99-417: A mother is a female parent. Mother may also refer to: Mother A mother is the female parent of a child . A woman may be considered a mother by virtue of having given birth , by raising a child who may or may not be her biological offspring , or by supplying her ovum for fertilisation in the case of gestational surrogacy . A biological mother is the female genetic contributor to
198-401: A pregnant female gestates a fertilized ovum (the "egg"). A female can become pregnant through sexual intercourse after she has begun to ovulate . In well-nourished girls, menarche (the first menstrual period ) usually takes place around the age of 12 or 13. Typically, a fetus develops from the viable zygote , resulting in an embryo . Gestation occurs in the woman's uterus until
297-555: A " mommy track " rather than being entirely " career women ". Mothers may be stay at home mothers or working mothers . In recent decades there has been an increase in stay at home fathers too. Social views on these arrangements vary significantly by culture: in Europe for instance, in German-speaking countries there is a strong tradition of mothers exiting the workforce and being homemakers. Mothers have historically fulfilled
396-451: A dissoluble betrothal ( sponsalia de futuro ) was seven years in the contractees . The minimal age for a valid marriage was puberty, or nominally 14 for males, and 12 for females. The 1917 Code of Canon Law raised the minimal age for a valid marriage to 16 for males, and 14 for females. The 1983 Code of Canon Law maintained the minimal age for a valid marriage at 16 for males and 14 for females. English ecclesiastical law forbade
495-547: A genetic mother, who provides the ovum, and a gestational (or surrogate) mother, who carries the child to term. The possibility for lesbian and bisexual women in same-sex relationships to become mothers has increased over the past few decades due to technological developments. Modern lesbian parenting originated with women who were in heterosexual relationships who later identified as lesbian or bisexual, as changing attitudes provided more acceptance for non-heterosexual relationships. Other ways for such women to become mothers
594-450: A girl can be seen as a way of ensuring her economic security and thus benefiting her as well as her parents. In reviews of Jewish community history, scholars claim poverty, shortage of grooms, and uncertain social and economic conditions were a cause of frequent child marriages. An additional factor causing child marriage is the parental belief that early marriage offers protection. Parents feel that marriage provides their daughter with
693-537: A half was considered an adult in all respects." In Ancient Greece , early marriage and teenage motherhood for girls existed. Boys were also expected to marry in their teens. In the Roman Empire , girls were married at the age of 12 and boys from the age of 14. In the Middle Ages , under English civil laws derived from Roman laws, marriages before the age of 16 existed. In Imperial China , child marriage
792-492: A history of domestic abuse are slightly more likely to commit filicide. Mothers are more likely to commit filicide than fathers when the child is 8 years old or younger. Matricide is most frequently committed by adult sons. In the United States in 2012, there were 130 matricides (0.4 per million people) and 383 filicides (1.2 per million), or 1.4 incidents per day. Throughout history, mothers have been depicted in
891-432: A judge and the legal guardian of the adolescent. Egypt diverged from this pattern by setting the age limits of 18 for boys and 16 for girls, without a distinction between competence for marriage and minimum age. In 2020, Saudi Arabia officially banned all marriages under the age of 18. The push to ban child marriage was initially opposed by senior clergy, who argued that a woman reaches adulthood at puberty. However, by 2019
990-481: A minimum marriage age of 18. However, the effectiveness of these measures in reducing bride kidnapping remains unclear. In most nations, bride kidnapping is considered a crime rather than a valid form of marriage . Some types of it may also be seen as falling along the continuum between forced marriage and arranged marriage . However, even when the practice is against the law, judicial enforcement remains lax in some areas. Bride kidnapping occurs in various parts of
1089-489: A mother and comparatively to "paternal" for a father . The verb "to mother" means to procreate or to sire a child, or to provide care for a child, from which also derives the noun "mothering". Related terms of endearment are mom ( mama , mommy ), mum ( mummy ), mumsy , mamacita ( ma , mam ) and mammy . A female role model that children can look up to is sometimes referred to as a mother-figure . Biological motherhood for humans , as in other mammals , occurs when
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#17327717546381188-409: A mother fills many similar biological functions as a human mother. Many other mammal mothers also have numerous commonalities with humans. The behavior and role of mothers in non-human species is most similar in species most closely related to humans. This means great apes are most similar, then the broader superfamily of all apes , then all primates . Child marriage Child marriage
1287-493: A new home and marry adolescent girls. In many ancient and medieval societies, it was common for girls to be betrothed at or even before the age of puberty. According to Mordechai A. Friedman, "arranging and contracting the marriage of a young girl were the undisputed prerogatives of her father in Ancient Israel ." Most girls were married before the age of 15, often at the start of puberty. It has been claimed that in
1386-547: A pertinent authority, and in 23 countries, boys under age 15 can marry with parental consent. A lower legally allowed marriage age does not necessarily cause high rates of child marriages. However, there is a correlation between restrictions placed by laws and the average age of first marriage. In the United States, per 1960 Census data, 3.5% of girls married before the age of 16, while an additional 11.9% married between 16 and 18. States with lower marriage age limits saw higher percentages of child marriages. This correlation between
1485-400: A pertinent authority. However, in 146 countries, state or customary law allows girls younger than 18 to marry with the consent of parents or other authorities; in 52 countries, girls under age 15 can marry with parental consent. In contrast, 18 is the legal age for marriage without consent among males in 180 countries. Additionally, in 105 countries, boys can marry with the consent of a parent or
1584-404: A religious marriage is still recognized by the state authorities, while in others, a registered civil marriage is mandatory. Child marriage has lasting consequences on girls, from their health (mental and physical), education, and social development perspectives. These consequences last well beyond adolescence. One of the most common causes of death for girls aged 15 to 19 in developing countries
1683-538: A sense of protection from sexual promiscuity and safe from sexually transmitted infections. However, in reality, young girls tend to marry older men, placing them at an increased risk of contracting a sexually transmitted infection. Protection through marriage may play a specific role in conflict settings. Families may have their young daughters marry members of an armed group or military in hopes that they will be better protected. Girls may also be taken by armed groups and forced into marriages. In many communities, there
1782-418: A significantly older man however is especially problematic: marrying one's young daughter to an old man was declared as reprehensible as forcing her into prostitution. A ketannah (literally meaning "little [one]") was any girl between the age of 3 years and 12 years plus one day; she was subject to her father's authority, and he could arrange a marriage for her without her agreement. However, after reaching
1881-442: A strong social stigma . Historically, this stigma not only applied to the mother, but also to her child. This continues to be the case in many parts of the developing world today, but in many Western countries the situation has changed radically, with single motherhood being much more socially acceptable now. For more details on these subjects, see Legitimacy (family law) and single parent . The total fertility rate (TFR), that is,
1980-604: A suitable groom a rare commodity. Bride's families would seek out any available bachelors and marry them to their daughters before events beyond their control moved the boy away. Persecution and displacement of Roma and Jewish people in Europe, colonial campaigns to get slaves from various ethnic groups in West Africa across the Atlantic for plantations , and Islamic campaigns to get Hindu slaves from India across Afghanistan's Hindu Kush as property and for work were some of
2079-566: A variety of art works, including paintings, sculptures and written texts, that have helped define the cultural meaning of 'mother', as well as ideals and taboos of motherhood. Fourth century grave reliefs on the island of Rhodes depicted mothers with children. Paintings of mothers with their children have a long tradition in France . In the 18th century, these works embodied the Enlightenment's preoccupation with strong family bonds and
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#17327717546382178-562: A woman other than the biological parent, especially if she fulfills the main social role in raising the child. This is commonly either an adoptive mother or a stepmother (the biologically unrelated partner of a child's father ). The term " othermother " or "other mother" is also used in some contexts for women who provide care for a child not biologically their own in addition to the child's primary mother. Adoption, in various forms, has been practiced throughout history, even predating human civilization. Modern systems of adoption, arising in
2277-408: Is Mary Kelly's Post-Partum Document . Bypassing typical themes of tenderness or nostalgia, this work documents in extensive detail the challenges, complexities and day-to-day realities of the mother-child relationship. Other artists have addressed similar aspects of motherhood that fall outside dominant ideals, including maternal ambivalence, desire, and the pursuit of self-fulfillment. While
2376-448: Is 18. Before this age, he should spend his time studying and getting his life in order. There is no minimum marriage age defined in traditional Islamic law ; the legal discussion of this topic is centered primarily on women's physical maturity. Classical Sunni jurisprudence allows a father to contract a marriage for his underaged daughter. The appropriate age for consummating the marriage, which could occur several years after signing
2475-515: Is a marriage or domestic partnership , formal or informal, usually between a child and an adult , but can also be between a child and another child. Although the age of majority (legal adulthood ) and marriage age are typically 18 years old, these thresholds can differ in different jurisdictions . In some regions, the legal age for marriage can be as young as 14, with cultural traditions sometimes superseding legal stipulations . Additionally, jurisdictions may allow marriages younger than
2574-660: Is a means of consolidating powerful relations between families. Providing a girl with a dowry at her marriage is an ancient practice that continues in some parts of the world, especially in the Indian subcontinent . Parents bestow property on the marriage of a daughter as a dowry, which is often an economic challenge for many families. The difficulty in saving for dowry was common, particularly in times of economic hardship, or persecution, or unpredictable seizure of property and savings. These difficulties pressed families to betroth their girls, irrespective of their age, as soon as they had
2673-454: Is a non-biological female parent married to a child's preexisting parent, and may form a family unit but generally does not have the legal rights and responsibilities of a parent in relation to the child. A father is the male counterpart of a mother. Women who are pregnant may be referred to as expectant mothers or mothers-to-be. The process of becoming a mother has been referred to as "matrescence". The adjective "maternal" refers to
2772-461: Is a woman who bears a child that came from another woman's fertilized ovum on behalf of a couple unable to give birth to children. Thus the surrogate mother carries and gives birth to a child that she is not the biological mother of. Surrogate motherhood became possible with advances in reproductive technologies , such as in vitro fertilization . Not all women who become pregnant via in vitro fertilization are surrogate mothers. Surrogacy involves both
2871-431: Is applicable and valid for all Hindus including Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs who altogether form more than 83% of Indian population. By the beginning of the 21st century, most countries had enacted laws establishing the general minimum age for marriage at 18 years. However, in many of these countries, some exceptions allowed marriage before this age with the consent of the parents and/or by court decision. In some countries,
2970-428: Is better suited to support very young children in their efforts to understand speech (in context of the reference English) than fathers. Since the 1970s, in vitro fertilization has made pregnancy possible at ages well beyond "natural" limits, generating ethical controversy and forcing significant changes in the social meaning of motherhood. This is, however, a position highly biased by Western world locality: outside
3069-540: Is defined by WHO as "the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes". About 56% of maternal deaths occur in Sub-Saharan Africa and another 29% in South Asia . In 2006, the organization Save
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3168-405: Is forbidden and punishable by lashing. The Talmud states that, "those who marry girls who are not yet capable of bearing children" will "delay the coming of the messiah ". A wide age gap between spouses, in either direction, is advised against. Marrying one's young daughter to an old man was declared as reprehensible as forcing her into prostitution. The ideal age at which a man should marry
3267-424: Is from Middle English moder, from Old English mōdor, from Proto-Germanic *mōdēr (cf. East Frisian muur, Dutch moeder, German Mutter), from Proto-Indo-European *méh₂tēr (cf. Irish máthair, Tocharian A mācar, B mācer, Lithuanian mótė). Other cognates include Latin māter, Greek μήτηρ, Common Slavic *mati (thence Russian мать (mat')), Persian مادر (madar), and Sanskrit मातृ (mātṛ). In zoology , particularly in mammals ,
3366-472: Is not the same as the legal majority under civil law, these age limits may correspond. The 1917 codification of Islamic family law in the Ottoman Empire distinguished between the age of competence for marriage, which was set at 18 for boys and 17 for girls, and the minimum age for marriage, which followed the traditional Hanafi ages of the legal majority of 12 for boys and 9 for girls. Marriage below
3465-483: Is reached by everyone at a specific age. Büchler and Schlater observe that "marriageable age according to classical Islamic law coincides with the occurrence of puberty. The notion of puberty refers to signs of physical maturity such as the emission of semen or the onset of menstruation". Traditional schools of Islamic jurisprudence ( madhaahib ) define the age of full legal capacity to enter marriage as follows: According to Büchler and Schlater, while marriageable age
3564-429: Is social pressure to marry off girls at a young age. This practice is often justified by cultural norms and the belief that it provides social and economic stability. In 2023, a study led by Ohio State researchers, Fiona Doherty, Smitha Rao, and Angelise Radney found that the increase in environmental disasters tied to climate change were contributing factor to a rise in child marriage in at least 20 countries. Although
3663-729: Is through adopting, foster parenting or in vitro fertilization. Transgender women may have biological children with a partner by utilizing their sperm to fertilize an egg and form an embryo. For transgender women, there is currently no accessible way to carry a child. However, research is being done on uterus transplants , which could potentially allow transgender women to carry and give birth to children through Caesarean section . Other types of motherhood include adoption or foster parenting. However, adoption agencies often refuse to work with transgender parents or are reluctant to do so. The social roles associated with motherhood are variable across time, culture, and social class. Historically,
3762-622: The Central African Republic , Mozambique and Nepal , all of which had rates above 50% between 1998 and 2007. According to studies conducted between 2003 and 2009, the marriage rate of girls under 15 years old was greater than 20% in Niger, Chad, Bangladesh, Mali, and Ethiopia. Each year, an estimated 12 million girls globally are married under the age of 18. In 2021, 13.3 million babies, or about 10% of all global births, were born to mothers aged under 20 years old. Prior to
3861-507: The Industrial Revolution , women around the world were often married at an early age, usually soon after reaching puberty . These practices carried over well into the 19th century in societies with largely rural populations. Men tended to marry later in societies where a married couple was expected to establish a household of their own. This encouraged men to remain unmarried until they accumulated sufficient wealth to support
3960-521: The Latin Church , the 1983 Code of Canon Law sets the minimum age for a valid marriage at 16 for males and 14 for females. In 2015, Spain raised its minimum marriageable age to 18 (16 with court consent) from the previous 14. In Mexico, marriage under 18 is allowed with parental consent, from age 14 for girls and age 16 for boys. In Ukraine, in 2012, the Family Code was amended to equalize
4059-622: The Manusmriti , a father is considered to have wronged his daughter if he fails to marry her before puberty and if the girl is not married in less than three years after reaching puberty, she can search for the husband herself. However, in modern India, the minimum age of marriage is 21 years for males and 18 years for females as per both the Hindu Marriage Act and the Special Marriage Act . The Hindu Marriage Act
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4158-485: The United Nations Population Fund , factors that promote and reinforce child marriage include poverty and economic survival strategies; gender inequality ; sealing land or property deals or settling disputes; control over sexuality and protecting family honor; tradition and culture; and insecurity, particularly during war, famine or epidemics. Other factors include family ties in which marriage
4257-531: The Virgin Mary , an archetypal mother and a key historical basis for depictions of mothers in western art from the European Renaissance onwards. Mothers depicted in dominant art works are also primarily white, heterosexual, middle class and young or attractive. These ideals of motherhood have been challenged by artists with lived experience as mothers. An example in western contemporary art
4356-399: The lactation process. The mother's breast milk is the source of antibodies for the infant's immune system , and commonly the sole source of nutrition for newborns before they are able to eat and digest other foods; older infants and toddlers may continue to be breastfed, in combination with other foods, which should be introduced from approximately six months of age. Childlessness is
4455-485: The "institution of motherhood" rather than diverse lived experiences. At the same time, art concerning motherhood has been historically marginalized within the feminist art movement , though this is changing with an increasing number of feminist publications addressing this topic. The institution of motherhood in western art is often depicted through "the myth of the all-loving, all-forgiving and all-sacrificing mother" and related ideals. Examples include works featuring
4554-593: The 18th century in Islamic majority regions. A sense of social insecurity is a cause of child marriages across the world. For example, in Nepal, parents fear social stigma if adult daughters (past 18 years) stay at home. Others fear crimes such as rape, which not only would be traumatic but may lead to less acceptance of the girl if she becomes a victim of such a crime. For example, girls may not be seen as eligible for marriage if they are not virgins. In other cultures,
4653-479: The 20th century, tend to be governed by comprehensive statutes and regulations . In recent decades, international adoptions have become more and more common. Adoption in the United States is common and relatively easy from a legal point of view (compared to other Western countries). In 2001, with over 127,000 adoptions, the US accounted for nearly half of the total number of adoptions worldwide. A surrogate mother
4752-461: The Children has ranked the countries of the world, and found that Scandinavian countries are the safest places to give birth, whereas countries in sub-Saharan Africa are the least safe to give birth. This study argues a mother in the bottom ten ranked countries is over 750 times more likely to die in pregnancy or childbirth , compared to a mother in the top ten ranked countries, and a mother in
4851-500: The Criminal Code, Art. 293.2 Marriage under the age of 16 years reads: "Everyone who celebrates, aids or participates in a marriage rite or ceremony knowing that one of the persons being married is under the age of 16 years is guilty of an indictable offense and liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding five years." The Civil Marriage Act also states: "2.2 No person who is under the age of 16 years may contract marriage." In
4950-543: The Middle Ages, marriage took place around puberty throughout the Jewish world. Ruth Lamdan writes, "The numerous references to child marriage in the 16th-century Responsa literature and other sources shows that child marriage was so common, it was virtually the norm. In this context, it is important to remember that in halakha , the term "minor" refers to a girl under twelve years and a day old. A girl aged twelve and
5049-466: The Ordinary is also required in case of a marriage of a minor when their parents are unaware of his marriage or if their parents reasonably oppose the marriage. In classical Islamic law , suitability for marital relations is conditional on physical maturity ( bulugh ) and mental maturity ( rushd ). Classical jurists did not stipulate a minimum marriageable age because they did not believe that maturity
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#17327717546385148-763: The UK, marriage is allowed for 16–17 years old with parental consent in England and Wales as well as in Northern Ireland , and even without parental consent in Scotland . However, a marriage of a person under 16 is void under the Matrimonial Causes Act 1973 . The United Nations Population Fund stated the following: In 2010, 158 countries reported that 18 years was the minimum legal age for marriage for women without parental consent or approval by
5247-416: The United States, child marriage is legal in 38 states. Child marriage has been decreasing in prevalence in most parts of the world. UNICEF data from 2018 showed that about 21% of young women worldwide (aged 20 to 24) were married as children. This shows a 25% decrease from 10 years prior. The countries with the highest known rates of child marriages were Niger , Chad , Mali , Bangladesh , Guinea ,
5346-468: The Western world, in-vitro fertilization has far less prominence, importance or currency compared to primary, basic healthcare, women's basic health, reducing infant mortality and the prevention of life-threatening diseases such as polio , typhus and malaria . Traditionally, and still in most parts of the world today, a mother was expected to be a married woman, with birth outside of marriage carrying
5445-449: The age of 13 years and a day and have undergone puberty. They are considered minors until the age of twenty. The same rules apply to females, except their age is 12 years and a day. If females show no signs of puberty and males show no signs of puberty or do show impotence, they automatically become adults by age 35 and can marry. A large age gap between spouses, in either direction, is advised against as unwise. A younger woman marrying
5544-520: The age of competence was permissible only if proof of sexual maturity was accepted in court, while marriage under the minimum age was forbidden. During the 20th century, most countries in the Middle East followed the Ottoman precedent in defining the age of competence, while raising the minimum age to 15 or 16 for boys and 13–16 for girls. Marriage below the age of competence is subject to approval by
5643-399: The age of competence was permissible only if proof of sexual maturity was accepted in court, while marriage under the minimum age was forbidden. During the 20th century, sharia-based legislation in most countries in the Middle East followed the Ottoman precedent in defining the age of competence, while raising the minimum age to 15–16 for boys and 13–16 for girls. In 2019, Saudi Arabia raised
5742-586: The age of marriage to 18. In Hinduism the Vedas , specifically the Rigveda and Atharvaveda , have certain verses that indicate that during the Vedic period , girls were married before attaining and also during puberty as they were considered matured. Some early Dharmaśāstra also state that girls should be married after they have attained puberty while some texts extend the marriageable age to before puberty. In
5841-467: The age of maturity, she would have to agree to the marriage to be considered married. The minimum ages of consent for marriage in the Catholic Church are 14 for girls and 16 for boys. Being underage constitutes a diriment impediment . That is, a marriage involving an underage bride or groom is canonically invalid. A Conference of Bishops may adopt a higher age for marriage, but in that case,
5940-615: The black female body and of maternity and slavery in the US, the latter of which is often characterized by the "extreme passivity and devalued love" typically associated with motherhood. The proverbial "first word" of an infant often sounds like "ma" or "mama". This strong association of that sound with "mother" has persisted in nearly every language on earth, countering the natural localization of language. Familiar or colloquial terms for mother in English are: In many other languages, similar pronunciations apply: The modern English word
6039-459: The bottom ten ranked countries is 28 times more likely to see her child die before reaching their first birthday. The most recent data suggests that Italy , Sweden and Luxembourg are the safest countries in terms of maternal death and Afghanistan , Central African Republic and Malawi are the most dangerous. Childbirth can be a dangerous process in the absence of effective measures to reduce death. When none of these measure are taken,
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#17327717546386138-825: The child remaining unmarried into adulthood, illiteracy , and the perceived inability of women to work. Research indicates that comprehensive sex education can prevent child marriages. The rate of child marriages can also be reduced by strengthening rural communities ' education systems. Rural development programs that provide basic infrastructure , including healthcare , clean water, and sanitation , may aid families financially. Child marriages have historically been common and continue to be widespread, particularly in developing nations in Africa, South Asia , Southeast Asia , West Asia , Latin America , and Oceania . However, developed nations also face this issue. In
6237-427: The creation of the infant, through sexual intercourse or egg donation . A biological mother may have legal obligations to a child not raised by her, such as an obligation of monetary support. An adoptive mother is a female who has become the child's parent through the legal process of adoption . A putative mother is a female whose biological relationship to a child is alleged but has not been established. A stepmother
6336-430: The economic pressure of providing for a household and various constraints in educational and career opportunities. Child marriage is part of the practice of child betrothal , often including civil cohabitation and a court approval of the engagement. Some factors that encourage child marriages include poverty, bride price , dowries , cultural traditions , religious and social pressure , regional customs, fear of
6435-645: The effects of child marriage on underage boys is scant, which researchers state is likely because child marriage involving boys is less common and boys do not face the adverse health effects as a result of early pregnancy and childbirth. The effects of child marriage on boys include being ill-prepared for certain responsibilities such as providing for the family, early fatherhood, and a lack of access to education and career opportunities. As of September 2014 , 156 million living men were married as underage boys. In its first in-depth analysis of child grooms, UNICEF revealed that an estimated 115 million boys and men around
6534-408: The elimination of child marriage must come through a changing of those social norms. The mindset of the communities, and what is believed to be the proper outcome for a child bride, must be shifted to bring about a change in the prevalence of child marriage. Families in extreme poverty may perceive daughters as an economic burden. If they cannot afford to raise a child, seeking a child marriage for
6633-616: The existing Virgin Mary archetype while subverting its norms around sexuality by centering her identity as a lesbian. Rather than attempting to make her experience of motherhood fit into existing norms, Opie's photographs are "non-traditional and non-apologetic representations". In her 2020 photography collection, Solana Cain explored the meaning of joy for Black mothers to challenge the lack of images in mainstream media that represent Black motherhood. Renee Cox's Yo Mama series of nude self-portraits challenge historical representations of both
6732-408: The fear is that an unmarried girl may engage in illicit relationships, or elope, causing a permanent social blemish to her siblings, or that the impoverished family may be unable to find bachelors for grown-up girls in their socioeconomic group. Such fears and social pressures have been proposed as causes that lead to child marriages. Insofar as child marriage is a social norm in practicing communities,
6831-402: The fetus (assuming it is carried to term ) is sufficiently developed to be born. In humans, gestation is often around 9 months in duration, after which the woman experiences labor and gives birth. This is not always the case, however, as some babies are born prematurely , late, or in the case of stillbirth , do not survive gestation. Usually, once the baby is born, the mother produces milk via
6930-408: The general marriageable age is 18 in the majority of countries, most jurisdictions allow for exceptions for underage youth with parental and/or judicial consent. Such laws are neither limited to developing countries, nor a state's religion. In some countries, a religious marriage by itself has legal validity, while in others it does not, as civil marriage is obligatory. For Catholics incorporated into
7029-458: The grounds of potential physical harm. Disputes regarding physical maturity between the involved parties were to be resolved by a judge , potentially after examination by a female expert witness. The 1917 Codification of Islamic Family Law in the Ottoman Empire distinguished between the age of competence for marriage, which was set at 18 for boys and 17 for girls, and the minimum age for marriage, set at 12 for boys and 9 for girls. Marriage below
7128-406: The higher age of marriage in civil law and the observed frequency of child marriages breaks down in countries with Islam as the state religion. In Islamic nations, many countries do not allow child marriage of girls under their civil code of laws, but the state-recognized Sharia religious laws and courts in all these nations have the power to override the civil code, and often do. UNICEF reports that
7227-574: The higher age only creates a prohibitive impediment, that is, a marriage involving a bride or groom above the Church's minimum age but below that set by the Conference is valid but illicit . Permission to marry against a civil authority's directive requires the permission of the Ordinary , which, in the case of sensible and equal laws regarding marriage age, is not usually granted. The permission by
7326-427: The highest bidder. Child marriages of girls can function as a way out of desperate economic conditions or simply as a source of income for the parents. Bride price is another cause of child marriage and child trafficking . Bride kidnapping , also known as marriage by abduction or marriage by capture, is a practice in which a male abducts the female he wishes to marry. Bride kidnapping has been practiced around
7425-603: The historical events that increased the practice of child marriage before the 19th century. Among Sephardi Jewish communities, child marriages became frequent from the 10th to 13th centuries, especially in Muslim Spain. This practice intensified after the Jewish community was expelled from Spain, and resettled in the Ottoman Empire . Child marriages among the Eastern Sephardic Jews continued through
7524-825: The ideal of maternal self-sacrifice and the 'good mother' forms an important part of many works of art relating to the Holocaust , other women's Holocaust and post-Holocaust art has engaged more deeply with mothers' trauma, taboos, and the experiences of second and third-generation Holocaust survivors. For example, works by first-generation survivors of the Holocaust such as Ella Liebermann-Shiber and Shoshana Neuman have depicted mothers abandoning and suffocating their children in an effort to stay alive themselves. Increasingly diverse representations of motherhood can be found in contemporary works of art. Catherine Opie's self-portrait photographs, including of herself nursing, reference
7623-630: The late 18th and early 19th centuries, the British colonial administration introduced marriage age restrictions for Hindu and Muslim girls in the Indian subcontinent. A Scottish physician living in 18th century Syria reported that locals tried to contract marriages for their children at a young age, but the marriage was not consummated until the girl "had come of age". Evidence from 19th century Palestine suggests that husbands sometimes initiated sexual relations before their wives reached puberty, but that it
7722-482: The latter half of the 19th century, between 13 and 18% of native-born white female first marriages in the United States were of girls under the age of 18. Most religions practiced throughout history have established a minimum age for marriage. Christian canon law forbade the marriage of a girl before the onset of puberty. Within the Catholic Church , before the 1917 Code of Canon Law , the minimum age for
7821-430: The marriage contract, was to be determined by the bride, groom, and the bride's guardian since medieval jurists held that the age of fitness for intercourse was too variable for legislation. This was based in part on the precedent set by the Islamic prophet Muhammad , as described in the hadith collections considered to be authentic by Muslims. According to these sources, Muhammad married Aisha , his third wife, when she
7920-497: The marriage of a girl before the age of puberty. Jewish halakhists and rabbis prohibit a father from betrothing a daughter while she is still a minor. A girl can be betrothed when she becomes a young woman ( Hebrew : נַעֲרָה , romanized : na'arah ), which may defined as a girl aged 12-12½ or one who has begun puberty. In exceptional cases, such as during exile and persecution, girls aged 4-13 years may be betrothed by their fathers. Betrothal by intercourse
8019-514: The marriageable age for girls and boys to 18, with courts being allowed to grant permission to marry from 16 years of age if it is established that the marriage is in the best interest of the youth. Many states in the US permit child marriages with the court's permission . Since 2015, the minimum marriageable age throughout Canada is 16. In Canada, the age of majority is set by province/territory at 18 or 19, so minors under this age have additional restrictions (i.e. parental and court consent). Under
8118-738: The maternal death rate has been estimated as being within the order of magnitude of 1,500 deaths per 100,000 births. Modern medicine has greatly alleviated the risk of childbirth. In modern Western countries the current maternal mortality rate is around 10 deaths per 100,000 births. Nearly all world religions define tasks or roles for mothers through either religious law or through the glorification of mothers who served in substantial religious events. There are many examples of religious law relating to mothers and women. Major world religions which have specific religious law or religious texts that comment on mothers include: Christianity , Judaism , and Islam . Some examples of honoring motherhood include
8217-632: The number of children born per woman, differs greatly from country to country. The TFR in 2013 was estimated to be highest in Niger (7.03 children born per woman) and lowest in Singapore (0.79 children/woman). In the United States , the TFR was estimated for 2013 at 2.06 births per woman. In 2011, the average age at first birth was 25.6 and 40.7% of births were to unmarried women. A maternal death
8316-708: The primary role in raising children, but since the late 20th century, the role of the father in child care has been given greater prominence and social acceptance in some Western countries. The 20th century also saw more and more women entering paid work. Mothers' rights within the workforce include maternity leave and parental leave . The social role and experience of motherhood varies greatly depending upon location. Mothers are more likely than fathers to encourage assimilative and communion-enhancing patterns in their children. Mothers are more likely than fathers to acknowledge their children's contributions in conversation. The way mothers speak to their children ( "motherese" )
8415-549: The relation between mothers and children. At the end of the nineteenth century, Mary Cassatt was a painter well known for her portraits of mothers. American poet, essayist and feminist Adrienne Rich has noted "the disjuncture between motherhood as patriarchal institution and motherhood as complexly and variously lived experience". The vast majority of works depicting motherhood in western art history have been created by artists who are men, with very few having been created by women or mothers themselves, and these often focus on
8514-461: The resources to pay the dowry. Thus, Goitein notes that European Jews would marry their girls early, once they had collected the expected amount of dowry. A bride price is the amount paid by the groom to the parents of a bride for them to consent to him marrying their daughter. In some countries, the younger the bride, the higher the bride price. This practice can create an economic incentive where girls are sought and married early by her family to
8613-427: The role of women was confined to some extent to being a mother and wife, with women being expected to dedicate most of their energy to these roles, and to spend most of their time taking care of the home. In many cultures, women received significant help in performing these tasks from older female relatives, such as mothers in law or their own mothers. Regarding women in the workforce , mothers are said to often follow
8712-491: The state of not having children. Childlessness may have personal, social or political significance. Childlessness may be voluntary childlessness , which occurs by choice, or may be involuntary due to health problems or social circumstances. Motherhood is usually voluntary, but may also be the result of forced pregnancy , such as pregnancy from rape . Unwanted motherhood occurs especially in cultures which practice forced marriage and child marriage . Mother can often apply to
8811-495: The stipulated age where specific exceptions, such as parental or guardian consent, or anomalous events, such as teenage pregnancy , exist. Research has found that child marriages have many long-term negative consequences for child brides and grooms. Girls who marry as children often lack access to education and future career opportunities. It is also common for them to have adverse health effects resulting from early pregnancy and childbirth . Effects on child grooms may include
8910-504: The top eight nations in the world with the highest observed child marriage rates are Niger (75%), Chad (72%), Mali (71%), Bangladesh (64%), Guinea (63%), Central African Republic (61%), Mozambique (56%), and Nepal (51%). Ancient Rabbis set the age of marriage for every Israelite at 18 years old; males are expected to be married by 20 years old in teenage marriage and females can stay unmarried but must be celibate. In Rabbinic Judaism , males cannot consent to marriage until they reach
9009-813: The veneration of the Blessed Virgin Mary as Mother of God and the multiple positive references to active womanhood as a mother in the Book of Proverbs . Hindu 's Mother Goddess and Demeter of ancient Greek pre-Christian belief are also mothers. History records many conflicts between mothers and their children. Some even resulted in murder , such as the conflict between Cleopatra III of Egypt and her son Ptolemy X . In modern cultures, matricide (the killing of one's mother) and filicide (the killing of one's son or daughter) have been studied but remain poorly understood. Psychosis and schizophrenia are common causes of both, and young, indigent mothers with
9108-971: The world and throughout history. It continues to occur in countries in Central Asia , the Caucasus region, parts of Africa , among people as diverse as the Hmong in Southeast Asia, the Tzeltal in Mexico, and the Romani in Europe. Bride kidnapping is a widespread issue in Ethiopia. A 2003 study found the custom's prevalence rate was estimated at 69 percent nationally, with reports of girls as young as 11 being taken for marriage. In response, Ethiopia has enacted laws to outlaw this practice and established
9207-610: The world were married as children. Of these, 1 in 5, or 23 million, boys were married before the age of 15. According to the data, the Central African Republic has the highest prevalence of child marriage among males (28%), followed by Nicaragua (19%) and Madagascar (13%). The estimates bring the total number of child brides and child grooms to 765 million. Girls remain disproportionately affected, with 1 in 5 young women aged 20 to 24 years old married before their 18th birthday, compared to 1 in 30 young men. According to
9306-492: The world, but it is most common in the Caucasus and Central Asia. Bride kidnapping is often a form of child marriage. It may be connected to the practice of bride price, and the inability or unwillingness to pay it. Social upheavals such as wars, major military campaigns, forced religious conversion , taking natives as prisoners of war and converting them into slaves, arrest and forced migrations of people often made
9405-452: Was a rare occurrence, condemned socially and censured by sharia courts. Writing in the 1830s, Edward William Lane observed that few Egyptian girls remained single by the age of 16, but socioeconomic transformation, educational reform, and modernity brought significant changes. By 1920, less than 10% of Egyptian women married before the age of 20. In 1923, Egypt's parliament set the minimum age of marriage at 16 for women and 18 for men. For
9504-469: Was about six, and consummated the marriage when she was about nine. Some modern Muslim authors and Islamic scholars, such as Ali Gomaa , who served as the Grand Mufti of Egypt , doubt the traditionally accepted narrative and believe based on other evidence that Aisha was in her late teens at the time of her marriage. As a general rule, intercourse was prohibited for girls "not able to undergo it," on
9603-437: Was pregnancy and childbirth. In Niger , estimated to have the world's highest rate of child marriage, approximately three out of four girls marry before their 18th birthday. Boys are sometimes married as children, almost always to a female minor. UNICEF states that "girls [are] disproportionately affected by the practice. Globally, the prevalence of child marriage among boys is just one-sixth that among girls." Research on
9702-546: Was the case by the 14th century. The pattern was reflected in English Common Law , which was the first in Western Europe to establish statutory rape laws and ages of consent for marriage. In 1275, sexual relations with girls under either 12 or 14 (depending on the interpretation of the sources) were criminalized; a second law with more severe punishments for those under the age of 10 was enacted in 1576. In
9801-417: Was the norm. In contrast to other pre-modern societies—and for reasons that are subject to debate— Northwest Europe was characterized by relatively late marriages for both men and women, with both sexes commonly delaying marriage until their mid-20s, although the very wealthy, especially aristocrats, married earlier, but they were a minority of the population. The data available for England suggest this
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