In pharmacology and toxicology , a route of administration is the way by which a drug , fluid, poison, or other substance is taken into the body.
56-980: Chemical compound MDAT [REDACTED] Clinical data Routes of administration Oral ATC code none Legal status Legal status In general: uncontrolled Identifiers IUPAC name 5,6,7,8-tetrahydrobenzo[f][1,3]benzodioxol-6-amine CAS Number 101625-35-8 hydrochloride: 3446-21-8 PubChem CID 36483 ChemSpider 33531 UNII 28IR5LC41Q hydrochloride: BOX4U52EET CompTox Dashboard ( EPA ) DTXSID501017047 [REDACTED] Chemical and physical data Formula C 11 H 13 N O 2 Molar mass 191.230 g·mol 3D model ( JSmol ) Interactive image SMILES C3Cc1cc2OCOc2cc1CC3N 6,7-Methylenedioxy-2-aminotetralin ( MDAT )
112-744: A class of psychoactive drugs that induce the production of experiences of emotional communion, oneness, relatedness, emotional openness—that is, empathy or sympathy—as particularly observed and reported for experiences with 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine ( MDMA ). This class of drug is distinguished from the classes of hallucinogen or psychedelic , and amphetamine or stimulants . Major members of this class include MDMA , MDA , MDEA , MDOH , MBDB , 5-APB , 5-MAPB , 6-APB , 6-MAPB , methylone , mephedrone , GHB , αMT , and αET , MDAI among others. Most entactogens are phenethylamines and amphetamines , although several, such as αMT and αET, are tryptamines . When referring to MDMA and its counterparts,
168-447: A conditioned fear response, MDMA also reduces the avoidance of feelings. Patients are then able to trust themselves and their therapist and engage with traumatic memories under the influence of MDMA. Although the therapeutic effects of entactogens may be promising, drugs such as MDMA have the potential for negative effects that are counter productive in a therapy setting. For example, MDMA may make negative cognition worse. This means that
224-458: A patient who was experiencing psychological trauma such as PTSD. Traumatic memories can be linked to fear in the patients which makes engaging with these memories difficult. Administration of an entactogen such as MDMA allows the patient to disconnect from the fear associated with the traumatic memories and engage in therapy. MDMA acts by targeting the body's stress response in order to cause this therapeutic effect. In addition to reducing anxiety and
280-423: A subsequent study, systemically administered C25, a non-peptide oxytocin receptor antagonist, failed to affect MDMA-induced prosocial behavior, whereas the vasopressin V 1A receptor antagonist relcovaptan (SR-49059) was able to block MDMA-induced prosocial activity. It might be that tocinoic acid is non-selective and also blocks the vasopressin V 1A receptor or that C25 is peripherally selective and
336-572: A varying degree of entactogenic effects; some of them induce additional effects, including serenic effects, stimulant effects, antidepressant effects, anxiolytic effects, and psychedelic effects. Psychiatrists began using entactogens as psychotherapy tools in the 1970s despite the lack of clinical trials. In recent years, the scientific community has been revisiting the possible therapeutic uses of entactogens. Therapeutic models using MDMA have been studied because of its entactogenic properties. This type of therapy would be applicable for treating
392-10642: Is a drug developed in the 1990s by a team at Purdue University led by David E. Nichols . It appears to act as a serotonin releasing agent based on rodent drug discrimination assays comparing it to MDMA , in which it fully substitutes for, and additionally lacks any kind of serotonergic neurotoxicity . Hence, MDAT is considered likely to be a non- neurotoxic , putative entactogen in humans. See also [ edit ] 2-Aminotetralin References [ edit ] ^ Nichols DE, Brewster WK, Johnson MP, Oberlender R, Riggs RM (February 1990). "Nonneurotoxic tetralin and indan analogues of 3,4-(methylenedioxy)amphetamine (MDA)". Journal of Medicinal Chemistry . 33 (2): 703–10. doi : 10.1021/jm00164a037 . PMID 1967651 . v t e Empathogens/entactogens Phenylalkyl- amines (other than cathinones) Unfused benzene ring: 3-CMA 4-CAB 4-FA 4-MA 4-MMA 4-FMA 4-MTA 4,4'-DMAR Ariadne Metaescaline MMA PMA PMEA PMMA mMMA Benzodioxine: EDMA Benzodioxoles: Phenethylamine: { Lophophine } Amphetamines: { 2-Methyl-MDA 2,3-MDA 3,4-MDA (tenamfetamine) 5-Methyl-MDA 6-Methyl-MDA DFMDA DMMDA DMMDA-2 EIDA Lys-MDA MDEA MDMA (midomafetamine) ( R )-MDMA MDMOH MDOH MMDA MMDA-2 MMDMA N-t-BOC-MDMA } 1-Phenylbutan-2-amines: { BDB EBDB MBDB } Phentermines: { MDMP MDPH } Benzofurans, dihydrobenzofurans and benzothiophenes: 2-MAPB 5-APB 5-APDB 5-EAPB 5-MAPB 5-MAPDB 5-MAPBT 5-MBPB 6-APB 6-APDB 6-EAPB 6-MAPB 6-MAPDB IBF5MAP Indanes: 5-APDI 5-MAPDI Indoles: 5-IT 6-API Naphthalenes: Methamnetamine Naphthylaminopropane Tetralin: 6-APT Cyclized phenyl- alkylamines Aminoindanes: 5-IAI AMMI BFAI ETAI MDAI MDMAI MMAI MEAI NM-2-AI TAI Aminotetralins: 6-CAT MDAT MDMAT Cathinones 3-CMC 3-MMC 4-EMC BK-5-MAPB Brephedrone Butylone Dimethylone Ethylone Eutylone Flephedrone Mephedrone Methedrone Methylone TH-PVP Tryptamines 4-Methyl-αET αET αMT Chemical classes Substituted amphetamine Sub. benzofuran Sub. cathinone Sub. MDPEA Sub. PEA Sub. tryptamine v t e Monoamine releasing agents DRAs Tooltip Dopamine releasing agents Morpholines: Fenbutrazate Fenmetramide Morazone Morforex Phendimetrazine Phenmetrazine Pseudophenmetrazine Oxazolines: 4-MAR Aminorex Clominorex Cyclazodone Fenozolone Fluminorex Pemoline Thozalinone Phenethylamines: 2-OH-PEA 4-CAB 4-FA 4-FMA 4-MA 4-MMA Alfetamine Amfecloral Amfepentorex Amfepramone Amphetamine ( Dextroamphetamine Levoamphetamine ) Amphetaminil β-Me-PEA BDB BOH Benzphetamine Buphedrone Butylone Cathine Cathinone Clobenzorex Clortermine D-Deprenyl DMA DMMA Dimethylamphetamine Ephedrine Ethcathinone EBDB Ethylone Etilamfetamine Famprofazone Fenethylline Fenproporex Flephedrone Fludorex Furfenorex Hordenine 4-Hydroxyamphetamine Iofetamine (123I) Lisdexamfetamine Lophophine Mefenorex Mephedrone Metamfepramone Methamphetamine Dextromethamphetamine Levomethamphetamine Methcathinone Methedrone MMDA MMDMA MBDB MDA (tenamfetamine) MDEA MDMA (midomafetamine) MDMPEA MDOH MDPEA Methylone Morforex Ortetamine p BA p CA p IA Pholedrine Phenethylamine Pholedrine Phenpromethamine Prenylamine Propylamphetamine Pseudoephedrine Tiflorex Tyramine Xylopropamine Zylofuramine Piperazines: 2C-B-BZP BZP MBZP MDBZP MeOPP oMPP Others: 2-ADN 2-AI 2-AT 4-BP 5-APDI 5-IAI Amineptine Clofenciclan Cyclopentamine Cypenamine Cyprodenate Feprosidnine Gilutensin Heptaminol Hexacyclonate Indanorex Isometheptene Methylhexanamine Naphthylaminopropane Octodrine Phthalimidopropiophenone Phenylbiguanide Propylhexedrine NRAs Tooltip Norepinephrine releasing agents Morpholines: Fenbutrazate Fenmetramide Morazone Morforex Phendimetrazine Phenmetrazine Pseudophenmetrazine Oxazolines: 4-MAR Aminorex Clominorex Cyclazodone Fenozolone Fluminorex Pemoline Thozalinone Phenethylamines: 2-OH-PEA 4-CAB 4-FA 4-FMA 4-MA 4-MMA Alfetamine Amfecloral Amfepentorex Amfepramone Amphetamine Dextroamphetamine Levoamphetamine Amphetaminil β-Me-PEA BDB Benzphetamine BOH Buphedrone Butylone Cathine Cathinone Clobenzorex Clortermine Dimethylamphetamine DMA DMMA EBDB Ephedrine Ethcathinone Ethylone Etilamfetamine Famprofazone Fenethylline Fenproporex Flephedrone Fludorex Furfenorex Hordenine 4-Hydroxyamphetamine 5-APDI (IAP) Iofetamine (123I) Lisdexamfetamine Lophophine MBDB MDA (tenamfetamine) MDEA MDMA (midomafetamine) Metamfepramone MDMPEA MDOH MDPEA Mefenorex Mephedrone Mephentermine Methamphetamine Dextromethamphetamine Levomethamphetamine Methcathinone Methedrone Methylone Morforex Naphthylaminopropane Ortetamine p BA p CA Pentorex Phenethylamine Pholedrine Phenpromethamine Phentermine Phenylpropanolamine p IA Prenylamine Propylamphetamine Pseudoephedrine Selegiline (also D -Deprenyl ) Tiflorex Tyramine Xylopropamine Zylofuramine Piperazines: 2C-B-BZP BZP MBZP mCPP MDBZP MeOPP oMPP pFPP Others: 2-ADN 2-AI 2-AT 2-BP 4-BP 5-IAI Clofenciclan Cyclopentamine Cypenamine Cyprodenate Feprosidnine Gilutensin Heptaminol Hexacyclonate Indanorex Isometheptene Methylhexanamine Octodrine Phthalimidopropiophenone Propylhexedrine Tuaminoheptane SRAs Tooltip Serotonin releasing agents Aminoindanes: 5-IAI AMMI ETAI MDAI MDMAI MMAI TAI Aminotetralins: 6-CAT 8-OH-DPAT MDAT MDMAT Oxazolines: 4-Methylaminorex Aminorex Clominorex Fluminorex Phenethylamines: 2-Methyl-MDA 4-CAB 4-FA 4-FMA 4-HA 4-MTA 5-APDB 5-Methyl-MDA 6-APDB 6-Methyl-MDA AEMMA Amiflamine BDB BOH Brephedrone Butylone Chlorphentermine Cloforex Amfepramone Metamfepramone DCA Dexfenfluramine DFMDA DMA DMMA EBDB EDMA Ethylone Etolorex Fenfluramine Flephedrone Flucetorex IAP Iofetamine Levofenfluramine Lophophine MBDB MDA (tenamfetamine) MDEA MDHMA MDMA (midomafetamine) MDMPEA MDOH MDPEA Mephedrone Methedrone Methylone MMA MMDA MMDMA MMMA NAP Norfenfluramine 4-TFMA pBA pCA pIA PMA PMEA PMMA TAP Piperazines: 2C-B-BZP 3-MeOPP BZP DCPP MBZP mCPP MDBZP MeOPP Mepiprazole oMPP pCPP pFPP pTFMPP TFMPP Tryptamines: 4-Methyl-αET 4-Methyl-αMT 5-CT 5-MeO-αET 5-MeO-αMT 5-MT αET αMT DMT Tryptamine Others: Indeloxazine Viqualine Others DAT modulators: Agonist-like: SoRI-9804 SoRI-20040 ; Antagonist-like: SoRI-20041 Adrenergic release blockers: Bethanidine Bretylium Guanadrel Guanazodine Guanethidine Guanoxan See also: Receptor/signaling modulators • Monoamine reuptake inhibitors • Adrenergics • Dopaminergics • Serotonergics • Monoamine metabolism modulators • Monoamine neurotoxins Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MDAT&oldid=1216582179 " Categories : Drugs not assigned an ATC code 2-Aminotetralins Entactogens and empathogens Benzodioxoles Designer drugs Serotonin releasing agents Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Drugs with non-standard legal status Articles without EBI source Chemical pages without DrugBank identifier Articles without KEGG source Articles without InChI source Multiple chemicals in Infobox drug Chemicals using indexlabels Chemical articles with multiple CAS registry numbers Articles containing unverified chemical infoboxes Route of administration Routes of administration are generally classified by
448-403: Is a solid dosage form that fits for rectal administration . In hospice care , a specialized rectal catheter , designed to provide comfortable and discreet administration of ongoing medications provides a practical way to deliver and retain liquid formulations in the distal rectum, giving health practitioners a way to leverage the established benefits of rectal administration. The Murphy drip
504-449: Is affected by the amount of drug that is absorbed across the intestinal epithelium and first-pass metabolism . The oral mucosa is the mucous membrane lining the inside of the mouth . Buccally administered medication is achieved by placing the drug between gums and the inner lining of the cheek . In comparison with sublingual tissue, buccal tissue is less permeable resulting in slower absorption . Sublingual administration
560-447: Is an example of rectal infusion. The parenteral route is any route that is not enteral ( par- + enteral ). Parenteral administration can be performed by injection , that is, using a needle (usually a hypodermic needle ) and a syringe , or by the insertion of an indwelling catheter . Locations of application of parenteral administration include: The definition of the topical route of administration sometimes states that both
616-425: Is an increased risk of side effects if the drug is administered too rapidly. Inhaled medications can be absorbed quickly and act both locally and systemically. Proper technique with inhaler devices is necessary to achieve the correct dose. Some medications can have an unpleasant taste or irritate the mouth. In general, only 20–50% of the pulmonary-delivered dose rendered in powdery particles will be deposited in
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#1732787874994672-640: Is classified as a substituted amphetamine (which includes stimulants like dextroamphetamine and psychedelics like 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine ), which makes MDMA a substituted phenethylamine (which includes other stimulants like methylphenidate and other psychedelics like mescaline ) by the definition of amphetamine. While chemically related both to psychedelics and stimulants, the psychological effects experienced with MDMA were reported to provide obvious and striking aspects of personal relatedness, feelings of connectedness, communion with others, and ability to feel what others feel—in short an empathic resonance
728-949: Is consistently evoked. While psychedelics like LSD may sometimes yield effects of empathic resonance, these effects tend to be momentary and likely passed over on the way to some other dimension or interest. In contrast, the main characteristic that distinguishes MDMA from LSD-type experiences is the consistency of the effects of emotional communion, relatedness, emotional openness—in short, empathy and sympathy. Entactogens like MDMA are serotonin releasing agents and hence are indirect agonists of serotonin receptors . They produce entactogenic effects in animals such as increased prosocial behavior like adjacent lying, enhanced empathy -like behavior, and antiaggressive effects. Likewise, MDMA increases sociability , prosociality, and emotional empathy in humans. In animals, MDMA induced prosocial behavior and elevations in circulating oxytocin levels and these effects were abolished by pretreatment with
784-433: Is fulfilled by placing the drug between the tongue and the lower surface of the mouth. The sublingual mucosa is highly permeable and thereby provides access to the underlying expansive network composed of capillaries, leading to rapid drug absorption. Drug administration via the nasal cavity yields rapid drug absorption and therapeutic effects. This is because drug absorption through the nasal passages does not go through
840-485: Is the most reliable route, as in acutely ill patients the absorption of substances from the tissues and from the digestive tract can often be unpredictable due to altered blood flow or bowel motility. Enteral routes are generally the most convenient for the patient, as no punctures or sterile procedures are necessary. Enteral medications are therefore often preferred in the treatment of chronic disease. However, some drugs can not be used enterally because their absorption in
896-472: Is therefore different from that after parenteral administration. This can be illustrated by the action of naloxone (Narcan), an antagonist of opiates such as morphine . Naloxone counteracts opiate action in the central nervous system when given intravenously and is therefore used in the treatment of opiate overdose. The same drug, when swallowed, acts exclusively on the bowels; it is here used to treat constipation under opiate pain therapy and does not affect
952-513: Is unable to block oxytocin receptors in the brain. More research is needed to clarify this. In any case, in another study, the non-peptide and centrally active selective oxytocin receptor antagonist L-368899 abolished MDMA-induced prosocial behavior. Conversely, in other studies, different oxytocin receptor antagonists were ineffective. As in animals, MDMA greatly increases circulating oxytocin levels in humans. Serotonin reuptake inhibitors and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors reduced
1008-446: Is usually rather a matter of pharmacodynamics (concerning, for example, the physiological effects of drugs ). An exception is topical administration , which generally means that both the application location and the effect thereof is local. Topical administration is sometimes defined as both a local application location and local pharmacodynamic effect, and sometimes merely as a local application location regardless of location of
1064-449: The end of life . The walls of the rectum absorb many medications quickly and effectively. Medications delivered to the distal one-third of the rectum at least partially avoid the " first pass effect " through the liver, which allows for greater bio-availability of many medications than that of the oral route. Rectal mucosa is highly vascularized tissue that allows for rapid and effective absorption of medications. A suppository
1120-624: The location at which the substance is applied. Common examples include oral and intravenous administration. Routes can also be classified based on where the target of action is. Action may be topical (local), enteral (system-wide effect, but delivered through the gastrointestinal tract ), or parenteral (systemic action, but is delivered by routes other than the GI tract). Route of administration and dosage form are aspects of drug delivery . Routes of administration are usually classified by application location (or exposition). The route or course
1176-406: The stomach , and as such gastrointestinal (along the gastrointestinal tract ) may be a more fitting term for this route of administration. Furthermore, some application locations often classified as enteral , such as sublingual (under the tongue) and sublabial or buccal (between the cheek and gums/ gingiva ), are taken up in the proximal part of the gastrointestinal tract without reaching
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#17327878749941232-461: The transitional zones of the lung by sedimentation. An inhaled powdery particle that is <3 μm in diameter is structurally predisposed to depositing primarily in the respiratory regions of the peripheral lung via diffusion. Particles that deposit in the upper and central airways are generally absorbed systemically to great extent because they are only partially removed by mucociliary clearance, which results in orally mediated absorption when
1288-412: The active substance takes from application location to the location where it has its target effect is usually rather a matter of pharmacokinetics (concerning the processes of uptake, distribution, and elimination of drugs). Exceptions include the transdermal or transmucosal routes, which are still commonly referred to as routes of administration . The location of the target effect of active substances
1344-431: The amount of substance swallowed. The rate of inhalation will usually determine the amount of the substance which enters the lungs. Faster inhalation results in more rapid absorption because more substance finds the lungs. Substances in a form that resists absorption in the lung will likely resist absorption in the nasal passage, and the oral cavity, and are often even more resistant to absorption after they fail absorption in
1400-484: The application location and the pharmacodynamic effect thereof is local. In other cases, topical is defined as applied to a localized area of the body or to the surface of a body part regardless of the location of the effect. By this definition, topical administration also includes transdermal application, where the substance is administered onto the skin but is absorbed into the body to attain systemic distribution. If defined strictly as having local effect,
1456-399: The different particle surfaces. Inhalation by nose of a substance is almost identical to oral inhalation, except that some of the drug is absorbed intranasally instead of in the oral cavity before entering the airways. Both methods can result in varying levels of the substance to be deposited in their respective initial cavities, and the level of mucus in either of these cavities will reflect
1512-444: The digestive tract is low or unpredictable. Transdermal administration is a comfortable alternative; there are, however, only a few drug preparations that are suitable for transdermal administration. Identical drugs can produce different results depending on the route of administration. For example, some drugs are not significantly absorbed into the bloodstream from the gastrointestinal tract and their action after enteral administration
1568-412: The dosage is difficult to control. Upon contact with the skin, the drug penetrates into the dead stratum corneum and can afterwards reach the viable epidermis , the dermis , and the blood vessels . The term parenteral is from para-1 'beside' + Greek enteron 'intestine' + -al. This name is due to the fact that it encompasses a route of administration that is not intestinal. However, in common English
1624-443: The drugs that go beyond instilling feelings of empathy. The hybrid word entactogen is derived from the roots en ( Greek : within ), tactus ( Latin : touch ) and -gen ( Greek : produce ). Entactogen is not becoming dominant in usage, and, despite their difference in connotation, they are essentially interchangeable, as they refer to precisely the same chemicals. In 2024, an additional alternative term, connectogen ,
1680-418: The effects. Through the gastrointestinal tract is sometimes termed enteral or enteric administration (literally meaning 'through the intestines '). Enteral/enteric administration usually includes oral (through the mouth ) and rectal (into the rectum ) administration, in the sense that these are taken up by the intestines. However, uptake of drugs administered orally may also occur already in
1736-448: The former cavities and are swallowed. Neural drug delivery is the next step beyond the basic addition of growth factors to nerve guidance conduits . Drug delivery systems allow the rate of growth factor release to be regulated over time, which is critical for creating an environment more closely representative of in vivo development environments. Empathogen-entactogen Psychedelic film Empathogens or entactogens are
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1792-471: The full quality and "magic" of MDMA. Exceptions may anecdotally include 5-MAPB , particularly in specific enantiomer ratios, and the Borax combo . The unique properties of MDMA are believed to be dependent on a very specific mixture and ratio of pharmacological activities, including combined serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine release and direct serotonin receptor agonism. The chemicals below have
1848-430: The gut before entering capillaries situated at tissue cells and then systemic circulation and such absorption route allows transport of drugs into the central nervous system via the pathways of olfactory and trigeminal nerve . Intranasal absorption features low lipophilicity, enzymatic degradation within the nasal cavity, large molecular size, and rapid mucociliary clearance from the nasal passages, which explains
1904-511: The intestines. Strictly enteral administration (directly into the intestines) can be used for systemic administration, as well as local (sometimes termed topical ), such as in a contrast enema , whereby contrast media are infused into the intestines for imaging. However, for the purposes of classification based on location of effects, the term enteral is reserved for substances with systemic effects. Many drugs as tablets , capsules , or drops are taken orally. Administration methods directly into
1960-409: The key pharmacological action mediating the entactogenic, prosocial, and empathy-enhancing effects of the drug. However, in addition to serotonin release, MDMA is also a potent releasing agent of norepinephrine and dopamine , and hence acts as a well-balanced serotonin–norepinephrine–dopamine releasing agent . Additionally, MDMA is a direct agonist of several serotonin receptors, including of
2016-417: The low risk of systemic exposure of the administered drug absorbed via intranasal. By delivering drugs almost directly to the site of action, the risk of systemic side effects is reduced. Skin absorption (dermal absorption), for example, is to directly deliver drug to the skin and, hopefully, to the systemic circulation. However, skin irritation may result, and for some forms such as creams or lotions,
2072-407: The lung upon mouth inhalation. The remainder of 50-70% undeposited aerosolized particles are cleared out of lung as soon as exhalation . An inhaled powdery particle that is >8 μm is structurally predisposed to depositing in the central and conducting airways ( conducting zone ) by inertial impaction. An inhaled powdery particle that is between 3 and 8 μm in diameter tend to largely deposit in
2128-489: The pain-reducing effect of the opiate. The oral route is generally the most convenient and costs the least. However, some drugs can cause gastrointestinal tract irritation. For drugs that come in delayed release or time-release formulations, breaking the tablets or capsules can lead to more rapid delivery of the drug than intended. The oral route is limited to formulations containing small molecules only while biopharmaceuticals (usually proteins) would be digested in
2184-413: The patient and the requirement of trained staff using aseptic techniques for administration. However, in some cases, patients are taught to self-inject, such as SC injection of insulin in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus . As the drug is delivered to the site of action extremely rapidly with IV injection, there is a risk of overdose if the dose has been calculated incorrectly, and there
2240-589: The potential treatment of social deficits and aggression . Examples include batoprazine , eltoprazine (DU-28853), fluprazine (DU-27716), F-15,599 (NLX-01), zolmitriptan (ML-004), and LIT-001 . Serotonergic psychedelics , for instance lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin , which act as non-selective serotonin receptor agonists including of the serotonin 5-HT 1 and 5-HT 2 receptors , have shown prosocial and empathy-enhancing effects in animals and/or humans as well, both acutely and long-term. The serotonin release of MDMA appears to be
2296-444: The role of oxytocin in the entactogenic effects of MDMA in humans is controversial. Other serotonin releasing agents, like fenfluramine , show prosocial effects in animals similar to those of MDMA. Fenfluramine has likewise been reported to improve social deficits in children with autism . Selective agonists of the serotonin 5-HT 1A and 5-HT 1B receptors and of the oxytocin receptors have been or are being investigated for
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2352-428: The serotonin 5-HT 1A receptor antagonist WAY-100635 . Conversely, the serotonin 5-HT 1A receptor agonist 8-OH-DPAT produced prosocial behavior and increased oxytocin levels similarly to MDMA. In addition, MDMA has been shown to activate oxytocinergic neurons in the hypothalamus and this too is reversed by serotonin 5-HT 1A receptor antagonism. Subsequent research found that direct injection of
2408-527: The serotonin 5-HT 1B receptor antagonist GR-55562 and the serotonin 5-HT 2A receptor antagonist ketanserin were both ineffective. Likewise, another study found that selective antagonists of the serotonin 5-HT 1B , 5-HT 2A , 5-HT 2C , and 5-HT 4 receptors ( SB-216641 ), volinanserin (MDL-100907), SB-242084 , and SB-204070 , respectively) were all ineffective in suppressing MDMA-induced prosocial activity. Other research has found that serotonin 5-HT 2B receptor inactivation abolishes
2464-548: The serotonin 5-HT 1A receptor WAY-100635 locally into the basolateral amygdala (BLA) suppressed MDMA-induced prosocial behavior and that direct injection of MDMA locally into the BLA significantly increased sociability. The serotonin 5-HT 2B and 5-HT 2C receptor antagonist SB-206553 has also been found to block MDMA-induced prosocial behavior, although it produced potentially confounding thigmotaxis (hyperactivity at periphery of testing chamber) as well. Conversely,
2520-520: The serotonin 5-HT 1B receptor antagonist NAS-181 directly into the nucleus accumbens blocked the prosocial behaviors of MDMA. On the basis of the serotonin 5-HT 1A receptor-mediated oxytocin release with MDMA, it has been proposed that increased oxytocinergic signaling may mediate the prosocial effects of MDMA in animals. Accordingly, intracerebroventricular injection of the peptide oxytocin receptor antagonist tocinoic acid blocked MDMA- and 8-OH-DPAT-induced prosocial effects. However, in
2576-466: The serotonin 5-HT 2 receptors, with moderate affinity . These actions are thought to play an important role in the effects of MDMA, including in its psychostimulant , euphoriant , and mild psychedelic effects, as well as in its unique and difficult-to-replicate "magic". It has been said by Matthew Baggott that few to no MDMA analogues , including MBDB , methylone , 6-APDB , 5-APDB , 6-APB , 5-APB , MDAT , and MDAI among others, reproduce
2632-475: The serotonin release induced by MDMA and attenuates many of its effects. In addition to the preceding findings, induction of serotonin release by MDMA in the nucleus accumbens and consequent activation of serotonin 5-HT 1B receptors in this area is implicated in its enhancement of prosocial behaviors, whereas consequent activation of yet-to-be-determined serotonin receptors in this area is implicated in its enhancement of empathy-like behaviors. Injection of
2688-521: The stomach and thereby become ineffective. Biopharmaceuticals have to be given by injection or infusion. However, recent research found various ways to improve oral bioavailability of these drugs. In particular permeation enhancers, ionic liquids , lipid-based nanocarriers, enzyme inhibitors and microneedles have shown potential. Oral administration is often denoted "PO" from "per os", the Latin for "by mouth". The bioavailability of oral administration
2744-451: The stomach include those by gastric feeding tube or gastrostomy . Substances may also be placed into the small intestines , as with a duodenal feeding tube and enteral nutrition . Enteric coated tablets are designed to dissolve in the intestine, not the stomach, because the drug present in the tablet causes irritation in the stomach. The rectal route is an effective route of administration for many medications, especially those used at
2800-518: The subjective effects of MDMA in humans, for instance increased extroversion , self-confidence , closeness , openness , and talkativeness . The 5-HT 2A receptor antagonist ketanserin reduced MDMA-induced increases in friendliness. MDMA-induced emotional empathy was not affected by the serotonin 5-HT 1A receptor antagonist pindolol or by intranasal oxytocin . Similarly, MDMA-induced emotional empathy and prosocial behavior have not been associated with circulating oxytocin levels. As such,
2856-535: The term MDxx is often used (with the exception of MDPV ). Entactogens are sometimes incorrectly referred to as hallucinogens or stimulants, although many entactogens such as ecstasy exhibit psychedelic or stimulant properties as well. The term empathogen , meaning "generating a state of empathy ", was coined in 1983–84 by Ralph Metzner as a term to denote a therapeutic class of drugs that includes MDMA and phenethylamine relatives. David E. Nichols in 1986 rejected this initial terminology and adopted, instead,
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#17327878749942912-509: The term entactogen , meaning "producing a touching within", to denote this class of drugs, asserting a concern with the potential for improper association of the term empathogen with negative connotations related to the Greek root πάθος páthos ("suffering; passion"). Additionally, Nichols wanted to avoid any association with the term pathogenesis . Nichols also thought the original term was limiting, and did not cover other therapeutic uses for
2968-842: The term has mostly been used to describe the four most well-known routes of injection. The term injection encompasses intravenous (IV), intramuscular (IM), subcutaneous (SC) and intradermal (ID) administration. Parenteral administration generally acts more rapidly than topical or enteral administration, with onset of action often occurring in 15–30 seconds for IV, 10–20 minutes for IM and 15–30 minutes for SC. They also have essentially 100% bioavailability and can be used for drugs that are poorly absorbed or ineffective when they are given orally. Some medications, such as certain antipsychotics , can be administered as long-acting intramuscular injections . Ongoing IV infusions can be used to deliver continuous medication or fluids . Disadvantages of injections include potential pain or discomfort for
3024-557: The topical route of administration can also include enteral administration of medications that are poorly absorbable by the gastrointestinal tract . One such medication is the antibiotic vancomycin , which cannot be absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract and is used orally only as a treatment for Clostridioides difficile colitis . The reason for choice of routes of drug administration are governing by various factors: In acute situations, in emergency medicine and intensive care medicine , drugs are most often given intravenously. This
3080-428: The transported mucus is swallowed, and first pass metabolism or incomplete absorption through loss at the fecal route can sometimes reduce the bioavailability. This should in no way suggest to clinicians or researchers that inhaled particles are not a greater threat than swallowed particles, it merely signifies that a combination of both methods may occur with some particles, no matter the size of or lipo/hydrophilicity of
3136-477: Was proposed and introduced. Both terms adopted and used in naming the class of therapeutic drugs for MDMA and related compounds were chosen with the intention of providing some reflection of the reported psychological effects associated with drugs in the classification and distinguishing these compounds from classical psychedelic drugs such as LSD , mescaline , and psilocybin and major stimulants , such as methamphetamine and amphetamine . Chemically, MDMA
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