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71-460: It was developed by Kalpana Seshadrinathan and Alan Bovik in the Laboratory for Image and Video Engineering (LIVE) at The University of Texas at Austin. It was described in print in the 2010 technical paper "Motion Tuned Spatio-Temporal Quality Assessment of Natural Videos". The original MOVIE paper was accorded an IEEE Signal Processing Society Best Journal Paper Award in 2013. The MOVIE index

142-567: A Bayer pattern , or (rarely) on movable filters or light splitters such as dichroic mirrors . The resulting grayscale images are then combined to produce a color image. This step is usually performed by the camera itself, although some cameras may optionally provide the unprocessed grayscale images in a so-called raw image format . However, some special-purpose cameras, such as those for thermal mapping , or low light viewing, or high speed capture, may record only monochrome ( grayscale ) images. The Leica Monochrom cameras, for example, opted for

213-495: A Primetime Emmy Award in 2015 for his development of perception-based video quality measurement tools that are now standards in television production. He also received a Technology and Engineering Emmy Award in 2021 for the “development of perceptual metrics for video encoding optimization.” Al Bovik was educated at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign (PhD 1984). He has made numerous fundamental contributions to

284-486: A digital memory device is used for storing images, which may be transferred to a computer later. This memory device is usually a memory card ; floppy disks and CD-RWs are less common. In addition to taking pictures, digital cameras may also record sound and video. Some function as webcams , some use the PictBridge standard to connect to printers without using a computer, and some can display pictures directly on

355-402: A Gabor filter bank. Following a process of divisive normalization based on a model of cortical (area V1) processing in the brain, the processed reference and test videos are combined in a weighted difference to produce a prediction of spatial picture quality. At the same time, a prediction of the temporal (time-varying or inter-frame) motion picture quality is calculated by using the responses of

426-426: A better image than a smaller one. One of the most important benefits of this is a reduction in image noise . This is one of the advantages of DSLR cameras, which have larger sensors than simpler point-and-shoot cameras of the same resolution. Additional factors that impact the quality of a digital image include: The number of pixels n for a given maximum resolution ( w horizontal pixels by h vertical pixels)

497-477: A cassette tape, had a resolution of 0.01 megapixels (10,000 pixels), and took 23 seconds to capture its first image in December 1975. The prototype camera was a technical exercise, not intended for production. While it was not until 1981 that the first consumer camera was produced by Sony , the groundwork for digital imaging and photography had been laid. The first digital single-lens reflex (DSLR) camera

568-627: A computer. The primary advantage of consumer-level digital cameras is the low recurring cost, as users need not purchase photographic film. Processing costs may be reduced or even eliminated. Digicams tend also to be easier to carry and use than comparable film cameras, and more easily adapt to modern use of pictures. Some, particularly those in smartphones , can send their pictures directly to email, web pages , or other electronic distribution. In professional usage, digital cameras offer many advantages in speed, precision, flexibility, ease, and cost. Manufacturers such as Nikon and Canon have promoted

639-461: A digital file that is stored in some digital memory device, inside or outside the camera. Each element of the image sensor array measures the intensity of light hitting a small area of the projected image (a pixel ) and converts it to a digital value. The two main types of sensors are charge-coupled devices (CCD)—in which the photo charge is shifted to a central charge-to-voltage converter—and CMOS or active pixel sensors . Most cameras for

710-422: A digital image that was stored on tape for later, relatively slow transmission back to Earth. The first published color digital photograph was produced in 1972 by Michael Francis Tompsett using CCD sensor technology and was featured on the cover of Electronics Magazine . It was a picture of his wife, Margaret Tompsett. The Cromemco Cyclops , a digital camera developed as a commercial product and interfaced to

781-415: A family of reduced reference image and video quality prediction models, and BRISQUE, BLIINDS, DIIVINE, NIQE, and ChipQA, which are a new breed of image and video quality prediction models that produce accurate predictions of human judgments of picture quality without using reference information. His high-dynamic range (HDR) add-on model HDRMAX, which improves the quality prediction performance of leading models

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852-545: A film camera. Turn-of-the-century digital cameras had a long start-up delay compared to film cameras (that is, the delay from when they are turned on until they are ready to take the first shot), but this is no longer the case for modern digital cameras, which have start-up times under 1/4 seconds. While some film cameras could reach up to 14 frames per second (fps), like the Canon F-1 with its rare high-speed motor drive, professional DSLR cameras can take still photographs at

923-455: A grayscale-only sensor to get better resolution and dynamic range. The reduction from three-dimensional color to grayscale or simulated sepia toning may also be performed by digital post-processing , often as an option in the camera itself. On the other hand, some multispectral cameras may record more than three color coordinates for each pixel. In most digital camera (except some high-end linear array cameras and simple, low-end webcams ),

994-404: A hefty price, by the mid-to-late 1990s, due to technology advancements, digital cameras were commonly available to the general public. The advent of digital photography also gave way to cultural changes in the field of photography. Unlike film photography, dark rooms and hazardous chemicals were no longer required for the post-production of an image – images could now be processed and enhanced from

1065-448: A memory card or external device. Memory cards can hold vast numbers of photos, requiring attention only when the memory card is full. For most users, this means hundreds of quality photos stored on the same memory card. Images may be transferred to other media for archival or personal use. Cards with high speed and capacity are suited to video and burst mode (capture several photographs in quick succession). Because photographers rely on

1136-538: A microcomputer, was featured in the February 1975 issue of Popular Electronics magazine. It used MOS technology for its image sensor . An important development in digital image compression technology was the discrete cosine transform (DCT), a lossy compression technique first proposed by Nasir Ahmed while he was working at the Kansas State University in 1972. DCT compression is used in

1207-475: A native aspect ratio of 16:9, matching HDTV . This is similar to a 7:4 aspect ratio, which was a common size for APS film. Different aspect ratios are one of the reasons consumers have issues when cropping photos. An aspect ratio of 4:3 translates to a size of 4.5"×6.0". This loses half an inch when printing on the "standard" size of 4"×6", an aspect ratio of 3:2. Similar cropping occurs when printing on other sizes, such as 5"×7", 8"×10", or 11"×14". In late 2002,

1278-401: A number of major international awards. These include: In addition he has been recognized by the following honors: Digital photography Digital photography uses cameras containing arrays of electronic photodetectors interfaced to an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) to produce images focused by a lens , as opposed to an exposure on photographic film . The digitized image

1349-405: A personal computer. This allowed photographers to be more creative with their processing and editing techniques. As the field became more popular, digital photography and photographers diversified. Digital photography expanded the field of photography from a small, somewhat elite circle to one that encompassed many people. The camera phone further helped popularize digital photography, along with

1420-401: A subject of dispute. The relative increase in detail resulting from an increase in resolution is better compared by looking at the number of pixels across (or down) the picture, rather than the total number of pixels in the picture area. For example, a sensor of 2560 × 1600 sensor elements is described as "4 megapixels" (2560 × 1600= 4,096,000). Increasing to 3200 × 2048 increases the pixels in

1491-418: A television set. Similarly, many camcorders can take still photographs and store them on videotape or flash memory cards with the same functionality as digital cameras . Digital photography is an example of the shift from analog information to digital information. In the past, conventional photography was an entirely chemical and mechanical process that did not require electricity. Now, modern photography

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1562-499: A tiny MOS capacitor . As it was fairly straightforward to fabricate a series of MOS capacitors in a row, they connected a suitable voltage to the capacitors so that the charge could be stepped along from one to the next. This semiconductor circuit was later used in the first digital video cameras for television broadcasting , and its invention was recognized by a Nobel Prize in Physics in 2009. The first close-up image of Mars

1633-518: Is a digital process in which analog signals are converted to and stored as digital data using built-in computers. The quality of a digital image is a composite of various factors, many of which are similar to those of film cameras. Pixel count (typically listed in megapixels , millions of pixels) is only one of the major factors, though it is the most heavily marketed figure of merit . Digital camera manufacturers advertise this figure because consumers can use it to easily compare camera capabilities. It

1704-451: Is a neuroscience-based model for predicting the perceptual quality of a (possibly compressed or otherwise distorted) motion picture or video against a pristine reference video. Thus, the MOVIE index is a full-reference metric. The MOVIE model is quite different from many other models since it uses neuroscience-based models of how the human brain processes visual signals at various stages along

1775-904: Is a professor at the University of Texas at Austin (UT-Austin), where he holds the Cockrell Family Regents Endowed Chair in the Cockrell School of Engineering and is Director of the Laboratory for Image and Video Engineering (LIVE). He is a faculty member in the UT-Austin Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, the Machine Learning Laboratory, the Institute for Neuroscience, and the Wireless Networking and Communications Group. Bovik received

1846-420: Is credited with the development of order statistic filters, the image modulation model, computational modeling of visual texture perception, theories of foveated image processing, and for widely used and disseminated image quality and video quality computational models and measurement tools that are used throughout the television, cinematic, streaming video, and social media industries. His contributions include

1917-497: Is marketed and used worldwide. His picture and video quality models SSIM, MS-SSIM, VIF, VMAF, MOVIE, BRISQUE, FUNQUE, NIQE, ChipQA, and HDRMAX currently process a significant percentage of all bits transmitted both in the United States as well as globally, and are implemented in commercial cable, satellite, broadcast, streaming video, television, home cinema / disc, and social media quality monitoring and control workflows around

1988-433: Is not, however, the major factor in evaluating a digital camera for most applications. The processing system inside the camera that turns the raw data into a color-balanced and pleasing photograph is usually more critical, which is why some 4+ megapixel cameras perform better than higher-end cameras. Resolution in pixels is not the only measure of image quality. A larger sensor with the same number of pixels generally produces

2059-414: Is stored as a computer file ready for further digital processing, viewing, electronic publishing , or digital printing . It is a form of digital imaging based on gathering visible light (or for scientific instruments, light in various ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum ). Until the advent of such technology, photographs were made by exposing light-sensitive photographic film and paper, which

2130-411: Is the product n = w × h . For example, an image 1600 × 1200 in size has 1,920,000 pixels, or 1.92 megapixels. The pixel count quoted by manufacturers can be misleading as it may not be the number of full-color pixels. For cameras using single-chip image sensors , the number claimed is the total number of single-color-sensitive photosensors, whether they have different locations in the plane, as with

2201-551: Is then refurbished and resold. Since the introduction of the Dakota Digital, a number of similar single-use digital cameras have appeared. Most single-use digital cameras are nearly identical to the original Dakota Digital in specifications and function, though a few include superior specifications and more advanced functions (such as higher image resolutions and LCD screens). Most, if not all these single-use digital cameras cost less than $ 20, not including processing. However,

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2272-515: Is used by Fujifilm in its FinePix S3 Pro DSLR: the image sensor contains additional photodiodes of lower sensitivity than the main ones; these retain detail in parts of the image too bright for the main sensor. High-dynamic-range imaging (HDR) addresses this problem by increasing the dynamic range of images by either Many camera phones and most digital cameras use memory cards with flash memory to store image data. The majority of cards for separate cameras are Secure Digital (SD) format, or

2343-413: Is used internationally: SIVA – Courseware for Signal, Image, Video and Audio Processing. This online courseware offers broad, deep online curricula for digital image and video processing and digital signal processing. SIVA includes hundreds of signal, image and video processing demonstrations delivering live, interactive audio-visual experiences of signal and image processing algorithms. Bovik has received

2414-543: The Bayer sensor , or in stacks of three co-located photosensors as in the Foveon X3 sensor . However, the images have different numbers of RGB pixels: Bayer-sensor cameras produce as many RGB pixels as photosensors via demosaicing (interpolation), while Foveon sensors produce uninterpolated image files with one-third as many RGB pixels as photosensors. Comparisons of megapixel ratings of these two types of sensors are sometimes

2485-515: The Internet , social media , and the JPEG image format. The first cell phones with built-in digital cameras were produced in 2000 by Sharp and Samsung . Small, convenient, and easy to use, camera phones have made digital photography ubiquitous in the daily life of the general public. Image sensors are arrays of electronic devices that convert the optical image created by the camera lens into

2556-716: The JPEG image standard, which was introduced by the Joint Photographic Experts Group in 1992. JPEG compresses images down to much smaller file sizes, and has become the most widely used image file format . The JPEG standard was largely responsible for popularizing digital photography. The first self-contained (portable) digital camera was created in 1975 by Steven Sasson of Eastman Kodak . Sasson's camera used CCD image sensor chips developed by Fairchild Semiconductor in 1973. The camera weighed 8 pounds (3.6 kg), recorded black-and-white images to

2627-689: The United States National Academy of Engineering (NAE), an elected Foreign Fellow of the Indian National Academy of Engineering (INAE), an elected Fellow of the U.S. National Academy of Inventors , and an elected foreign member of Academia Europaea (2023). He is also a Life Fellow of the IEEE , a Fellow of Optica and of the Society of Photo-Optical and Instrumentation Engineers ( SPIE ), an Honorary Fellow of

2698-613: The LIVE Video Quality Database, which is a tool for assessing the accuracy of picture quality models. The MOVIE index is commercially marketed as part of the Video Clarity line of video quality measurements tools that are used throughout the Television and motion picture industries. Alan Bovik Alan Conrad Bovik (born June 25, 1958) is an American engineer, vision scientist, and educator. He

2769-591: The Royal Photographic Society ( HonFRPS ) and an Honorary Member of the Society for Imaging Science and Technology (IS&T). He is a voting member of the Academy of Television Arts and Sciences (Television Academy) and was named an inaugural member of its Science and Technology Peer Group. He was named a Distinguished Alumnus of the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign in 2008. Bovik

2840-462: The adoption of digital single-lens reflex cameras (DSLRs) by photojournalists . Images captured at 2+ megapixels are deemed of sufficient quality for small images in newspaper or magazine reproduction. 8- to 24-megapixel images, found in modern digital SLRs, when combined with high-end lenses, can approximate the detail of film prints from 35 mm film -based SLRs. Noise in a digital camera's image may sometimes be visually similar to film grain in

2911-460: The author/editor of the companion books The Essential Guide to Image Processing and The Essential Guide to Video Processing (Academic Press, 2009). Overall, his work has been cited in the scientific and engineering literature more than 175,000 times according to Google Scholar . He is one of the most highly cited engineers in the world according to the Web of Science . Bovik is an elected member of

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2982-419: The cheapest digital cameras in the United States were available for around $ 100 ( USD ). At the same time, many discount stores with photo labs introduced a "digital front end", allowing consumers to obtain true chemical prints (as opposed to ink-jet prints) in an hour. These prices were similar to those of prints made from film negatives. In July 2003, digital cameras entered the disposable camera market with

3053-586: The fields of digital photography , digital television , digital image processing , digital video processing , digital cinema , and computational visual perception . He is particularly well known for his work on low-level vision, natural scene modeling, image quality , and video quality . He has published more than 1000 technical articles, books, and patents in these areas. He is also the author/editor of The Handbook of Image and Video Processing (Academic Press, 2nd edition, 2005), with Zhou Wang of Modern Image Quality Assessment (Morgan and Claypool, 2006), and

3124-474: The final photograph in real-time . This enables the user to review, adjust , or delete a captured photograph within seconds, making this a form of instant photography , in contrast to most photochemical cameras from the preceding era. Moreover, the onboard computational resources can usually perform aperture adjustment and focus adjustment (via inbuilt servomotors ) as well as set the exposure level automatically, so these technical burdens are removed from

3195-523: The following years, cell phone cameras became widespread, particularly due to their connectivity to social media and email . Since 2010, the digital point-and-shoot and DSLR cameras have also seen competition from the mirrorless digital cameras , which typically provide better image quality than point-and-shoot or cell phone cameras but are smaller in size and shape than typical DSLRs. Many mirrorless cameras accept interchangeable lenses and have advanced features through an electronic viewfinder, which replaces

3266-515: The general consumer market create color images, in which each pixel has a color value from a three-dimensional color space like RGB . Although there is light-sensing technology that can distinguish the wavelength of the light incident on each pixel, most cameras use monochrome sensors that can only record the intensity of that light, over a broad range of wavelengths that includes all the visible spectrum . To obtain color images, those cameras depend on color filters applied over each pixel, typically in

3337-530: The hardware. When that image is transferred for reproduction on any device, the widest achievable gamut is the gamut that the end device supports. For a monitor, it is the gamut of the display device. For a photographic print, it is the gamut of the device that prints the image on a specific type of paper. Professional photographers often use specially designed and calibrated monitors that help them to reproduce color accurately and consistently. Most digital point-and-shoot cameras have an aspect ratio of 1.33 (4:3),

3408-562: The highest frame rates . While the Sony SLT technology allows rates of up to 12 fps, the Canon EOS-1D X can take stills at a rate of 14 fps. The Nikon F5 is limited to 36 continuous frames (the length of the film) without the cumbersome bulk film back, while the digital Nikon D5 is able to capture over 100 14-bit RAW images before its buffer must be cleared and the remaining space on the storage media can be used. Depending on

3479-425: The integrity of image files, it is important to take proper care of memory cards. One process is card formatting , which essentially involves scanning the cards for possible errors. Common advocacy calls for formatting cards after transferring its images onto a computer. Since all cameras only do quick formatting of cards, it is advisable to occasionally carry out a more thorough formatting using appropriate software on

3550-836: The invention or co-invention of the Emmy Award-winning Structural Similarity (SSIM) video quality measurement tool, the MOVIE Index , the Visual Information Fidelity (VIF) algorithms, the FUNQUE family of video quality models, and his extensive contributions to the Emmy Award-winning VMAF system, all reference models that predict human perception of image quality or distortion; the RRED indices, which are

3621-477: The latter category. Digital photography spans a wide range of applications with a long history. Much of the technology originated in the space industry , where it pertains to highly customized, embedded systems combined with sophisticated remote telemetry . Any electronic image sensor can be digitized; this was achieved in 1951. The modern era in digital photography is dominated by the semiconductor industry , which evolved later. An early semiconductor milestone

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3692-437: The materials and how they are stored, analog photographic film and prints may fade as they age. Similarly, the media on which digital images are stored or printed can decay or become corrupt, leading to a loss of image integrity. Color reproduction ( gamut ) depends on the type and quality of film or sensor used and the quality of the optical system and film processing. Different films and sensors have different color sensitivity;

3763-470: The more limited dynamic range of the output (be it SDR display or printing). Because sensor elements for different colors saturate in turn, there can be hue or saturation shift in burnt-out highlights. Some digital cameras can show these blown highlights in the image review, allowing the photographer to re-shoot the picture with a modified exposure. Others compensate for the total contrast of a scene by selectively exposing darker pixels longer. A third technique

3834-417: The older CompactFlash (CF) format; other formats are rare. XQD card format was the last new form of card, targeted at high-definition camcorders and high-resolution digital photo cameras. Most modern digital cameras also use internal memory of limited capacity to hold pictures temporarily, regardless of whether or not the camera is equipped with a memory card. These pictures can then be transferred later to

3905-617: The peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR) and mean squared error (MSE), which are inconsistent with human visual perception. In the same paper, the authors also show that it performs better than other video quality models such as the ANSI/ISO standard VQM, and the popular Structural Similarity ( SSIM ) model in terms of motion picture quality prediction performance. In another comparison, the MOVIE Index topped other models in terms of correlation with human judgments of motion picture quality on

3976-466: The photographer needs to understand their equipment, the lighting conditions, and the media used to ensure accurate color reproduction. Many digital cameras offer RAW format (sensor data), which makes it possible to choose the color gamut in the development stage regardless of camera settings. Even in RAW format, however, the sensor and the camera's dynamics can only capture colors within the gamut supported by

4047-442: The photographer unless the photographer feels competent to intercede (and the camera offers traditional controls). Electronic by nature, most digital cameras are instant, mechanized, and automatic in some or all functions. Digital cameras may choose to emulate traditional manual controls ( rings , dials , sprung levers , and buttons ) or it may instead provide a touchscreen interface for all functions; most camera phones fall into

4118-465: The picture to 6,553,600 (6.5 megapixels), a factor of 1.6, but the pixels per cm in the picture (at the same image size) increases by only 1.25 times. A measure of the comparative increase in linear resolution is the square root of the increase in area resolution (i.e., megapixels in the entire image). Both digital and film practical imaging systems have a limited " dynamic range ": the range of luminosity that can be reproduced accurately. Highlights of

4189-475: The reference and test videos are then differentially combined and divisively normalized to produce a prediction of temporal picture quality. The overall MOVIE index is then defined as the simple product of the Spatial and Temporal MOVIE indices, pooled over time (frames). According to the original paper, MOVIE index delivers better perceptual motion picture quality predictions than do traditional methods such as

4260-477: The release of the Ritz Dakota Digital , a 1.2-megapixel (1280 × 960) CMOS-based digital camera costing only $ 11. Following the familiar single-use concept long in use with film cameras, Ritz intended the Dakota Digital for single use. When the pre-programmed 25-picture limit is reached, the camera is returned to the store, and the consumer receives back prints and a CD-ROM with their photos. The camera

4331-501: The same Gabor space-time frequency decomposition of reference and test videos, but in a different manner. Temporal MOVIE weights these responses using an excitatory-inhibitory weighting of the Gabor responses to motion-tune them in accordance with a local measurement of video motion. The motion measurements are also made using the space-time filter bank using a perceptually relevant measurement of phase-based optical flow. These measurements on

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4402-404: The same as analog television or early movies. However, a 35 mm picture's aspect ratio is 1.5 (3:2). Several digital cameras take photos in either ratio. Nearly all digital SLRs take pictures in a 3:2 ratio, as most can use lenses designed for 35 mm film. Some photo labs print photos on 4:3 ratio paper, as well as the existing 3:2. In 2005, Panasonic launched the first consumer camera with

4473-411: The subject that are too bright are rendered as white, with no detail ( overexposure ); shadows that are too dark are rendered as black ( underexposure ). The loss of detail in the highlights is not abrupt with film, or in dark shadows with digital sensors. "Highlight burn-out" of digital sensors is not usually abrupt in output images due to the tone mapping required to fit their large dynamic range into

4544-420: The through-the-lens viewfinder of single-lens reflex cameras . While digital photography has only relatively recently become mainstream, the late 20th century saw many small developments leading to its creation. The history of digital photography began in the 1950s. In 1951, the first digital signals were saved to magnetic tape via the first video tape recorder. Six years later, in 1957, the first digital image

4615-447: The visual pathway, including the lateral geniculate nucleus , primary visual cortex , and in the motion-sensitive extrastriate cortex visual area MT. Spatial MOVIE operates by processing spatial and temporal motion picture information in an approximately separable manner. A prediction of the spatial (frame) quality of a video is found by calculating a space-time frequency decomposition of both reference and test (distorted) videos using

4686-1037: The world. He was the founder and First General Chair of the IEEE International Conference on Image Processing (ICIP). He also co-founded (with David Munson, Jr.) the IEEE Transactions on Image Processing and was its longest-serving Editor-in-Chief, with a tenure of six years. Bovik's academic legacy includes serving as the supervising professor of more than 70 PhD graduates, more than 50 master's degree recipients, and more than two dozen post-doctoral researchers. He has created widely used, adopted, and cited books and online courseware, including The Handbook of Image and Video Processing (Academic Press, 2000, 2005), Modern Image Quality Assessment (Morgan & Claypool, 2006), The Essential Guide to Image Processing (Academic Press, 2009), and The Essential Guide to Video Processing (Elsevier Academic Press, 2009). His award-winning online courseware

4757-404: Was processed in liquid chemical solutions to develop and stabilize the image. Digital photographs are typically created solely by computer-based photoelectric and mechanical techniques, without wet bath chemical processing. In consumer markets, apart from enthusiast digital single-lens reflex cameras (DSLR), most digital cameras now come with an electronic viewfinder , which approximates

4828-423: Was produced through a computer by Russell Kirsch . It was an image of his son. The first semiconductor image sensor was the charge-coupled device (CCD), invented by physicists Willard S. Boyle and George E. Smith at Bell Labs in 1969. While researching the metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS) process, they realized that an electric charge was analogous to a magnetic bubble and that the charge could be stored on

4899-502: Was taken as Mariner 4 flew by it on July 15, 1965, with a digital camera system designed by NASA and JPL . In 1976, the twin Mars Viking Landers produced the first images from the surface of Mars. The imaging process was different from that of a modern digital camera, though the result was similar; Viking used a mechanically scanned facsimile camera rather than a mosaic of solid state sensor elements. This produced

4970-534: Was the Nikon SVC prototype demonstrated in 1986, followed by the commercial Nikon QV-1000C released in 1988. The first widely commercially available digital camera was the 1990 Dycam Model 1; it also sold as the Logitech Fotoman. It used a CCD image sensor, stored pictures digitally, and connected directly to a computer for downloading images. Originally offered to professional photographers for

5041-600: Was the advent of the charge-coupled device (CCD) image sensor , first demonstrated in April 1970; since then, the field has advanced rapidly, with concurrent advances in photolithographic fabrication . The first consumer digital cameras were marketed in the late 1990s. Professionals gravitated to digital slowly, converting as their professional work required using digital files to fulfill demands for faster turnaround than conventional methods could allow. Starting around 2000, digital cameras were incorporated into cell phones; in

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