellowing or drying time. The paint could be thinned with turpentine . Certain differences, depending on the oil, are also visible in the sheen of the paints. An artist might use several different oils in
10989-538: The year it was acquired. He mentions that it had been in the possession of the Scottish landscape painter Karl Ross (1816–1858) "before 1854". Like many of van Eyck's works and those of the Early Netherlandish painters in general, the painting's provenance is murky before the 19th century. When the National Gallery was verifying attribution, the two copper reproductions were noted. The first
11100-446: Was a leader in this. In the 17th century some artists, including Rembrandt , began to use dark grounds. Until the mid-19th century, there was a division between artists who exploited "effects of handling" in their paintwork, and those who continued to aim at "an even, glassy surface from which all evidences of manipulation had been banished". Before the 19th century, artists or their apprentices ground pigments and mixed their paints for
11211-487: Was an early Netherlandish painter whose surviving works consist mainly of religious triptychs , altarpieces, and commissioned single and diptych portraits. He was highly successful in his lifetime; his paintings were exported to Italy and Spain, and he received commissions from, amongst others, Philip the Good , Netherlandish nobility, and foreign princes. By the latter half of the 15th century, he had eclipsed Jan van Eyck in popularity. However his fame lasted only until
11322-439: Was awarded the wine of honour on the occasion of his graduation. The sophisticated and learned iconographical and compositional qualities of the paintings attributed to him are sometimes used as an argument in favour of this supposition. The social and intellectual status of Rogier in his later life surpassed that of a mere craftsman at that time. In general, the close stylistic link between the documented works of Jacques Daret and
11433-465: Was easily available, was a leader in the move to canvas. Small cabinet paintings were also made on metal, especially copper plates. These supports were more expensive but very firm, allowing intricately fine detail. Often printing plates from printmaking were reused for this purpose. The increasing use of oil spread through Italy from Northern Europe, starting in Venice in the late 15th century. By 1540,
11544-476: Was first perfected through an adaptation of the egg tempera painting technique (egg yolks used as a binder, mixed with pigment), and was applied by the Early Netherlandish painters in Northern Europe with pigments usually ground in linseed oil . This approach has been called the "mixed technique" or "mixed method" in modern times. The first coat (the underpainting ) is laid down, often painted with egg tempera or turpentine-thinned paint. This layer helps to "tone"
11655-527: Was found by Eastlake in the collection of the Lochis family of Bergamo in Italy, the second in Turin, belonging to Count Castellane Harrach is described as smaller than the original and "very weak". Both are now lost. Ink markings on the marble reverse show a small cross that may record a merchant's mark or emblem. Although it is incomplete and no identification has been made, W. H. J. Weale detected
11766-475: Was made in Venice and so easily available and cheaper than wood. Smaller paintings, with very fine detail, were easier to paint on a very firm surface, and wood panels or copper plates, often reused from printmaking , were often chosen for small cabinet paintings even in the 19th century. Portrait miniatures normally used very firm supports, including ivory , or stiff paper card. Traditional artists' canvas
11877-443: Was one Rogier van der Weyden or two artists, the other being Rogier de la Pasture of Tournai, until Erwin Panofsky wrote his definitive work in 1953 Early Netherlandish Painting and established that there was only one painter with two names. Relatively few works are attributed to van der Weyden's relatively long career, but this does not mean he was un-prolific, more that it is likely that many have been lost. Nonetheless, he had
11988-414: Was probably commissioned by King Juan II of Castile , since Juan II donated it to the monastery of Miraflores in 1445. According to some sources, in 1449 Rogier went to Italy , and in the holy year 1450 quite possibly made a pilgrimage to Rome , which brought him in contact with Italian artists and patrons. However, his Italian experiences had no influence on his style. The House of Este and
12099-567: Was scarcely damaged. A copy of the masterpiece by Michel Coxcie was donated to the people of Leuven to replace the original sent to Spain. The Triptych of the Virgin or Miraflores Altarpiece , since 1850 in the Gemäldegalerie, Berlin , was given in 1445 to the Charterhouse of Miraflores near Burgos by John II of Castile ; it was described in the deed of gift as the work of great and famous Flandresco Rogel . The Crucifixion , now in
12210-516: Was used by Europeans for painting statues and woodwork from at least the 12th century, but its common use for painted images began with Early Netherlandish painting in Northern Europe, and by the height of the Renaissance , oil painting techniques had almost completely replaced the use of egg tempera paints for panel paintings in most of Europe, though not for Orthodox icons or wall paintings, where tempera and fresco , respectively, remained
12321-414: Was usually white (typically gesso coated with a primer), allowing light to reflect through the layers. But van Eyck, and Robert Campin a little later, used a wet-on-wet technique in places, painting a second layer soon after the first. Initially, the aim was, as with the established techniques of tempera and fresco , to produce a smooth surface when no attention was drawn to the brushstrokes or texture of
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