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85-512: The Ottoman Turks called the hills Pınar Dağ ("Spring Mount"). The Slavic name is Kushnitsa (Кушница) or Kushinitsa (Кушиница). The hills are direct across a fertile plain from the ancient city of Philippi , they are located in the ancient country of Sintice , between the Strymon and the Xiropotamos rivers and are covered in the oriental plane and chestnut trees. Towns found in

170-517: A monumental inscription on the stylobate in Basilica B, now partially in ruins. The site of Philippi was so strategically sound that the Byzantines attempted to recapture it around 850. Several seals of civil servants and other Byzantine officials, dated to the first half of the 9th century, prove the presence of Byzantine armies in the city. Around 969, Emperor Nicephorus II Phocas rebuilt

255-416: A volcanic origin. He also deals with precious stones, emeralds , amethysts , onyx , jasper , etc., and describes a variety of "sapphire" that was blue with veins of gold, and thus was presumably lapis lazuli . He knew that pearls came from shellfish , that coral came from India, and speaks of the fossilized remains of organic life. He also considers the practical uses of various stones, such as

340-758: A brief occupation by the Franks after the Fourth Crusade and the capture of Constantinople in 1204, the city was captured by the Serbs . Still, it remained a notable fortification on the route of the ancient Via Egnatia ; in 1354, the pretender to the Byzantine throne, Matthew Cantacuzenus , was captured there by the Serbs. The city was abandoned at an unknown date. When the French traveller Pierre Belon visited

425-426: A different form, and what additional structures of thought he placed upon them, can only be partially determined because of the loss of so many of his writings. Many of his opinions have to be reconstructed from the works of later writers such as Alexander of Aphrodisias and Simplicius . Theophrastus seems to have carried out still further the grammatical foundation of logic and rhetoric , since in his book on

510-494: A happiness resting merely upon virtue, or, consequently, to hold fast by the unconditional value of morality . He subordinated moral requirements to the advantage at least of a friend, and had allowed in prosperity the existence of an influence injurious to them. In later times, fault was found with his expression in the Callisthenes , "life is ruled by fortune, not wisdom" ( vitam regit fortuna non sapientia ). That in

595-432: A manner of which Aristotle would not have approved. Theophrastus was opposed to eating meat on the grounds that it robbed animals of life and was therefore unjust. Non-human animals, he said, can reason, sense, and feel just as human beings do. The marble herm figure with the bearded head of philosopher type, bearing the explicit inscription, must be taken as purely conventional. Unidentified portrait heads did not find

680-455: A necessary consequence of all activity. In ethics , he regarded happiness as depending on external influences as well as on virtue . Most of the biographical information about Theophrastus was provided by Diogenes Laërtius ' Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers , written more than four hundred years after Theophrastus's time. He was a native of Eresos in Lesbos . His given name

765-783: A ready market in post-Renaissance Rome. This bust was formerly in the collection of marchese Pietro Massimi at Palazzo Massimi and belonged to marchese L. Massimi at the time the engraving was made. It is now in the Villa Albani , Rome (inv. 1034). The inscribed bust has often been illustrated in engravings and photographs: a photograph of it forms the frontispiece to the Loeb Classical Library Theophrastus: Enquiry into Plants vol. I, 1916. André Thevet illustrated in his iconographic compendium, Les vraies Pourtrats et vies des Hommes Illustres (Paris, 1584), an alleged portrait plagiarized from

850-516: A smaller reflection of Rome itself, and its importance in early Christianity. Thasian colonists established a settlement at Crenides in Thrace in 360/359 BC near the head of the Aegean Sea at the foot of Mt. Orbelos , now called Mt. Lekani, about 13 km (8.1 mi) north-west of Kavala , on the northern border of the marsh that, in antiquity, covered the entire plain separating it from

935-512: A source for other lapidaries until at least the Renaissance , Theophrastus classified rocks and gems based on their behavior when heated, further grouping minerals by common properties, such as amber and magnetite , which both have the power of attraction. Theophrastus describes different marbles ; mentions coal , which he says is used for heating by metal-workers; describes the various metal ores ; and knew that pumice stones had

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1020-485: A spirit entirely independent of organic activity, must therefore have appeared to him very doubtful; yet he appears to have contented himself with developing his doubts and difficulties on the point, without positively rejecting it. Other Peripatetics, like Dicaearchus , Aristoxenus , and especially Strato , developed further this naturalism in Aristotelian doctrine. Theophrastus seems, generally speaking, where

1105-591: A visit in 1856, was published in 1860 by Georges Perrot . This was followed by the more extensive investigations of the French Mission Archéologique de Macédoine in 1861, led by the archaeologist Léon Heuzey and the architect Honoré Daumet . Excavations by the École française d'Athènes began in the summer of 1914, were renewed in 1920 after an interruption caused by the First World War , and continued until 1937. During this time

1190-578: Is indicated by a letter from Polycarp of Smyrna addressed to the community in Philippi around AD 160 and by funerary inscriptions. The first church described in the city is a small building that was probably originally a small prayer-house. This Basilica of Paul , identified by a mosaic inscription on the pavement, is dated around 343 from a mention by the bishop Porphyrios, who attended the Council of Serdica that year. Despite Philippi having one of

1275-462: Is named after this mountain range and the seat of the municipality is Eleftheroupoli . Philippi Philippi ( / f ɪ ˈ l ɪ p aɪ , ˈ f ɪ l ə ˌ p aɪ / ; ‹See Tfd› Greek : Φίλιπποι , Phílippoi ) was a major Greek city northwest of the nearby island, Thasos . Its original name was Crenides ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Κρηνῖδες , Krēnĩdes "Fountains") after its establishment by Thasian colonists in 360/359 BC. The city

1360-725: Is testified to not only by a number of treatises on individual subjects of zoology , of which, besides the titles, only fragments remain, but also by his books On Stones , his Enquiry into Plants , and On the Causes of Plants (see below), which have come down to us entire. In politics, also, he seems to have trodden in the footsteps of Aristotle. Besides his books on the State ( Πολιτικῶν and Πολιτικοῦ ), we find quoted various treatises on Education ( Περὶ παιδείας βασιλέως and Περὶ παιδείας ), on Royalty ( Περὶ βασιλείας , Περὶ παιδείας βασιλέως and Πρὸς Κάσανδρον περὶ βασιλείας ), on

1445-639: Is usually stated to be ... we must set certain limits to purposiveness and to the effort after the best, and not assert it to exist in all cases without qualification. He did not follow the incessant attempts by Aristotle to refer phenomena to their ultimate foundations, or his attempts to unfold the internal connections between the latter, and between them and phenomena. In antiquity, it was a subject of complaint that Theophrastus had not expressed himself with precision and consistency respecting God , and had understood it at one time as Heaven , at another an (enlivening) breath ( pneuma ). Theophrastus did not allow

1530-512: Is very likely that he did so at the urging of Theophrastus. It seems that it was on Lesbos that Aristotle and Theophrastus began their research into natural science , with Aristotle studying animals and Theophrastus studying plants. Theophrastus probably accompanied Aristotle to Macedonia when Aristotle was appointed tutor to Alexander the Great in 343/2. Around 335 BC, Theophrastus moved with Aristotle to Athens, where Aristotle began teaching in

1615-468: The Academics , and a sketch of the political doctrine of Plato . He studied general history, as we know from Plutarch 's lives of Lycurgus , Solon , Aristides , Pericles , Nicias , Alcibiades , Lysander , Agesilaus , and Demosthenes , which were probably borrowed from the work on Lives ( Περὶ βίων ). But his main efforts were to continue the labours of Aristotle in natural history . This

1700-702: The Best State ( Περὶ τῆς ἀρίστης πολιτείας ), on Political Morals ( Πολιτικῶν ἐθῶν ), and particularly his works on the Laws ( Νόμων κατὰ στοιχεῖον , Νόμων ἐπιτομῆς and Περὶ νόμων ), one of which, containing a recapitulation of the laws of various barbarian as well as Greek states, was intended to be a companion to Aristotle's outline of Politics , and must have been similar to it. He also wrote on oratory and poetry . Theophrastus, without doubt, departed further from Aristotle in his ethical writings, as also in his metaphysical investigations of motion ,

1785-554: The Characters . George Eliot also took inspiration from Theophrastus's Characters , most notably in her book of caricatures, Impressions of Theophrastus Such . Writing the "character sketch" as a scholastic exercise also originated in Theophrastus's typology. A treatise On Sense Perception ( Περὶ αἰσθήσεων ) and its objects is important for a knowledge of the doctrines of the more ancient Greek philosophers regarding

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1870-728: The Codex Urbinas in the Vatican Library , which was not made known to J. G. Schneider , who made the first modern critical edition, 1818–21, and the excerpts in the Codex Parisiensis in the Bibliothèque nationale de France . His book Characters ( Ἠθικοὶ χαρακτῆρες ) contains thirty brief outlines of moral types. They are the first recorded attempt at systematic character writing . The book has been regarded by some as an independent work; others incline to

1955-685: The Lyceum , the Peripatetic school of philosophy in Athens . Theophrastus wrote numerous treatises across all areas of philosophy, working to support, improve, expand, and develop the Aristotelian system . He made significant contributions to various fields, including ethics , metaphysics , botany , and natural history . Often considered the "father of botany" for his groundbreaking works " Enquiry into Plants " ( Ancient Greek : Περὶ φυτῶν ἱστορία , romanized :  Peri phytōn historia ) and "On

2040-653: The Lyceum . Theophrastus presided over the Peripatetic school for thirty-six years, during which time the school flourished greatly. He is often considered the father of botany for his works on plants. After his death, the Athenians honoured him with a public funeral. His successor as head of the school was Strato of Lampsacus . The interests of Theophrastus were wide ranging, including biology , physics , ethics and metaphysics . His two surviving botanical works, Enquiry into Plants (Historia Plantarum) and On

2125-417: The Lyceum . When, after the death of Alexander, anti-Macedonian feeling forced Aristotle to leave Athens, Theophrastus remained behind as head ( scholarch ) of the Peripatetic school , a position he continued to hold after Aristotle's death in 322/1. Aristotle in his will made him guardian of his children, including Nicomachus , with whom he was close. Aristotle likewise bequeathed to him his library and

2210-708: The Natural Philosophy ( Περὶ φύσεως , Περὶ φυσικῶν , Φυσικῶν and others), on Heaven ( Περὶ οὐρανοῦ ), and on Meteorological Phenomena ( Τῆς μεταρσιολεσχίας and Μεταρσιολογικῶν ). In addition, Theophrastus wrote on the Warm and the Cold ( Περὶ θερμοῦ καὶ ψυχροῦ ), on Water ( Περὶ ὕδατος ), Fire ( Περὶ πυρóς ), the Sea ( Περὶ θαλάττης ), on Coagulation and Melting ( Περὶ πήξεων καὶ τήξεων ), on various phenomena of organic and spiritual life, and on

2295-472: The Pangaion Hills to the south. In 356 BC, King Philip II of Macedon conquered the city and renamed it to Philippi. The Macedonian conquerors of the town aimed to take control of the neighbouring gold mines and to establish a garrison at a strategic passage: the site controlled the route between Amphipolis and Neapolis , part of the great royal route which runs east-west across Macedonia which

2380-517: The Plague of Justinian in 547, the city was almost totally destroyed by an earthquake around 619, from which it never recovered. There was a small amount of activity there in the 7th century, but the city was now hardly more than a village. The Byzantine Empire possibly maintained a garrison there, but in 838 the Bulgarians under kavhan Isbul took the city and celebrated their victory with

2465-522: The Roman Republic reconstructed in the 2nd century BC as part of the Via Egnatia . Philip II endowed the city with important fortifications, which partially blocked the passage between the swamp and Mt. Orbelos, and sent colonists to occupy it. Philip also had the marsh partially drained, as the writer Theophrastus ( c. 371 – c. 287 BC) attests. Philippi preserved its autonomy within

2550-598: The Roman forum and a little temple dedicated to a hero cult . This monument covers the tomb of a certain Exekestos, is possibly situated on the agora and is dedicated to the κτίστης ( ktístēs ), the foundation hero of the city. The city reappears in the sources during the Liberators' civil war (43–42 BC) that followed the assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BC. Caesar's heirs Mark Antony and Octavian confronted

2635-504: The Soul ( Περὶ ψυχῆς ), on Experience ( Περὶ ἐμπειρίας ) and On Sense Perception (also known as On the Senses ; Περὶ αἰσθήσεων ). Likewise, we find mention of monographs of Theophrastus on the early Greek philosophers Anaximenes , Anaxagoras , Empedocles , Archelaus , Diogenes of Apollonia , Democritus , which were made use of by Simplicius ; and also on Xenocrates , against

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2720-530: The Topica of Theophrastus. Closely connected with this treatise was that upon ambiguous words or ideas, which, without doubt, corresponded to book Ε of Aristotle's Metaphysics . Theophrastus introduced his Physics with the proof that all natural existence, being corporeal and composite, requires principles , and first and foremost, motion , as the basis of all change. Denying the substance of space , he seems to have regarded it, in opposition to Aristotle, as

2805-520: The Winds , and on the signs of Waters , Winds , and Storms . Various smaller scientific fragments have been collected in the editions of Johann Gottlob Schneider (1818–21) and Friedrich Wimmer (1842–62) and in Hermann Usener 's Analecta Theophrastea . The Metaphysics (anachronistic Greek title: Θεοφράστου τῶν μετὰ τὰ φυσικά ), in nine chapters (also known as On First Principles ),

2890-694: The soul , and God . Besides these writings, Theophrastus wrote several collections of problems, out of which some things at least have passed into the Problems that have come down to us under the name of Aristotle, and commentaries, partly dialogue , to which probably belonged the Erotikos ( Ἐρωτικός ), Megacles ( Μεγακλῆς ), Callisthenes ( Καλλισθένης ), and Megarikos ( Μεγαρικός ), and letters, partly books on mathematical sciences and their history. Many of his surviving works exist only in fragmentary form. "The style of these works, as of

2975-633: The Apostles), Paul is believed to have preached for the first time on European soil in Philippi, leading to the conversion and baptism of the purple merchant, Lydia of Thyatira . According to the New Testament, Paul visited the city on two other occasions, in 56 and 57. The Epistle to the Philippians dates from around 61–62 and is generally assumed to show the immediate effects of Paul's instruction. The development of Christianity in Philippi

3060-513: The Athenians send out a colony in 465 to an area known as the Nine Roads ( Ennéa Hodoí ). The colonists were massacred by nearby Thracians and the colony was abandoned, though the Athenians would return to the area with their colony at Amphipolis . Pangaion is very often referred to by ancient Greek and Latin sources. It was famous for silver and gold mines, as well as for shipyard wood and the oracle of Dionysus . The municipality of Pangaio

3145-427: The Causes of Plants was originally eight books, of which six survive. It concerns the growth of plants; the influences on their fecundity; the proper times they should be sown and reaped; the methods of preparing the soil, manuring it, and the use of tools; and of the smells, tastes, and properties of many types of plants. The work deals mainly with the economical uses of plants rather than their medicinal uses, although

3230-439: The Causes of Plants , were an important influence on Renaissance science . There are also surviving works On Moral Characters , On Sense Perception , and On Stones , as well as fragments on Physics and Metaphysics . In philosophy, he studied grammar and language and continued Aristotle's work on logic . He also regarded space as the mere arrangement and position of bodies, time as an accident of motion, and motion as

3315-653: The Causes of Plants," ( Ancient Greek : Περὶ αἰτιῶν φυτικῶν , romanized :  Peri aitiōn phytikōn ) Theophrastus established the foundations of botanical science . His given name was Tyrtamos ( Ancient Greek : Τύρταμος ); the nickname Theophrastus ("divine speaker") was reputedly given to him by Aristotle in recognition of his eloquent style. He came to Athens at a young age and initially studied in Plato's school . After Plato's death, he attached himself to Aristotle who took to Theophrastus in his writings. When Aristotle fled Athens, Theophrastus took over as head of

3400-530: The Greek plants may have come from his own observations, as he is known to have travelled throughout Greece, and to have had a botanical garden of his own; but the works also profit from the reports on plants of Asia brought back from those who followed Alexander the Great : to the reports of Alexander's followers he owed his accounts of such plants as the cotton-plant , banyan , pepper , cinnamon , myrrh , and frankincense . Theophrastus's Enquiry into Plants

3485-688: The Greek theatre, the forum, Basilicas A and B, the baths, and the walls were excavated. After the Second World War , Greek archaeologists returned to the site. From 1958 to 1978, the Archaeological Society of Athens , followed by the Greek Archaeological Service and the University of Thessalonica, uncovered the bishop's quarter and the octagonal church, large private residences, a new basilica near

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3570-493: The Museum, and two others in the necropolis east of the city. Theophrastus Theophrastus ( / ˌ θ iː . ə ˈ f r æ s t ə s / ; Ancient Greek : Θεόφραστος , romanized :  Theophrastos , lit.   'godly phrased'; c. 371 – c. 287 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher and naturalist . A native of Eresos in Lesbos , he was Aristotle's close colleague and successor as head of

3655-475: The Pangaion hills include Nikisiani and Palaiochori which are agricultural in nature and grow mainly grain and tobacco . The town of Palaiochori boasts the ruins of an ancient castle on a peak overlooking the town. Gold and silver were mined in the ancient times. The Athenian tyrant Pisistratus was exiled in the middle of the mountain. It was the rich gold and silver available in the region that made

3740-603: The Roman state, becoming Roman emperor from 27 BC. He reorganized the colony and established more settlers there, veterans (possibly from the Praetorian Guard ) and other Italians. The city was renamed Colonia Iulia Philippensis , and then Colonia Augusta Iulia Philippensis after January, 27 BC, when Octavian received the title Augustus from the Roman Senate . Following this second renaming, and perhaps after

3825-631: The Romans destroyed the Antigonid dynasty of Macedon in the Third Macedonian War (168 BC), they divided the kingdom into four separate states ( merides ). Amphipolis (rather than Philippi) became the capital of the eastern Macedonian state. Almost nothing is known about the city in this period, but archeological remains include walls, the Greek theatre , the foundations of a house under

3910-515: The area in the 1540s there remained nothing but ruins, used by the Turks as a quarry. The name of the city survived – at first in a Turkish village on the nearby plain, Philibedjik (Filibecik, "Little Filibe" in Turkish), which has since disappeared, and then in a Greek village in the mountains. Although the site was briefly noted by earlier travellers, first modern archaeological description, based on

3995-413: The best treatises on that doctrine. In different monographs he seems to have tried to expand it into a general theory of science . To this, too, may have belonged the proposition quoted from his Topics , that the principles of opposites are themselves opposed, and cannot be deduced from one and the same higher genus. For the rest, some minor deviations from the Aristotelian definitions are quoted from

4080-408: The botanical books, suggests that, as in the case of Aristotle, what we possess consists of notes for lectures or notes taken of lectures," his translator Arthur F. Hort remarks. "There is no literary charm; the sentences are mostly compressed and highly elliptical, to the point sometimes of obscurity". The text of these fragments and extracts is often so corrupt that there is a certain plausibility to

4165-528: The bust, supporting his fraud with the invented tale that he had obtained it from the library of a Greek in Cyprus and that he had seen a confirming bust in the ruins of Antioch. A world is named Theophrastus in the 2014 Firefly graphic novel Serenity: Leaves on the Wind . Theodor Geisel used the name "Theophrastus" as the given name of his pen-name alter ego, Dr. Seuss . A board game named Theophrastus

4250-603: The churches of Constantinople. In the same age, the Empire rebuilt the fortifications of the city to better defend against growing instability in the Balkans . In 473 Ostrogothic troops of Theodoric Strabo besieged the city; they failed to take it but burned down the surrounding villages. Already weakened by the Slavic invasions at the end of the 6th century – which ruined the agrarian economy of Macedonia – and probably also by

4335-530: The complete failure of a charge of impiety brought against him. He was honored with a public funeral, and "the whole population of Athens, honouring him greatly, followed him to the grave." He was succeeded as head of the Lyceum by Strato of Lampsacus . From the lists of Diogenes, giving 227 titles, it appears that the activity of Theophrastus extended over the whole field of contemporary knowledge. His writing probably differed little from Aristotle's treatment of

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4420-410: The definition of pleasure, likewise, he did not coincide with Aristotle, seems to be indicated by the titles of two of his writings, one of which dealt with pleasure generally, the other with pleasure as Aristotle had defined it. Although, like his teacher, he preferred contemplative (theoretical), to active (practical) life, he preferred to set the latter free from the restraints of family life, etc. in

4505-423: The elements of speech , he distinguished the main parts of speech from the subordinate parts, and also direct expressions ( κυρία λέξις kuria lexis ) from metaphorical expressions, and dealt with the emotions ( πάθη pathe ) of speech. He further distinguished a twofold reference of speech ( σχίσις schisis ) to things ( πράγματα pragmata ) and to the hearers, and referred poetry and rhetoric to

4590-513: The first record of pyroelectricity. The misconception arose soon after the discovery of the pyroelectric properties of tourmaline , which made mineralogists of the time associate the lyngurium with it. Lyngurium is described in the work of Theophrastus as being similar to amber , capable of attracting "straws and bits of wood", but without specifying any pyroelectric properties. The extent to which Theophrastus followed Aristotle's doctrines, or defined them more accurately, or conceived them in

4675-512: The first, the territory of Philippi was centuriated (divided into squares of land) and distributed to the colonists. The city kept its Macedonian walls, and its general plan was modified only partially by the construction of a forum, a little to the east of the site of Greek agora . It was a "miniature Rome", under the municipal law of Rome, and governed by two military officers, the duumviri , who were appointed directly from Rome, similar to Roman colonies. The colony recognized its dependence on

4760-560: The forces of the assassins Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus at the Battle of Philippi on the plain to the west of the city during October in 42 BC. Antony and Octavian won this final battle against the partisans of the Republic. They released some of their veteran soldiers, probably from Legion XXVIII, to colonize the city, which was refounded as Colonia Victrix Philippensium . From 30 BC Octavian established his control of

4845-519: The fortifications on the acropolis and in part of the city. These gradually helped to weaken Bulgar power and to strengthen the Byzantine presence in the area. In 1077 Bishop Basil Kartzimopoulos rebuilt part of the defenses inside the city. The city began to prosper once more, as witnessed by the Arab geographer Al Idrisi , who mentions it as a centre of business and wine production around 1150. After

4930-418: The investigation overstepped the limits of experience, to have preferred to develop the difficulties rather than solve them, as is especially apparent in his Metaphysics . He was doubtful of Aristotle's teleology and recommended that such ideas be used with caution: With regard to the view that all things are for the sake of an end and nothing is in vain, the assignation of ends is in general not easy, as it

5015-459: The kingdom of Macedon and had its own political institutions (the Assembly of the demos ). The discovery of new gold mines near the city, at Asyla, contributed to the wealth of the kingdom and Philip established a mint there. The city became fully integrated into the kingdom during the last years of the reign (221 to 179 BC) of Philip V of Macedon or the reign of Perseus of Macedon . When

5100-413: The latter is sometimes mentioned. A book on wines and a book on plant smells may have once been part of the complete work. Although these works contain many absurd and fabulous statements, they include valuable observations concerning the functions and properties of plants. Theophrastus observed the process of germination and recognized the significance of climate to plants. Much of the information on

5185-400: The latter. He wrote at length on the unity of judgment , on the different kinds of negation, and on the difference between unconditional and conditional necessity. In his doctrine of syllogisms he brought forward the proof for the conversion of universal affirmative judgments, differed from Aristotle here and there in the laying down and arranging the modi of the syllogisms, partly in

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5270-458: The life in animals does not need explanation or is to be explained only in this way, may it not be the case that in the heavens too, and in the heavenly bodies, movement does not need explanation or is to be explained in a special way? He recognised no activity without motion, and so referred all activities of the soul to motion: the desires and emotions to corporeal motion, judgment ( kriseis ) and contemplation to spiritual motion. The idea of

5355-497: The mere arrangement and position ( taxis and thesis ) of bodies. Time he called an accident of motion, without, it seems, viewing it, with Aristotle, as the numerical determinant of motion. He attacked the doctrine of the four classical elements and challenged whether fire could be called a primary element when it appears to be compound, requiring, as it does, another material for its own nutriment. He departed more widely from Aristotle in his doctrine of motion, since on

5440-464: The minerals necessary for the manufacture of glass; for the production of various pigments of paint such as ochre ; and for the manufacture of plaster . Many of the rarer minerals were found in mines, and Theophrastus mentions the famous copper mines of Cyprus and the even more famous silver mines , presumably of Laurium near Athens – the basis of the wealth of the city – as well as referring to gold mines . The Laurium silver mines, which were

5525-552: The mines as a thing of the past. The ancient workings, consisting of shafts and galleries for excavating the ore, and washing tables for extracting the metal, may still be seen. Theophrastus wrote a separate work On Mining , which – like most of his writings – is a lost work . Pliny the Elder makes clear references to his use of On Stones in his Naturalis Historia of 77 AD, while updating and making much new information available on minerals himself. Although Pliny's treatment of

5610-564: The mines that brought it its privileged position on the Via Egnatia . Many monuments evidence its wealth – particularly imposing considering the relatively small size of the urban area: the forum, laid out in two terraces on both sides of the main road, was constructed in several phases between the reigns of the Emperors Claudius (41–54 AD) and Antoninus Pius (138–161), and the theatre was enlarged and expanded to hold Roman games. An abundance of Latin inscriptions also testifies to

5695-581: The most beautiful buildings in Thessalonica , or with those of Constantinople . The relationship of the plan and of the architectural decoration of Basilica B with Hagia Sophia and with Saint Irene in Constantinople accorded a privileged place to this church in the history of early Christian art . The complex cathedral which took the place of the Basilica of Paul at the end of the 5th century, constructed around an octagonal church, also rivaled

5780-607: The most important contribution to botanical science during antiquity and the Middle Ages, the first systemization of the botanical world; on the strength of these works some, following Linnaeus , call him the "father of botany ". The Enquiry into Plants was originally ten books, of which nine survive. The work is arranged into a system whereby plants are classified according to their modes of generation, their localities, their sizes, and according to their practical uses such as foods, juices, herbs, etc. The first book deals with

5865-491: The oldest congregations in Europe, attestation of a bishopric dates only from the 4th century. The prosperity of the city in the 5th and 6th centuries was attributed to Paul and to his ministry. As in other cities, many new ecclesiastical buildings were constructed at this time. Seven different churches were built in Philippi between the mid-4th century and the end of the 6th, some of which competed in size and decoration with

5950-446: The one hand he extended it over all categories, and did not limit it to those laid down by Aristotle. He viewed motion, with Aristotle, as an activity, not carrying its own goal in itself ( ateles ), of that which only potentially exists, but he opposed Aristotle's view that motion required a special explanation, and he regarded it as something proper both to nature in general and the celestial system in particular: Surely, then, if

6035-412: The originals of his works, and designated him as his successor at the Lyceum. Eudemus of Rhodes also had some claims to this position, and Aristoxenus is said to have resented Aristotle's choice. Theophrastus presided over the Peripatetic school for 35 years, and died at age 85, according to Diogenes. He is said to have remarked, "We die just when we are beginning to live". Under his guidance,

6120-469: The parts of plants; the second book with the reproduction of plants and the times and manner of sowing; the third, fourth, and fifth books are devoted to trees, their types, their locations, and their practical applications; the sixth book deals with shrubs and spiny plants; the seventh book deals with herbs; the eighth book deals with plants that produce edible seeds; and the ninth book deals with plants that produce useful juices, gums , resins , etc. On

6205-442: The proof of them, partly in the doctrine of mixture, i.e. of the influence of the modality of the premises upon the modality of the conclusion. Then, in two separate works, he dealt with the reduction of arguments to the syllogistic form and on the resolution of them; and further, with hypothetical conclusions. For the doctrine of proof , Galen quotes the second Analytic of Theophrastus, in conjunction with that of Aristotle, as

6290-523: The property of the state, were usually leased for a fixed sum and a percentage on the working. Towards the end of the fifth century BCE the output fell, partly owing to the Spartan occupation of Decelea from c.  413 BCE. But the mines continued to be worked, though Strabo ( c.  64 BCE to c.  24 CE) records that in his time the tailings were being worked over, and Pausanias ( c.  110 to c.  180 ) speaks of

6375-604: The prosperity of the city. The New Testament records a visit to the city by the apostle Paul during his second missionary journey (likely in AD 49 or 50). On the basis of the Acts of the Apostles and the letter to the Philippians , early Christians concluded that Paul had founded their community. Accompanied by Silas , by Timothy and possibly by Luke (the author of the Acts of

6460-596: The same themes, though supplementary in details. Like Aristotle, most of his writings are lost works . Thus Theophrastus, like Aristotle, had composed a first and second Analytic ( Ἀναλυτικῶν προτέρων and Ἀναλυτικῶν ὑστέρων ). He had also written books on Topics ( Ἀνηγμένων τόπων , Τοπικῶν and Τὰ πρὸ τῶν τόπων ); on the Analysis of Syllogisms ( Περὶ ἀναλύσεως συλλογισμῶν and Περὶ συλλογισμῶν λύσεως ), on Sophisms ( Σοφισμάτων ) and on Affirmation and Denial ( Περὶ καταφάσεως καὶ ἀποφάσεως ) as well as on

6545-415: The school flourished greatly—there were at one period more than 2,000 students, Diogenes affirms —and at his death, according to the terms of his will preserved by Diogenes, he bequeathed to it his garden with house and colonnades as a permanent seat of instruction. The comic poet Menander was among his pupils. His popularity was shown in the regard paid to him by Philip , Cassander , and Ptolemy , and by

6630-406: The subject is more extensive, Theophrastus is more systematic and his work is comparatively free from fable and magic, although he did describe lyngurium , a gemstone supposedly formed of the solidified urine of the lynx (the best ones coming from wild males), which featured in many lapidaries until it gradually disappeared from view in the 17th century. It is mistakenly attributed to Theophrastus

6715-408: The subject. A paraphrase and commentary on this work was written by Priscian of Lydia in the sixth century. With this type of work we may connect the fragments on Smells , on Fatigue , on Dizziness , on Sweat , on Swooning , on Palsy , and on Honey . Fragments of a History of Physics ( Περὶ φυσικῶν ἱστοριῶν ) are extant. To this class of work belong the still extant sections on Fire , on

6800-437: The view that the sketches were written from time to time by Theophrastus, and collected and edited after his death; others, again, regard the Characters as part of a larger systematic work, but the style of the book is against this. Theophrastus has found many imitators in this kind of writing, notably Joseph Hall (1608), Sir Thomas Overbury (1614–16), Bishop Earle (1628), and Jean de La Bruyère (1688), who also translated

6885-428: The well-known story that the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus were allowed to languish in the cellar of Neleus of Scepsis and his descendants. The most important of his books are two large botanical treatises, Enquiry into Plants ( Περὶ φυτῶν ἱστορία , generally known as Historia Plantarum ), and On the Causes of Plants ( Greek : Περὶ αἰτιῶν φυτικῶν , Latin : De causis plantarum ), which constitute

6970-596: Was Tyrtamus ( Τύρταμος ), but he later became known by the nickname "Theophrastus", given to him, it is said, by Aristotle to indicate the grace of his conversation (from Ancient Greek Θεός 'god' and φράζειν 'to phrase', i.e. divine expression). After receiving instruction in philosophy on Lesbos from one Alcippus, he moved to Athens , where he may have studied under Plato . He became friends with Aristotle, and when Plato died (348/7 BC) Theophrastus may have joined Aristotle in his self-imposed exile from Athens. When Aristotle moved to Mytilene on Lesbos in 345/4, it

7055-591: Was considered a fragment of a larger work by Usener in his edition (Theophrastos, Metaphysica , Bonn, 1890), but according to Ross and Fobes in their edition (Theophrastus, Metaphysica , Oxford, 1929), the treatise is complete (p. X) and this opinion is now widely accepted. There is no reason for assigning this work to some other author because it is not noticed in Hermippus and Andronicus , especially as Nicolaus of Damascus had already mentioned it. In his treatise On Stones ( Περὶ λίθων ), which would become

7140-414: Was first published in a Latin translation by Theodore Gaza , at Treviso, 1483; in its original Greek it first appeared from the press of Aldus Manutius at Venice, 1495–98, from a third-rate manuscript, which, like the majority of the manuscripts that were sent to printers' workshops in the fifteenth and sixteenth century, has disappeared. Christian Wimmer identified two manuscripts of first quality,

7225-523: Was renamed by Philip II of Macedon in 356 BC and abandoned in the 14th century after the Ottoman conquest. The present village of Filippoi is located near the ruins of the ancient city and is part of the region of East Macedonia and Thrace in Kavala , Greece. The archaeological site was classified as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2016 because of its exceptional Roman architecture, its urban layout as

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