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117-673: The autograph manuscript shows the finished and orchestrated movement of Introit in Mozart's hand, and detailed drafts of the Kyrie and the sequence of Dies irae as far as the first eight bars of the Lacrimosa , and the Offertory . It cannot be shown to what extent Süssmayr may have depended on now lost "scraps of paper" for the remainder; he later claimed the Sanctus and Benedictus and

234-452: A Bachelor of Music (B.Mus.), Master of Music (M.Mus.) or an artist's diploma. Orchestrators who teach at universities, colleges and conservatories may be required to hold a master's degree or a Doctorate (the latter may be a Ph.D. or a D.M.A). Orchestrators who work for film companies, musical theatre companies and other organizations may be hired solely based on their orchestration experience, even if they do not hold academic credentials. In

351-502: A half cadence on the dominant . The Kyrie follows without pause ( attacca ). It is a double fugue on the famous theme of the cross (connecting the four notes shows the shape of the cross) used by many composers, such as Bach, Handel, and Haydn. The counter-subject comes from the final chorus of the Dettingen Anthem, HWV 265. The first three measures of the altos and basses are shown below. The contrapuntal motifs of

468-429: A string quartet or a concert band . Each different ensemble would enable the orchestrator/composer to create different tone "colours" and timbres. A melody is also orchestrated. The composer or orchestrator may think of a melody in their head, or while playing the piano or organ. Once they have thought of a melody, they have to decide which instrument (or instruments) will play the melody. One widely used approach for

585-428: A C major chord is made up of the notes C , E , and G . If the notes are held out the entire duration of a measure , the composer or orchestrator will have to decide what instrument(s) play this chord and in what register . Some instruments, including woodwinds and brass are monophonic and can only play one note of the chord at a time. However, in a full orchestra there are more than one of these instruments, so

702-524: A German dance band is rendered with the utmost refinement, amazingly by kettledrums and trumpets pianissimo, and the rustic glissando … is given a finicky elegance by the grace notes in the horns as well as by the doubling of the melody an octave higher with the solo violin. These details are not intended to blend, but to be set in relief; they are individually exquisite." Another example of Haydn's imagination and ingenuity that shows how well he understood how orchestration can support harmony may be found in

819-432: A bizarre mix of sounds. The timpani and the double basses play thick chords against the snarling muted brass: "Although he derives from Beethoven, Berlioz uses features that run counter to the rules of composition in general, such as the chords in close position in the low register of the double basses." Berlioz was also capable of conveying great delicacy in his instrumental writing. A particularly spectacular instance

936-406: A blending of instrumental colour that ranges from boldly stated tutti passages to the most subtle and differentiated episodes, where instrumental sounds are combined often in quite unexpected ways: The theme first appears in the minor mode during the orchestral introduction, performed using staccato articulation and orchestrated in the most delicate and enchanting colours: This is followed by

1053-421: A different section. For example, a melody played by the first violins could be doubled by the glockenspiel , which would add a sparkling, chime-like colour to the melody. Alternatively, a melody played by the piccolos could be doubled by the celesta , which would add a bright tone to the sound. In the 20th and 21st century, contemporary composers began to incorporate electric and electronic instruments into

1170-502: A futuristic-sounding synthesizer or a theremin to create an unusual effect. Orchestral instrumentation is denoted by an abbreviated formulaic convention, as follows: flute , oboe , clarinet , bassoon , horn , trumpet , trombone , tuba . More details can be contained in brackets. A dot separates one player from another, a slash indicates doubling. Timpani and percussion are denoted 2Tmp+ number of percussion. For example, 3[1.2.3/pic] 2[1.Eh] 3[1.2.3/Ebcl/bcl] 3[1.2/cbn.cbn] tmp+2

1287-448: A melody in a powerful, high register. Alternatively, if the trombones play a melody, the pitch will likely be lower than the trumpet, and the tone will be heavier, which may change the musical effect that is created. While the cellos are often given an accompaniment role in orchestration, there are notable cases where the cellos have been assigned the melody. In even more rare cases, the double bass section (or principal bass) may be given

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1404-415: A melody is to assign it to the first violins. When the first violins play a melody, the composer can have the second violins double the melody an octave below, or have the second violins play a harmony part (often in thirds and sixths). Sometimes, for a forceful effect, a composer will indicate in the score that all of the strings (violins, violas, cellos, and double basses) will play the melody in unison , at

1521-461: A melody, like, the high-register double bass solo in Prokofiev 's Lieutenant Kije Suite . While assigning a melody to a particular section, such as the string section or the woodwinds will work well, as the stringed instruments and all the woodwinds blend together well, some orchestrators give the melody to one section and then have the melody doubled by a different section or an instrument from

1638-403: A more straightforward version in the major key, with horns accompanied by strings. The theme is now played legato by the horns, accompanied by a sustained pedal point in the bassoons. The violins simultaneously play an elaborated version of the theme. (See also heterophony .) The timpani and pizzicato lower strings add further colour to this variegated palette of sounds. "Considering that

1755-507: A new timbre. This effect is also used in orchestral arrangements; for instance, in Ravel 's Bolero #5 the parallel parts of flutes, horn and celesta resemble the sound of an electric organ. In counterpoint, parallel voices are prohibited because they violate the homogeneity of musical texture when independent voices occasionally disappear turning into a new timbre quality and vice versa. Some examples of related compositional techniques include:

1872-570: A number of devices, including: Broadly speaking, due to the development of harmony, from the Baroque period on, most contrapuntal compositions were written in the style of free counterpoint. This means that the general focus of the composer had shifted away from how the intervals of added melodies related to a cantus firmus , and more toward how they related to each other. Nonetheless, according to Kent Kennan : "....actual teaching in that fashion (free counterpoint) did not become widespread until

1989-418: A quartet, adopts the key of the submediant , B ♭ major (which can also be considered the relative of the subdominant of the key of D minor). The Sanctus's ending on a D major cadence necessitates a mediant jump to this new key. The Benedictus is constructed on three types of phrases : the (A) theme, which is first presented by the orchestra and reprised from m. 4 by the alto and from m. 6 by

2106-434: A school-room discipline," consisting of species counterpoint but with all the traditional rules reversed. First species counterpoint must be all dissonances, establishing "dissonance, rather than consonance, as the rule," and consonances are "resolved" through a skip, not step. He wrote that "the effect of this discipline" was "one of purification". Other aspects of composition , such as rhythm, could be "dissonated" by applying

2223-549: A second voice is added. "The counterpoint in bars 5-8... sheds an unexpected light on the tonality of the Subject." : Bach 's 3-part Invention in F minor combines three independent melodies: According to pianist András Schiff , Bach's counterpoint influenced the composing of both Mozart and Beethoven . In the development section of the opening movement of Beethoven's Piano Sonata in E minor , Beethoven demonstrates this influence by adding "a wonderful counterpoint" to one of

2340-483: A single violin, then two horns, then two violins, then the full orchestra again, all within the space of half-a-dozen bars." "The scoring, a bar of this followed by a bar of that, is virtually unique, and one can visualize chaos reigning at the first rehearsal when many a player must have been caught unprepared." Another demonstration of Beethoven's consummate skill at obtaining the maximum variety out of seemingly unprepossessing and fairly simple material can be found in

2457-632: A solo bassoon adds a counterpoint that has a similarly impromptu quality." In the Prelude to Richard Wagner 's opera Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg , three themes from the opera are combined simultaneously. According to Gordon Jacob , "This is universally and justly acclaimed as an extraordinary feat of virtuosity." However, Donald Tovey points out that here "the combination of themes ... unlike classical counterpoint, really do not of themselves combine into complete or euphonious harmony." One spectacular example of 5-voice counterpoint can be found in

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2574-487: A solo tenor trombone, unaccompanied, in accordance with the usual German translation of the Latin tuba , Posaune (trombone). Two measures later, the bass soloist enters, imitating the same theme. At m. 7, there is a fermata , the only point in all the work at which a solo cadenza occurs. The final quarter notes of the bass soloist herald the arrival of the tenor, followed by the alto and soprano in dramatic fashion. On

2691-514: A surprising effect, the Rex syllables of the choir fall on the second beats of the measures, even though this is the "weak" beat. The choir then adopts the dotted rhythm of the orchestra, forming what Wolff calls baroque music 's form of " topos of the homage to the sovereign", or, more simply put, that this musical style is a standard form of salute to royalty, or, in this case, divinity. This movement consists of only 22 measures, but this short stretch

2808-460: A totality, crucially instructive for later composers, and nearly all exactly tailored to their dramatic or expressive purpose." Numerous examples of Berlioz's orchestral wizardry and his penchant for conjuring extraordinary sonorities can be found in his Symphonie fantastique . The opening of the fourth movement, entitled "March to the Scaffold" features what for the time (1830) must have seemed

2925-428: A very different kind of physicality, one that creates a harrowing portrayal of nails being driven into bare flesh.” Igor Stravinsky (1959, p45) marvelled at Bach's skill as an orchestrator: "What incomparable instrumental writing is Bach's. You can smell the resin [(rosin)] in his violin parts, [and] taste the reeds in the oboes." Jean Philippe Rameau was famous for "the eloquence of [his] orchestral writing which

3042-427: A voice or even an entire composition. Counterpoint focuses on melodic interaction—only secondarily on the harmonies produced by that interaction. Work initiated by Guerino Mazzola (born 1947) has given counterpoint theory a mathematical foundation. In particular, Mazzola's model gives a structural (and not psychological) foundation of forbidden parallels of fifths and the dissonant fourth. Octavio Agustin has extended

3159-405: A widely spaced voicing over a range of four octaves. The first and second violins weave curly parallel melodic lines, a tenth apart, underpinned by a pedal point in the double basses and a sustained octave in the horns. Wind instruments respond in bars 104–5, accompanied by a spidery ascending chromatic line in the cellos. A graceful continuation to this features clarinets and bassoons with

3276-530: Is called expanded when the added-part notes vary in length among themselves. The technique requires chains of notes sustained across the boundaries determined by beat, and so creates syncopation . A dissonant interval is allowed on beat 1 because of the syncopation created by the suspension. While it is not incorrect to start with a half note, it is also common to start 4th species with a half rest. Short example of "fourth species" counterpoint In fifth species counterpoint, sometimes called florid counterpoint ,

3393-519: Is heard again on the text Juste Judex and ends on a hemiola in mm. 66–67. Then, the second theme is reused on ante diem rationis ; after the four measures of orchestra from 68 to 71, the first theme is developed alone. The recapitulation intervenes in m. 93. The initial structure reproduces itself with the first theme on the text Preces meae and then in m. 99 on Sed tu bonus . The second theme reappears one final time on m. 106 on Sed tu bonus and concludes with three hemiolas. The final measures of

3510-491: Is interpreted as: As an example, Mahler Symphony 2 is scored: 4[1/pic.2/pic.3/pic.4/pic] 4[1.2.3/Eh.4/Eh] 5[1.2.3/bcl.4/Ebcl2.Ebcl] 4[1.2.3.4/cbn]- 10 8 4 1- 2tmp+4-2 hp- org- str. During the Baroque era, composers showed increasing awareness of the expressive potential of orchestration. While some early Baroque pieces have no indication of which instruments should play the piece, the choice of instruments being left to

3627-510: Is rich in variation: homophonic writing and contrapuntal choral passages alternate many times and finish on a quasi-unaccompanied choral cadence, landing on an open D chord (as seen previously in the Kyrie). At 130 measures, the Recordare ("Remember") is the work's longest movement, as well as the first in triple meter ( 4 ); the movement is a setting of no fewer than seven stanzas of

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3744-420: Is sung by the alto and bass (from m. 14), followed by the soprano and tenor (from m. 20). Each time, the theme concludes with a hemiola (mm. 18–19 and 24–25). The second theme arrives on Ne me perdas , in which the accompaniment contrasts with that of the first theme. Instead of descending scales, the accompaniment is limited to repeated chords. This exposition concludes with four orchestral measures based on

3861-470: Is taught through a system of species (see below). There are several different forms of counterpoint, including imitative counterpoint and free counterpoint. Imitative counterpoint involves the repetition of a main melodic idea across different vocal parts, with or without variation. Compositions written in free counterpoint often incorporate non-traditional harmonies and chords, chromaticism and dissonance . The term "counterpoint" has been used to designate

3978-450: Is the " Queen Mab " scherzo from the Romeo et Juliette symphony, which Hugh Macdonald (1969, p51) describes as "Berlioz’s supreme exercise in light orchestral texture, a brilliant, gossamer fabric, prestissimo and pianissimo almost without pause: Boulez points out that the very fast tempo must have made unprecedented demands on conductors and orchestras of the time (1830), "Because of

4095-477: Is the study or practice of writing music for an orchestra (or, more loosely, for any musical ensemble , such as a concert band ) or of adapting music composed for another medium for an orchestra. Also called "instrumentation", orchestration is the assignment of different instruments to play the different parts (e.g., melody , bassline , etc.) of a musical work. For example, a work for solo piano could be adapted and orchestrated so that an orchestra could perform

4212-465: Is without limit." The most significant orchestral innovator of the early 19th century was Hector Berlioz . (The composer was also the author of a Treatise on Instrumentation .) "He was drawn to the orchestra as his chosen medium by instinct … and by finding out the exact capabilities and timbres of individual instruments, and it was on this raw material that his imagination worked to produce countless new sonorities, very striking when considered as

4329-529: The Dies irae . The form of this piece is somewhat similar to sonata form , with an exposition around two themes ( mm. 1–37), a development of two themes (mm. 38–92) and a recapitulation (mm. 93–98). In the first 13 measures, the basset horns are the first to present the first theme, clearly inspired by Wilhelm Friedemann Bach 's Sinfonia in D Minor, the theme is enriched by a magnificent counterpoint by cellos in descending scales that are reprised throughout

4446-538: The Agnus Dei as his own. Walsegg probably intended to pass the Requiem off as his own composition, as he is known to have done with other works. This plan was frustrated by a public benefit performance for Mozart's widow Constanze . She was responsible for a number of stories surrounding the composition of the work, including the claims that Mozart received the commission from a mysterious messenger who did not reveal

4563-522: The Last Judgment ). This material is repeated with harmonic development before the texture suddenly drops to a trembling unison figure with more tremolo strings evocatively painting the " Quantus tremor " text. Mozart's textual inspiration is again apparent in the Tuba mirum ("Hark, the trumpet") movement, which is introduced with a sequence of three notes in arpeggio , played in B ♭ major by

4680-451: The Latin punctus contra punctum meaning "point against point", i.e. "note against note". John Rahn describes counterpoint as follows: It is hard to write a beautiful song. It is harder to write several individually beautiful songs that, when sung simultaneously, sound as a more beautiful polyphonic whole. The internal structures that create each of the voices separately must contribute to

4797-647: The Renaissance period in European music, much contrapuntal music has been written in imitative counterpoint. In imitative counterpoint, two or more voices enter at different times, and (especially when entering) each voice repeats some version of the same melodic element. The fantasia , the ricercar , and later, the canon and fugue (the contrapuntal form par excellence ) all feature imitative counterpoint, which also frequently appears in choral works such as motets and madrigals . Imitative counterpoint spawned

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4914-451: The basses ), doubled (both in the same and different octaves), and altered with various levels of dynamics. The choice of instruments, registers, and dynamics affect the overall tone color . If the C major chord was orchestrated for the trumpets and trombones playing fortissimo in their upper registers, it would sound very bright; but if the same chord was orchestrated for the cellos and double basses playing sul tasto , doubled by

5031-405: The bassoons and bass clarinet , it might sound heavy and dark. Note that although the above example discussed orchestrating a chord, a melody or even a single note may be orchestrated in this fashion. Also note that in this specific sense of the word, orchestration is not necessarily limited to an orchestra, as a composer may orchestrate this same C major chord for, say, a woodwind quintet ,

5148-403: The counter-melody of the first theme (mm. 34–37). The development of these two themes begins in m. 38 on Quaerens me ; the second theme is not recognizable except by the structure of its accompaniment. At m. 46, it is the first theme that is developed beginning from Tantus labor and concludes with two measures of hemiola at mm. 50–51. After two orchestral bars (mm. 52–53), the first theme

5265-432: The counterpoint of the basset horns mixes with the line of the cello. The rest of the movement consists of variations on this writing. At m. 23, phrase (A) is reprised on a F pedal and introduces a recapitulation of the primary theme from the bass and tenor from mm. 28 and 30, respectively. Phrase (B) follows at m. 33, although without the broken cadence, then repeats at m. 38 with the broken cadence once more. This carries

5382-418: The functional independence of voices is the prime concern. The violation of this principle leads to special effects, which are avoided in counterpoint. In organ registers, certain interval combinations and chords are activated by a single key so that playing a melody results in parallel voice leading. These voices, losing independence, are fused into one and the parallel chords are perceived as single tones with

5499-846: The musicologist Simon P. Keefe , Süssmayr likely referenced one of Mozart's earlier Masses, Mass in C major, K. 220 "Sparrow" in completing this movement. Süssmayr here reuses Mozart's first two movements, almost exactly note for note, with wording corresponding to this part of the liturgy. Requiem aeternam: Requiem aeternam dona eis, Domine, et lux perpetua luceat eis. Te decet hymnus, Deus, in Sion, et tibi reddetur votum in Jerusalem. Exaudi orationem meam, ad te omnis caro veniet. Requiem aeternam dona eis, Domine, et lux perpetua luceat eis. Kyrie eleison: Kyrie, eleison. Christe, eleison. Kyrie, eleison. Dies irae: Dies irae, dies illa Orchestration Orchestration

5616-488: The octave by the first oboe: Charles Rosen (1971, p. 240) admires Mozart's skill in orchestrating his piano concertos, particularly the Concerto in E flat major, K482 , a work that introduced clarinets into the mix. "This concerto places the greatest musical reliance on tone colour, which is, indeed, almost always ravishing. One lovely example of its sonorities comes near the beginning." The orchestral tutti in

5733-438: The round (familiar in folk traditions), the canon , and perhaps the most complex contrapuntal convention: the fugue . All of these are examples of imitative counterpoint . There are many examples of song melodies that are harmonically interdependent yet independent in rhythm and melodic contour. For example, " Frère Jacques " and " Three Blind Mice " combine euphoniously when sung together. A number of popular songs that share

5850-414: The 2010s, as the percentage of faculty holding terminal degrees and/or Doctoral degrees is part of how an institution is rated, this is causing an increasing number of postsecondary institutions to require terminal and/or Doctoral degrees. The term orchestration in its specific sense refers to the way instruments are used to portray any musical aspect such as melody , harmony or rhythm . For example,

5967-541: The Lacrymosa. The trombones then announce the entry of the choir, which breaks into the theme, with the basses alone for the first measure, followed by imitation by the other parts. The chords play off syncopated and staggered structures in the accompaniment, thus underlining the solemn and steady nature of the music. A soprano solo is sung to the Te decet hymnus text in the tonus peregrinus . The choir continues, repeating

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6084-472: The Last Judgment) is heard sotto voce , forte and then piano to bring the movement finally into a crescendo into a perfect cadence . A descending melody composed of dotted notes is played by the orchestra to announce the Rex tremendae majestatis ("King of tremendous majesty", i.e., God ), who is called by powerful cries from the choir on the syllable Rex during the orchestra's pauses. For

6201-515: The Sequentia, but Süssmayr did not do so in his completion. The following table shows for the eight sections in Süssmayr's completion with their subdivisions: the title, vocal parts (solo soprano ( S ), alto ( A ), tenor ( T ) and bass ( B ) [in bold ] and four-part choir SATB ), tempo , key , and meter . The Requiem begins with a seven-measure instrumental introduction , in which

6318-412: The bell-like antique cymbals…The pace and fascination of the movement are irresistible; it is some of the most ethereally brilliant music ever penned." Counterpoint In music theory , counterpoint is the relationship of two or more simultaneous musical lines (also called voices) that are harmonically interdependent yet independent in rhythm and melodic contour . The term originates from

6435-525: The blessed") with an arpeggiated accompaniment in strings. Finally, in the following stanza ( Oro supplex et acclinis ), there is a striking modulation from A minor to A ♭ minor. This spectacular descent from the opening key is repeated, now modulating to the key of F major. A final dominant seventh chord leads to the Lacrymosa . The chords begin piano on a rocking rhythm in 8 , intercut with quarter rests, which will be reprised by

6552-475: The brilliance, charm, and grace of the first movement and the finale." Beethoven's innovative mastery of orchestration and his awareness of the effect of highlighting, contrasting and blending distinct instrumental colours are well exemplified in the Scherzo of his Symphony No. 2 . George Grove asks us to note "the sudden contrasts both in amount and quality of sound… we have first the full orchestra, then

6669-530: The cantus firmus is the lower part. (The same cantus firmus is used for later examples also. Each is in the Dorian mode .) In second species counterpoint, two notes in each of the added parts work against each longer note in the given part. Additional considerations in second species counterpoint are as follows, and are in addition to the considerations for first species: In third species counterpoint, four (or three, etc.) notes move against each longer note in

6786-410: The choir after two measures, on Lacrimosa dies illa ("This tearful day"). Then, after two measures, the sopranos begin a diatonic progression, in disjointed eighth-notes on the text resurget ("will be reborn"), then legato and chromatic on a powerful crescendo . The choir is forte by m. 8, at which point Mozart's contribution to the movement is interrupted by his death. Süssmayr brings

6903-531: The choir to a reference of the Introit and ends on an Amen cadence . Discovery of a fragmentary Amen fugue in Mozart's hand has led to speculation that it may have been intended for the Requiem. Indeed, many modern completions (such as Levin's ) complete Mozart's fragment. Some sections of this movement are quoted in the Requiem Mass of Franz von Suppé , who was a great admirer of Mozart. Ray Robinson,

7020-435: The classical period become archaic, lending the piece an ancient air. The Dies irae ("Day of Wrath") opens with a show of orchestral and choral might with tremolo strings, syncopated figures and repeated chords in the brass. A rising chromatic scurry of sixteenth-notes leads into a chromatically rising harmonic progression with the chorus singing " Quantus tremor est futurus " ("what trembling there will be" in reference to

7137-596: The commissioner's identity, and that Mozart came to believe that he was writing the Requiem for his own funeral. In addition to the Süssmayr version, a number of alternative completions have been developed by composers and musicologists in the 20th and 21st centuries. The Requiem is scored for 2 basset horns in F, 2 bassoons , 2 trumpets in D, 3 trombones ( alto , tenor , and bass ), timpani (2 drums), violins , viola , and basso continuo ( cello , double bass , and organ ). The basset horn parts are sometimes played on conventional BB or A clarinets and sometimes

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7254-430: The composer may choose to outline the chord in its basic form with a group of clarinets or trumpets (with separate instruments each being given one of the three notes of the chord). Other instruments, including the strings , piano , harp , and pitched percussion are polyphonic and may play more than one note at a time. As such, if the orchestrator wishes to have the strings play the C major chord, they could assign

7371-495: The composer than other types of counterpoint and therefore is called a "strict" counterpoint. The student gradually attains the ability to write free counterpoint (that is, less rigorously constrained counterpoint, usually without a cantus firmus) according to the given rules at the time. The idea is at least as old as 1532, when Giovanni Maria Lanfranco described a similar concept in his Scintille di musica (Brescia, 1533). The 16th-century Venetian theorist Zarlino elaborated on

7488-493: The concluding bars of the second movement of his Symphony No. 94 (the "Surprise Symphony.") Here, the oboes and bassoons take over the theme, while sustained chords in the strings accompany it with "soft, but very dissonant harmony. " Flute, Horns and timpani add to the mix, all contributing to the "air of uncanny poignancy" that characterises this atmospheric conclusion. Mozart "was acutely sensitive to matters of instrumentation and instrumental effect where orchestral writing

7605-413: The crowning glories of Bach’s first Christmas season" further demonstrates the composer's mastery of his craft. Within a space of eight bars, we hear recorders, oboes da caccia , horns and strings creating a "glittery sheen" of contrasted timbres, sonorities and textures ranging from just two horns against a string pedal point in the first bar to a "restatement of the octave unison theme, this time by all

7722-411: The dazzling orchestration of this movement "ineffably grand and rich in ideas, with striking variety in almost all obbligato parts." "The main feature in [his] orchestration is Mozart’s density, which is of course part of his density of thought." Another important technique of Mozart's orchestration was antiphony , the "call and response" exchange of musical motifs or "ideas" between different groups in

7839-527: The dramatic fourth movement, Jesus is depicted as quelling his disciples’ anxiety (illustrated by agitated strings) by uttering Friede sei mit euch (" Peace be unto you "). The strings dovetail with sustained chords on woodwind to accompany the solo singer, an effect John Eliot Gardiner likens to "a cinematic dissolve." The orchestral introduction to the opening chorus of J. S. Bach's epiphany Cantata Sie werden aus Saba alle kommen BWV 65, which John Eliot Gardiner (2013, p. 328) describes as "one of

7956-493: The emergent structure of the polyphony, which in turn must reinforce and comment on the structures of the individual voices. The way that is accomplished in detail is ... 'counterpoint'. Counterpoint has been most commonly identified in the European classical tradition , strongly developing during the Renaissance and in much of the common practice period , especially in the Baroque period . In Western pedagogy , counterpoint

8073-468: The finale to Mozart's Symphony No 41 ("Jupiter" Symphony). Here five tunes combine simultaneously in "a rich tapestry of dialogue": See also Invertible counterpoint . Species counterpoint was developed as a pedagogical tool in which students progress through several "species" of increasing complexity, with a very simple part that remains constant known as the cantus firmus (Latin for "fixed melody"). Species counterpoint generally offers less freedom to

8190-522: The first movement of the Piano Concerto No. 5 in E flat (‘The Emperor’) Opus 73 (1810). The second subject of the sonata form is a deceptively simple tune that, according to Fiske (1970, p. 41) "is limited to notes playable on the horns for which it must have been specially designed." This theme appears in five different orchestrations throughout the movement, with changes of mode (major to minor), dynamics ( forte to pianissimo ) and

8307-463: The first two bars is answered by just horns and bassoon in bars 2–6. This passage repeats with fresh orchestration: "Here we have the unusual sound on the violins providing the bass for the solo clarinets. The simplicity of the sequence concentrates all our interest on tone-colour, and what follows – a series of woodwind solos – keeps it there. The orchestration throughout, in fact, has a greater variety than Mozart had wished or needed before, and fits

8424-473: The following rules govern the combination of the parts: In first species counterpoint, each note in every added part (parts being also referred to as lines or voices ) sounds against one note in the cantus firmus. Notes in all parts are sounded simultaneously, and move against each other simultaneously. Since all notes in First species counterpoint are whole notes, rhythmic independence is not available. In

8541-752: The four soloists enter a canon on Sed signifer sanctus Michael , switching between minor (in ascent) and major (in descent). Between these thematic passages are forte phrases where the choir enters, often in unison and dotted rhythm, such as on Rex gloriae ("King of glory") or de ore leonis ("[Deliver them] from the mouth of the lion"). Two choral fugues follow, on ne absorbeat eas tartarus, ne cadant in obscurum ("may Tartarus not absorb them, nor may they fall into darkness") and Quam olim Abrahae promisisti et semini eius ("What once to Abraham you promised and to his seed"). The movement concludes homophonically in G major. The Hostias opens in E ♭ major in 4 , with fluid vocals. After 20 measures,

8658-482: The given part. Three special figures are introduced into third species and later added to fifth species, and ultimately outside the restrictions of species writing . There are three figures to consider: The nota cambiata , double neighbor tones , and double passing tones . Double neighbor tones: the figure is prolonged over four beats and allows special dissonances. The upper and lower tones are prepared on beat 1 and resolved on beat 4. The fifth note or downbeat of

8775-562: The horizontal (linear) aspects over the vertical" is featured or the "harmonic control of lines is rejected." Associated with neoclassicism , the technique was first used in Igor Stravinsky 's Octet (1923), inspired by J. S. Bach and Giovanni Palestrina . However, according to Knud Jeppesen : "Bach's and Palestrina's points of departure are antipodal. Palestrina starts out from lines and arrives at chords; Bach's music grows out of an ideally harmonic background, against which

8892-532: The idea in his influential Le institutioni harmoniche , and it was first presented in a codified form in 1619 by Lodovico Zacconi in his Prattica di musica . Zacconi, unlike later theorists, included a few extra contrapuntal techniques, such as invertible counterpoint . In 1725 Johann Joseph Fux published Gradus ad Parnassum (Steps to Parnassus), in which he described five species: A succession of later theorists quite closely imitated Fux's seminal work, often with some small and idiosyncratic modifications in

9009-499: The integrity of the individual melodic lines is not sacrificed to harmonic considerations. "Its distinctive feature is rather the concept of melody, which served as the starting-point for the adherents of the 'new objectivity' when they set up linear counterpoint as an anti-type to the Romantic harmony." The voice parts move freely, irrespective of the effects their combined motions may create." In other words, either "the domination of

9126-402: The late nineteenth century." Young composers of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, such as Mozart , Beethoven , and Schumann , were still educated in the style of "strict" counterpoint, but in practice, they would look for ways to expand on the traditional concepts of the subject. Main features of free counterpoint: Linear counterpoint is "a purely horizontal technique in which

9243-399: The latter's Sonata for Strings. However, in musical theatre , film music and other commercial media, it is customary to use orchestrators and arrangers to one degree or another, since time constraints and/or the level of training of composers may preclude them orchestrating the music themselves. The precise role of the orchestrator in film music is highly variable, and depends greatly on

9360-463: The low C to the cellos and basses, the G to the violas, and then a high E to the second violins and an E an octave higher to the first violins. If the orchestrator wishes the chord to be played only by the first and second violins, they could give the second violins a low C and give the first violins a double stop of the notes G (an open string) and E. Additionally in orchestration, notes may be placed into another register (such as transposed down for

9477-417: The lower strings supplying the bass notes. Next, a phrase for strings alone blends pizzicato cellos and basses with bowed violins and violas, playing mostly in thirds: The woodwind repeat these four bars with the violins adding a counter-melody against the cellos and basses playing arco . The violas add crucial harmonic colouring here with their D flat in bar 115. In 1792, an early listener marvelled at

9594-414: The main themes. A further example of fluid counterpoint in late Beethoven may be found in the first orchestral variation on the " Ode to Joy " theme in the last movement of Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 , bars 116–123. The famous theme is heard on the violas and cellos , while "the basses add a bass-line whose sheer unpredictability gives the impression that it is being spontaneously improvised. Meantime

9711-539: The model to microtonal contexts. Another theorist who has tried to incorporate mathematical principles in his study of counterpoint is Sergei Taneyev (1856-1915). Inspired by Spinoza , Taneyev developed a theory which covers and generalizes a wide range of advanced contrapuntal phenomena, including what is known to the english-speaking theorists as invertible counterpoint (although he describes them mainly using his own, custom-built terminology), by means of linking them to simple algebraic procedures. In counterpoint,

9828-527: The movement into the dominant of G minor, followed by a reprise of the Quam olim Abrahae promisisti et semini eius fugue. The words "Quam olim da capo" are likely to have been the last Mozart wrote; this portion of the manuscript has been missing since it was stolen at 1958 World's Fair in Brussels by a person whose identity remains unknown. The Sanctus is the first movement written entirely by Süssmayr, and

9945-506: The movement recede to simple orchestral descending contrapuntal scales. The Confutatis ("From the accursed") begins with a rhythmic and dynamic sequence of strong contrasts and surprising harmonic turns. Accompanied by the basso continuo , the tenors and basses burst into a forte vision of the infernal, on a dotted rhythm. The accompaniment then ceases alongside the tenors and basses, and the sopranos and altos enter softly and sotto voce , singing Voca me cum benedictis ("Call upon me with

10062-403: The movement switches to an alternation of forte and piano exclamations of the choir, while progressing from B ♭ major towards B ♭ minor, then F major, D ♭ major, A ♭ major, F minor, C minor and E ♭ major. An overtaking chromatic melody on Fac eas, Domine, de morte transire ad vitam ("Make them, O Lord, cross over from death to life") finally carries

10179-624: The movement to a new Mozartian cadence in mm. 47 to 49 and concludes on phrase (C), which reintroduces the Hosanna fugue from the Sanctus movement, in the new key of the Benedictus. Homophony dominates the Agnus Dei. The text is repeated three times, always with chromatic melodies and harmonic reversals, going from D minor to F major, C major, and finally B ♭ major. According to

10296-419: The movement. This counterpoint of the first theme prolongs the orchestral introduction with chords, recalling the beginning of the work and its rhythmic and melodic shiftings (the first basset horn begins a measure after the second but a tone higher, the first violins are likewise in sync with the second violins but a quarter note shifted, etc.). The introduction is followed by the vocal soloists; their first theme

10413-662: The music scholar and president (from 1969 to 1987) of the Westminster Choir College , suggests that Süssmayr used materials from Credo of one of Mozart's earlier Masses, Mass in C major, K. 220 "Sparrow" in completing this movement. The first movement of the Offertorium , the Domine Jesu, begins on a piano theme consisting of an ascending progression on a G minor triad . This theme will later be varied in various keys, before returning to G minor when

10530-500: The musical group's leader or concertmaster , there are Baroque works which specify certain instruments. The orchestral accompaniment to the aria 'et misericordia' from J. S. Bach 's Magnificat , BWV 243 (1723) features muted strings doubled by flutes, a subtle combination of mellow instrumental timbres . A particularly imaginative example of Bach's use of changing instrumental colour between orchestral groups can be found in his Cantata BWV 67, Halt im Gedächtnis Jesum Christ . In

10647-466: The needs and skill set of the particular composer. In musical theatre, the composer typically writes a piano/vocal score and then hires an arranger or orchestrator to create the instrumental score for the pit orchestra to play. In jazz big bands , the composer or songwriter may write a lead sheet , which contains the melody and the chords, and then one or more orchestrators or arrangers may "flesh out" these basic musical ideas by creating parts for

10764-406: The next measure should move by step in the same direction as the last two notes of the double neighbor figure. Lastly a double passing tone allows two dissonant passing tones in a row. The figure would consist of 4 notes moving in the same direction by step. The two notes that allow dissonance would be beat 2 and 3 or 3 and 4. The dissonant interval of a fourth would proceed into a diminished fifth and

10881-439: The next note would resolve at the interval of a sixth. In fourth species counterpoint, some notes are sustained or suspended in an added part while notes move against them in the given part, often creating a dissonance on the beat, followed by the suspended note then changing (and "catching up") to create a subsequent consonance with the note in the given part as it continues to sound. As before, fourth species counterpoint

10998-425: The notes are virtually the same the difference in effect is extraordinary": When the solo piano enters, its right hand plays a variant of the minor version of the theme in a triplet rhythm, with the backing of pizzicato (plucked) strings on the off-beats: This is followed by a bold tutti statement of the theme, "with the whole orchestra thumping it out in aggressive semi- staccato . : The minor version of

11115-453: The only movement of the Requiem to have a key signature with sharps: D major, generally used for the entry of trumpets in the Baroque era. After a succinct glorification of the Lord follows a short fugue in 4 on Hosanna in excelsis ("Glory [to God] in the highest"), noted for its syncopated rhythm, and for its motivic similarity to the Quam olim Abrahae fugue. The Benedictus,

11232-475: The orchestra, such as the electric guitar played through a guitar amplifier , the electric bass played through a bass amplifier , the Theremin and the synthesizer . The addition of these new instruments gave orchestrators new options for creating tonal colours in their orchestration. For example, in the late 20th century and onwards, an orchestrator could have a melody played by the first violins doubled by

11349-416: The orchestra. In an antiphonal section, the composer may have one group of instruments introduce a melodic idea (e.g., the first violins), and then have the woodwinds "answer" by restating this melodic idea, often with some type of variation. In the trio section of the minuet from his Symphony No. 41 (1788), the flute, bassoons and horn exchange phrases with the strings, with the first violin line doubled at

11466-408: The other four species of counterpoint are combined within the added parts. In the example, the first and second bars are second species, the third bar is third species, the fourth and fifth bars are third and embellished fourth species, and the final bar is first species. In florid counterpoint it is important that no one species dominates the composition. Short example of "Florid" counterpoint Since

11583-610: The piece, or a concert band piece could be orchestrated for a symphony orchestra. In classical music , composers have historically orchestrated their own music. Only gradually over the course of music history did orchestration come to be regarded as a separate compositional art and profession in itself. In modern classical music, composers almost invariably orchestrate their own work. Two notable exceptions to this are Ravel 's orchestration of Mussorgsky 's solo piano work Pictures at an Exhibition and Malcolm Arnold 's orchestration of William Walton 's String Quartet in A minor, producing

11700-459: The present context, a "step" is a melodic interval of a half or whole step. A "skip" is an interval of a third or fourth. (See Steps and skips .) An interval of a fifth or larger is referred to as a "leap". A few further rules given by Fux, by study of the Palestrina style, and usually given in the works of later counterpoint pedagogues, are as follows. In the adjacent example in two parts,

11817-472: The psalmtone while singing the Exaudi orationem meam section. Then, the principal theme is treated by the choir and the orchestra in downward-gliding sixteenth-notes. The courses of the melodies, whether held up or moving down, change and interlace amongst themselves, while passages in counterpoint and in unison (e.g., Et lux perpetua ) alternate; all this creates the charm of this movement, which finishes with

11934-403: The rapid and precise rhythms, the staccatos which must be even and regular in all registers, because of the isolated notes that occur right at the end of the bar on the third quaver…all of which must fall into place with absolutely perfect precision." Macdonald highlights the passage towards the end of the scherzo where "The sounds become more ethereal and fairylike, low clarinet, high harps and

12051-452: The related alto clarinet , even though this changes the sonority . The vocal forces consist of soprano , contralto , tenor , and bass soloists and an SATB mixed choir . Süssmayr's completion divides the Requiem into eight sections: All sections from the Sanctus onwards are not present in Mozart's manuscript fragment. Mozart may have intended to include the Amen fugue at the end of

12168-449: The rules. Many of Fux's rules concerning the purely linear construction of melodies have their origin in solfeggio . Concerning the common practice era, alterations to the melodic rules were introduced to enable the function of certain harmonic forms. The combination of these melodies produced the basic harmonic structure, the figured bass . The following rules apply to melodic writing in each species, for each part: And, in all species,

12285-581: The same chord progression can also be sung together as counterpoint. A well-known pair of examples is " My Way " combined with " Life on Mars ". Johann Sebastian Bach is revered as one of the greatest masters of counterpoint. For example the harmony implied in the opening subject of the Fugue in G-sharp minor from Book II of the Well-Tempered Clavier is heard anew in a subtle way when

12402-409: The same time. Typically, even though the instruments are playing the same note names, the violins will play very high-register notes, the violas and cellos will play lower-register notes, and the double basses will play the deepest, lowest pitches. As well, the woodwinds and brass instruments can effectively carry a melody, depending on the effect the orchestrator desires. The trumpets can perform

12519-754: The saxophones, trumpets, trombones, and the rhythm section (bass, piano/ jazz guitar / Hammond organ , drums). But, commonly enough, big band composers have done their own arranging, just like their classical counterparts. An orchestrator is a trained musical professional who assigns instruments to an orchestra or other musical ensemble from a piece of music written by a composer , or who adapts music composed for another medium for an orchestra. Orchestrators may work for musical theatre productions, film production companies or recording studios . Some orchestrators teach at colleges, conservatories or universities. The training done by orchestrators varies. Most have completed formal postsecondary education in music, such as

12636-422: The soprano. The word benedictus is held, which stands in opposition with the (B) phrase, which is first seen at m. 10, also on the word benedictus but with a quick and chopped-up rhythm. The phrase develops and rebounds at m. 15 with a broken cadence . The third phrase, (C), is a solemn ringing where the winds respond to the chords with a staggering harmony, as shown in a Mozartian cadence at mm. 21 and 22, where

12753-408: The sound of lovelorn nightingales by means of two flutes blending with a solo violin, while the rest of the violins play sustained notes in the background. Joseph Haydn was a pioneer of symphonic form, but he was also a pioneer of orchestration. In the minuet of Symphony No. 97 , "we can see why Rimsky-Korsakov declared Haydn to be the greatest of all masters of orchestration. The oom-pah-pah of

12870-423: The text Cum vix justus sit securus ("When only barely may the just one be secure"), there is a switch to a homophonic segment sung by the quartet at the same time, articulating, without accompaniment, the cum and vix on the "strong" (1st and 3rd), then on the "weak" (2nd and 4th) beats, with the violins and continuo responding each time; this "interruption" (which one may interpret as the interruption preceding

12987-415: The theme also appears in the cadenza , played staccato by the solo piano: This is followed, finally, by a restatement of the major key version, featuring horns playing legato, accompanied by pizzicato strings and filigree arpeggio figuration in the solo piano: Fiske (1970) says that Beethoven shows "a superb flood of invention" through these varied treatments. "The variety of moods this theme can convey

13104-422: The theme of this fugue include variations on the two themes of the Introit. At first, upward diatonic series of sixteenth-notes are replaced by chromatic series, which has the effect of augmenting the intensity. This passage shows itself to be a bit demanding in the upper voices, particularly for the soprano voice. A final portion in a slower (Adagio) tempo ends on an "empty" fifth, a construction which had during

13221-552: The voices and instruments spread over five octaves" in bars 7-8: In contrast, Bach’s deployment of his instrumental forces in the opening movement of his St John Passion evokes a much darker drama: “The relentless tremulant pulsation generated by the reiterated bass line, the persistent sighing figure in the violas and the violins the swirling motion in the violins so suggestive of turmoil… all contribute to its unique pathos. Over this ferment, pairs of oboes and flutes locked in lyrical dialogue but with anguished dissonances enact

13338-450: The voices develop with a bold independence that is often breath-taking." According to Cunningham, linear harmony is "a frequent approach in the 20th century...[in which lines] are combined with almost careless abandon in the hopes that new 'chords' and 'progressions'...will result." It is possible with "any kind of line, diatonic or duodecuple ". Dissonant counterpoint was originally theorized by Charles Seeger as "at first purely

13455-467: The woodwinds (first bassoons, then basset horns) present the principal theme of the work in imitative counterpoint . The first five measures of this passage (without the accompaniment) are shown below. This theme is modeled after Handel 's The ways of Zion do mourn , HWV 264. Many parts of the work make reference to this passage, notably in the coloratura in the Kyrie fugue and in the conclusion of

13572-540: Was concerned", including a "meticulous attitude towards the spacing of chords." H. C. Robbins Landon marvels at the "gorgeous wash of colour displayed in Mozart’s scores." For example, the opening movement of the Symphony No. 39 (K543) contains "a charming dialogue between strings and woodwind" that demonstrates the composer's exquisite aural imagination for the blending and contrast of timbres . Bars 102-3 feature

13689-414: Was something entirely new... - with a feeling for colour [(i.e., tone colour or timbre )] that is altogether 'modern'." In 'The Entrance of Polymnie' from his opera Les Boréades (1763), the predominant string texture is shot through with descending scale figures on the bassoon, creating an exquisite blend of timbres: In the aria ‘Rossignols amoureux’ from his opera Hippolyte et Aricie , Rameau evokes

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