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93-691: The precursor to the aims of MDCs was the work of Edwin Chadwick and others in exposing the sanitary conditions of slums in large metropolitan areas. Once Chadwick's reforms had been implemented poverty remained rife in the overcrowded inner cities, and reformers had to look elsewhere for the solution to the problems of the working class. The publication of Engels ' The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 and The Communist Manifesto , as well as fear of further uprisings such as that of

186-599: A Jacobethan style, were opened in Commercial Street , Spitalfields in February 1864. George Peabody provided benefactions of well over $ 8 million ($ 240,000,000 in 2023 dollars ), most of them in his lifetime. Some of the organizations which have been confirmed as recipients of Peabody's funds includ: Peabody died in London on November 4, 1869, aged 74, at the house of his friend Sir Curtis Lampson . At

279-519: A Fourth of July dinner when he chose to toast Queen Victoria before US President Franklin Pierce ; Pierce's future successor, James Buchanan , then Ambassador to London, left in a huff. At around this time, Peabody began to suffer from rheumatoid arthritis and gout . In February 1867, on one of several return visits to the United States, and at the height of his financial success, Peabody

372-585: A Select Committee of the House of Commons in 1853. Opposition from engineers increased, and a "Private Enterprise Society" was formed by Hawksley and James Simpson , with the intent of bringing down the Board. Shaftsbury, Chadwick and Southwood Smith all had to resign in 1854, and the Board did not last for long afterwards. Chadwick lived to see his position vindicated when the Local Government Board

465-503: A committee from the parish of St Jude, Whitechapel , headed by Canon Samuel Barnett . The company was one of the most successful providers of housing to the very poor in the East End of London , being founded along religious lines rather than being preoccupied with capital return on investment, which was the biggest reason behind the lack of success of earlier builders. Following Octavia Hill 's principles of female residence managers,

558-564: A constant water supply, and water-closets would ensure that soil was discharged into egg-shaped sewers, to be carried away and spread on the land as manure, preventing rivers from becoming polluted. Followed the publication of the commission's report, the Health of Towns Association was formed and various city-based branches were created. Chadwick later helped to ensure that the Waterworks Clauses Act 1847 became law, to limit

651-509: A disciple of Benjamin Franklin , Peabody combined hard work with frugality, punctuality, and a strong public spirit. Peabody was a pioneer, whose success in philanthropy set a new standard for American millionaires. By contrast, philanthropy in Europe was more typically dispensed by aristocratic families with inherited landed wealth, which built palaces and museums that were eventually opened to

744-573: A larger estate in Kilburn , Queen's Park , then a still larger estate at Hornsey , Noel Park , and finally Leigham Court in Streatham . The company also diversified into block dwellings and other, more commercially minded estates such as Pinnerwood Park near Harrow . By 1900, the Artizans' Company provided dwellings for 42,000 people in over 6,400 residences The EEDC was founded in 1882 by

837-405: A literary assistant and left him a large legacy. He also became acquaintanced with Thomas Southwood Smith , Neil Arnott and James Kay-Shuttleworth , all doctors. From his exposure to social reform and under the influence of his friends, he began to devote his efforts to sanitary reform. In 1832, Chadwick began on his path to make improvements with sanitary and health conditions. In 1832, he

930-461: A means of ensuring the longevity of capitalism through a process of embourgeoisement . In the twentieth century and beyond, opinions over the MDC movements have tended towards two positions. The first, adopted by free market economists, asserts that the financial success of some of these companies shows that they could have been a significant help to the poor, if their operation was not interrupted by

1023-652: A minimum return of five per cent on investment. This was outlined in the company's resolution: That an association be formed for the purpose of providing the labouring man with an increase of the comforts and conveniences of life, with full return to the capitalist. The first MAIDIC blocks were completed in 1848, constituting twenty-one two room apartments and ninety three room apartments in Old St Pancras Road, again on an 'associated' model - that is, with shared amenities such as lavatories and kitchen. This type of large, block residence with shared facilities became

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1116-514: A more centralised system of administration than the one adopted, and he felt the Poor Law reform of 1834 should have provided for the management of poor law relief by salaried officers controlled from a central board, with the boards of guardians acting merely as inspectors. In 1834, he was appointed secretary to the Poor Law commissioners. Unwilling to administer an act of which he was largely

1209-663: A partner in 1854 and their joint business would go on to become the global financial services firm J.P. Morgan & Co. after Peabody's 1864 retirement. In his old age, Peabody won worldwide acclaim for his philanthropy. He founded the Peabody Trust in Britain and the Peabody Institute and George Peabody Library in Baltimore , and was responsible for many other charitable initiatives. For his generosity, he

1302-594: A pension. He occupied the remainder of his life in voluntary contributions to sanitary, health and economic questions. In January 1884, he was appointed as the first president of the Association of Public Sanitary Inspectors, now the Chartered Institute of Environmental Health . Its head office, in Waterloo, London , is named Chadwick Court, in his honour. While he is well known for his work with

1395-600: A permanent water supply, rather than the intermittent supplies from standpipes that were often provided. The report caught the public imagination, and the government had to set up a Royal Commission on the Health of Towns to consider the issues and recommend legislation. Its chairman was the Duke of Buccleuch, and there were thirteen members, including the engineers Robert Stephenson and William Cubitt . Chadwick acted as secretary in an unofficial capacity, and seems to have dominated

1488-439: A political slush fund to spread propaganda for debt resumption and elect legislators who would placate their investors. By means of a secret account, the two firms transferred a thousand sterling to Baltimore and even bribed Daniel Webster, the orator and statesman, to make speeches for debt repayment. Their attempts were successful: pro-resumption Whigs were elected and London bankers started to receive payments. Barings duplicated

1581-436: A prominent American financier in London, Peabody often faced scorn for America's poor credit. (On one occasion, he was even blackballed from membership in a gentlemen's club .) Peabody joined forces with Barings Bank to lobby American states for debt repayment, particularly his home state of Maryland. The campaign included printing propaganda and bribing clergy and politicians, most notably Senator Daniel Webster . Peabody made

1674-708: A serious outbreak of typhus in 1838, Chadwick convinced the Poor Law Board that an enquiry was required, and this was initially carried out by his doctor friends Arnot and Southwood Smith, assisted by another doctor from Manchester, James Kay Shuttleworth. This was the first time in British history that doctors were employed to look at the conditions which might contribute to ill health in the population. Chadwick sent questionnaires to every Poor Law Union, and talked to surveyors, builders, prison governors, police officers and factory inspectors to obtain additional data about

1767-463: A significant profit when Maryland, Pennsylvania, and other states resumed payments, having previously bought up state bonds at a low cost. Encyclopædia Britannica cites him as having "helped establish U.S. credit abroad." Peabody took Junius Spencer Morgan (father of J. P. Morgan ) into partnership in 1854 to form Peabody, Morgan & Co. , and the two financiers worked together until Peabody's retirement in 1864; Morgan had effective control of

1860-662: A smaller return, such as the Four Per Cent Industrial Dwellings Company , and the East End Dwellings Company , often founded on religious principles as much as commercial. The first of these companies was formed out of the Labourer's Friend Society , which in 1844 agreed to change its name and purpose towards building houses for labourers that might be adopted by others as a template. Their first urban building project

1953-592: Is remembered at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine where his name appears among the names of 23 pioneers of public health and tropical medicine chosen to be honoured when the School was built in 1929. He is also commemorated at Heriot Watt University in Edinburgh, Scotland for the engineering building. According to Priti Joshi in 2004 the evaluation of his career has drastically changed since

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2046-481: The Chartists in 1848, increased concern for the welfare of the working class amongst the middle and upper classes. Out of this environment, various societies and companies were formed to meet the housing needs of the working classes. Improved accommodation was seen as a way of ameliorating overcrowding, as well as the moral and sanitary problems resulting from that. The movement started in a small way in London, with

2139-1072: The Guinness Trust , Lewis Trust and Sutton Trust . Outside of London, the Pilrig Model Dwellings Company and Edinburgh Co-Operative Building Company were active in Edinburgh , Scotland , building a number of what have come to be referred to as colony houses . Other companies, such as the Chester Cottage Improvement Company and the Newcastle upon Tyne Improved Industrial Dwellings Company built in specific areas only. Other buildings were erected by individuals, such as Hugh Jackson's New Court, in Camden Town , London, and Sir James Gowans ' Rosebank Cottages in Edinburgh. The Newcastle upon Tyne Improved Industrial Dwellings Company

2232-910: The Institute of Civil Engineers , the National Association for the Promotion of Social Science , the Royal Society of Arts , the Royal Statistical Society , the London Debating Society and the Political Economy Club . In recognition of his public service, he was knighted in 1889. He served in his post until his death, at 90, in 1890, at East Sheen , Richmond on Thames . He was buried at Mortlake Cemetery . Chadwick

2325-798: The Metropolitan Association for Improving the Dwellings of the Industrious Classes and Society for Improving the Condition of the Labouring Classes finding difficulty in raising sufficient capital to build commercially viable projects. Support from public figures and demonstrations at the Great Exhibition all improved public awareness, if not raising investment. The middle of the century saw

2418-754: The Peabody Hotel in Memphis, Tennessee , was named in his memory. A number of Elementary and High Schools in the United States are named after Peabody. A statue sculpted by William Wetmore Story stands next to the Royal Exchange in the City of London, unveiled by the Prince of Wales in July 1869: Peabody himself was too unwell to attend the ceremony, and died less than four months later. A replica of

2511-536: The Public Health Act 1848 , which was the first instance of the British government taking responsibility for the health of its citizens. It had been introduced by Lord Morpeth in 1847, with the aim or requiring every town to supply water to every house, which they could do by building their own waterworks or by liaising with water companies, and to undertake drainage, sewerage and street paving projects. Most of its grand aims were considerably watered down by

2604-835: The Royal Navy , arriving at Portland, Maine , where they were received by US Admiral David Farragut . He was laid to rest in Harmony Grove Cemetery , in Salem, Massachusetts , on February 8, 1870. Peabody's death and the pair of funerals were international news, through the newly completed trans-Atlantic underwater telegraph cable . Hundreds of people participated in the ceremonies and thousands more attended or observed. Historian Roderick Nash argues that Peabody made his millions quietly in groceries and real estate, while contemporary millionaires were building more visible empires in oil, iron, land and especially railroads. As

2697-670: The 1950s: Such views are not universally held. Thus Ekelund and Price in their assessment of Chadwick's economic policies in 2012 wrote: In 1898 the executor of Sir Benjamin Ward Richardson 's estate presented University College London with Chadwick's archive. Richardson was Chadwick's biographer and friend. The collection spans over 190 boxes of material, around half of which is correspondence. It also documents Chadwick's involvement with Poor Law reforms and public health improvements. Attribution: George Peabody George Peabody (February 18, 1795 – November 4, 1869)

2790-757: The Anglo-American dinners he hosted in honor of American diplomats and other worthies, and in celebration of the Fourth of July . In 1851, when the US Congress refused to support the American section at the Great Exhibition at the Crystal Palace , Peabody advanced £ 3000 (then worth $ 15,000; worth about $ 550,000 in 2022 dollars) to improve the exhibit and uphold the reputation of the United States. In 1854, he offended many of his American guests at

2883-590: The City of Peabody is now operated and preserved as the George Peabody House Museum , a museum dedicated to interpreting his life and legacy. There is a blue plaque on the house where he died in London, No. 80 Eaton Square , Belgravia , erected in 1976. On March 16, 2018, Google honored Peabody with a Google Doodle on the 151st anniversary of Peabody being awarded the Congressional Gold Medal. The mural reproduced in

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2976-546: The Government, the Metropolitan Water Supply Act 1852 forced the companies to move the intakes for their water to locations above Teddington weir , to filter water before it was used for domestic supply, to cover filtered water reservoirs, and to ensure that there was a constant water supply to all users by 1857. This was not achieved until 1899, and Chadwick's recommendation for a single authority

3069-492: The Irishman Alexander Brown (founder of the venerable investment and banking firm of " Alex. Brown & Sons " in 1801), who managed their father's Liverpool office, opened in 1810. In 1837, Peabody took up residence in London, and the following year, he started a banking business trading on his own account. The banking firm of " George Peabody and Company " was not, however, established until 1851. It

3162-415: The Poor Law and with sanitation, he also contributed to other areas of public policy. These included tropical hygiene, criminal justice institutions, policy regarding funerals and burials in urban areas, school architecture, utilisation of sewage, military sanitation and the education of paupers. He was involved in investigations into child labour in factories, the organisation of the police force, drunkenness,

3255-424: The arrival of social housing in the form of London County Council estates . Others argue that the failure of MDCs to meet the needs of the very poorest demonstrates that they were a stepping stone towards the inevitable necessity of state intervention to solve the housing crisis. MDCs have been particularly criticised for failing to provide for the very poorest of society, concentrating on the labour aristocracy ,

3348-514: The author in any way other than as he thought best, he found it hard to get along with his superiors. The disagreement, among others, contributed to the dissolution of the Poor Law Commission in 1847. His chief contribution to political controversy was his belief in entrusting certain departments of local affairs to trained and selected experts instead of to representatives, elected on the principle of local self-government. Following

3441-641: The award. On March 16, 1867, he was awarded the United States Congressional Gold Medal , an honorary doctorate of laws by Harvard University , and an honorary doctorate in civil law by Oxford University . On March 24, 1867, Peabody was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society Peabody's birthplace, South Danvers, Massachusetts, changed its name in 1868 to the town (now city) of Peabody , in honor of its favorite son. In 1869,

3534-564: The banker Nathan Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild . They built large residences across Spitalfields and Whitechapel, later branching out towards Hackney and South London, with a remit to provide (although not exclusively) for destitute Jews in the East End. The company later renamed itself the Industrial Dwellings Society (1885) Ltd., and is today known as IDS. There were a large number of companies operating in

3627-586: The bar , becoming a barrister . Called to the bar without independent means, he sought to support himself by literary work such as his work on 'Applied Science and its Place in Democracy', and his essays in the Westminster Review , mainly on different methods of applying scientific knowledge to the practice of government. He became friends with two of the leading philosophers of the day, John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham . Bentham engaged him as

3720-515: The best practices of the day. Peabody's philanthropy won him many admirers in his old age. He was praised by European contemporaries such as Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone and author Victor Hugo , and Queen Victoria offered him a baronetcy , which he refused. In 1854, the Arctic explorer Elisha Kane named the waterway off the north-west coast of Greenland "Peabody Bay", in honor of Peabody, who had funded his expedition. The waterway

3813-500: The business from 1859 on. During the run on the banks of 1857, Peabody had to ask the Bank of England for a loan of £800,000: although rivals tried to force the bank out of business, it managed to emerge with its credit intact. Following this crisis, Peabody began to retire from active business, and in 1864, retired fully (taking with him much of his capital, amounting to over $ 10,000,000, or £2,000,000). Peabody, Morgan & Co. then took

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3906-620: The cause of Sanitary Reform". He corresponded with Florence Nightingale on methodology. He encouraged her to write up her research into the book Notes on Nursing. He promoted it among well placed intellectuals, making her more visible. Chadwick was a commissioner of the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers in London from 1848 to 1849. He was also a commissioner of the General Board of Health from its establishment in 1848 to its abolition in 1854, when he retired on

3999-584: The central, high-rise model of other companies. It was founded by a former labourer, William Austin, in 1867 and immediately set about building and selling model dwellings first in Battersea , then Salford , Gosport and elsewhere. Their first major contribution to the MDC movement came at Shaftesbury Park in Battersea, a large, suburban estate opened by Lord Shaftesbury in 1872 as a "workmen's city" for "clerks, artisans and labourers". Building continued at

4092-462: The company employed female rent collectors including Beatrice Potter (later Webb, co-founder of the London School of Economics ) and Ella Pycroft. The company built a large number of dwellings in what is now the London Borough of Tower Hamlets , starting with Katharine Buildings in 1885. The Four Per Cent Company was founded by a group of Anglo- Jewish philanthropists in 1885, headed by

4185-515: The death rate of a district exceeded 23 per 1000, but gauged the level of local feeling, and formed a local Board if there was support, and withdrew tactfully if there was opposition. By 1853, they had received requests for inspections from 284 towns, and 13 combined water supply, sewerage and drainage schemes had been completed under the legislation. Relationships with engineers were not always easy, with J. M. Rendel calling Chadwick's ideas "sanitary humbug" and Robert Stephenson stating that he hated

4278-480: The design distinct, but the project was seen overall as a failure, finally being demolished in 1960. The MDC movement was strongly supported by individuals like Lord Shaftesbury, who was president of the Artizan's Company for some time, for providing a plan to "completely alter for the better the domiciliary habits of the people of the metropolis". Others, such as Engels, criticised the movement as " Proudhonist ", and

4371-401: The help of private tutors, his father and a great deal of self-teaching. His father remarried in the early 1820s; Edwin's younger half-brother was baseball icon Henry Chadwick , born in 1824. At 18, Chadwick decided to pursue a career in law and undertook an apprenticeship with a solicitor . In 1823, he enrolled in law school at The Temple in London. On 26 November 1830 he was called to

4464-421: The ideas of pipes, rather than brick-built sewers. Even Joseph Bazalgette , who went on to design London's trunk sewer network, spoke out against glazed sewer pipes. As time went by, there was growing opposition to what was seen as central control by the Board. The rift between Chadwick and Hawksley had become open hostility, and Hawksley made serious complaints against Chadwick and one of the Board's inspectors to

4557-403: The inspectors himself, ensuring that they shared his views on glazed sewer pipes, constant water supply and arterial drainage. They worked enthusiastically, ensuring that districts considered comprehensive schemes for water supply, drainage and sewerage. Ratepayers in a district could request an inspector to attend if ten per cent of them signed a petition. The Board could also hold an enquiry if

4650-610: The intellectual, moral, and industrial education of the destitute children of the Southern States." His grandest beneficence, however, was to Baltimore, the city in which he achieved his earliest success. In April 1862, Peabody established the Peabody Donation Fund, which continues to this day as the Peabody Trust , to provide housing of decent quality for the "artisans and labouring poor of London". The trust's first dwellings, designed by H. A. Darbishire in

4743-569: The lives of the poor. He edited the information himself, and prepared it for publication. His Report on The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain , begun in 1839 and published in 1842, was researched and published at his own expense, and became the best-selling publication produced by the Stationery Office to date. A supplementary report was also published in 1843. He employed John Roe,

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4836-535: The money market, and the company was wound up after just three years. Chadwick understood that both water supply and drainage were important, since replacing earth-closets with water closets resulted in cesspools overflowing and making sanitary conditions worse, unless there were sewers to carry the waste away. This led to a rift forming between him and Hawksley, who had initially worked closely with him but who later took on water supply projects which did not include any requirement for drainage. Chadwick's report led to

4929-435: The name J.S. Morgan & Co. The former UK merchant bank Morgan Grenfell (now part of Deutsche Bank ), international universal bank JPMorgan Chase and investment bank Morgan Stanley can all trace their roots to Peabody's bank. Though thrifty, even miserly with his employees and relatives, Peabody gave generously to public causes. He became the acknowledged father of modern philanthropy , having established

5022-501: The names reversed as Peabody became the senior partner. Peabody first visited England in 1827 to purchase wares, and to negotiate the sale of American cotton in Lancashire . He subsequently opened a branch office in Liverpool , and British business began to play an increasingly important role in his affairs. He appears to have had some help in establishing himself from Sir William Brown, 1st Baronet, of Richmond Hill and James Brown, sons of another highly-successful Baltimore businessman,

5115-600: The next decade Peabody made four more trans-Atlantic trips, starting in 1835 and establishing a branch office in Liverpool. Later he established the banking firm of " George Peabody & Company " (later stylised as J.S. Morgan & Co. ) in London. In 1837, he took up permanent residence in London, where he lived for the rest of his life. In the 1840s, the state of Maryland defaulted on its debt and Peabody, having marketed about half of Maryland's securities to individual investors in Europe, became persona non grata around London. The Times of London noted that while Peabody

5208-408: The next generation of poor youth, and thereby promote greater equality in American society. Jacksonian Democracy promoted equality in politics; he promoted equality and culture through libraries, schools, museums and colleges. He rejected doling out cash to the poor as a waste of money in comparison to building permanent institutions that produced a steady stream of benefits. His last great benefaction

5301-433: The nineteenth century, particularly in London, around twenty-eight at the time of the Cross Act. Other names include the South London Dwellings Company (founded by Emma Cons ), the Chelsea Park Dwellings Company , the National Dwellings Society , the City and Central Dwellings Company , the London Labourers' Dwellings Society (founded by William Alexander Greenhill ), the Real Property Investment Association and later

5394-417: The norm for model dwellings companies. The MAIDIC was one of the largest MDCs and by 1900 housed over 6,000 people. The Peabody Trust was founded after an unprecedented donation in 1862 of £150,000, by the American banker George Peabody for the good of the poor in London. A committee was set up to choose the most appropriate way to spend the money, and it was decided to build a number of block dwellings for

5487-437: The old Henry Fite House , and became a businessman and financier. At that time London, Amsterdam, Paris and Frankfurt were at the center of international banking and finance. As all international transactions were settled in gold or gold certificates, a developing nation like the United States had to rely upon agents and merchant banks to raise capital through relationships with merchant banking houses in Europe. Only they held

5580-463: The peak in MDC building, with around twenty-eight separate companies operating in London prior to the 1875 Cross Act . The movement picked up pace again after the Act, which granted local authorities the right to clear slum dwellings , however the entrepreneurial focus of the companies was restricted by an inability to make a competitive return and the intervention of large-scale municipal housing . The most successful builders post-1875 were those making

5673-460: The practice later followed by Johns Hopkins , Andrew Carnegie , John D. Rockefeller and Bill Gates . In the United States, his philanthropy largely took the form of educational initiatives. In Britain, it took the form of providing housing for the poor. In America, Peabody founded and supported numerous institutions in New England, the South, and elsewhere. In 1867–68, he established the Peabody Education Fund with $ 3.5 million to "encourage

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5766-424: The proceedings. The Commission took evidence from Robert Thom , who had designed a water supply system for Greenock , Thomas Wicksteed , who was the engineer for the East London Waterworks Company , and Thomas Hawksley from the Trent Waterworks, Nottingham . These confirmed his ideas about constant water supplies, and he developed a model which he called the "venous and arterial system." Each house would have

5859-424: The profits that water supply companies could make to 10 per cent, and requiring them to comply with reasonable demands for water. This included a constant supply of wholesome water for houses, and a supply for cleansing sewers and watering streets. Chadwick wanted to see his ideas implemented over a wide area, and set about forming a company to supply water to towns, to ensure their drainage and cleansing, and to use

5952-505: The public. The American way was for the self-made millionaires to become self-made philanthropists, a model perfected in the next generation by Andrew Carnegie (1835–1919) and John D. Rockefeller (1839–1937). They agreed with Peabody that riches produced a duty to give most of it back to the community through specialized permanent foundations. Peabody was especially imaginative, and relied on his own memories of poverty and self-education to introduce new ways to educate and culturally enrich

6045-414: The quantity of reserves of capital necessary to extend long-term credit to a developing economy like that of the US. Peabody first visited England in 1827, seeking to use his firm and his agency to sell American states' bond issues, to raise capital for those states' various programs of "internal improvements" (principally the transportation infrastructure, such as roads, railroads, docks and canals). Over

6138-439: The refuse for agricultural production. It was to have the grandiose title "The British, Colonial and Foreign Drainage, Water Supply and Towns Improvement Company", with an initial capital of £1 million, but it was the time of the Railway Mania , and he struggled to raise the finance against such competition. The company when it was eventually registered became the more modest Towns Improvement Company. Railways continued to dominate

6231-412: The request of the Dean of Westminster , and with the approval of Queen Victoria , he was given a funeral and temporary grave in Westminster Abbey . His will provided that he be buried in the town of his birth, South Danvers, Massachusetts (now Peabody). Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone arranged for Peabody's remains to be returned to America on HMS Monarch , the newest and largest ship in

6324-460: The same statue , erected in 1890, stands next to the Peabody Institute , in Mount Vernon Park, part of the Mount Vernon neighborhood of Baltimore, Maryland . In 1900, Peabody was one of the first 29 honorees to be elected to the Hall of Fame for Great Americans , located on what was then the campus of New York University (and is now that of Bronx Community College ), at University Heights , New York. His birthplace at 205 Washington Street in

6417-574: The same tactics in Pennsylvania. Florida and Mississippi were the most persistent debtors and as such were excluded from Peabody's later philanthropies. Although Peabody was briefly engaged in 1838 (and later allegedly had a mistress in Brighton , England , who bore him a daughter), he never married. Ron Chernow describes him as "homely", with "a rumpled face ... knobby chin, bulbous nose, side whiskers, and heavy-lidded eyes." Peabody frequently entertained and provided letters of introduction for American businessmen visiting London, and became known for

6510-482: The surveyor for the district of Holborn and Finsbury who had invented the egg-shaped sewer, to conduct experiments on the most efficient ways to construct drains, the results of which were incorporated into the report, and the summary included eight points, including the absolute necessity of better water supplies and of a drainage system to remove waste, as ways to diminish premature mortality. Evidence given by Dr Dyce Guthrie convinced Chadwick that every house should have

6603-410: The time it became law, but it established a General Board of Health , whose members were Lord Morpeth, Lord Shaftesbury , and Chadwick. They were later joined by Southwood Smith , who acted as a medical advisor. Local Boards could pay for a survey from an inspector employed by the Board, and could then proceed without the need to obtain a costly local act to authorise the work. Chadwick chose all of

6696-551: The treatment of labourers on the railways, the building and maintenance of roads, organisation of the civil service, and various aspects of education. Most of these benefitted from his use of statistical methods to collect and organise data, and of the use of anecdotal evidence to support his conclusions. He was involved in a number of organisations, including the British Association for the Advancement of Science ,

6789-655: The upper strata of the working classes. Edwin Chadwick Sir Edwin Chadwick KCB (24 January 1800 – 6 July 1890) was an English social reformer who is noted for his leadership in reforming the Poor Laws in England and instituting major reforms in urban sanitation and public health . A disciple of Utilitarian philosopher Jeremy Bentham , he was most active between 1832 and 1854; after that he held minor positions, and his views were largely ignored. Chadwick pioneered

6882-449: The use of scientific surveys to identify all phases of a complex social problem, and pioneered the use of systematic long-term inspection programmes to make sure the reforms operated as planned. Edwin Chadwick was born on 24 January 1800 at Longsight , Manchester , Lancashire His mother, Teresa, died when he was still a young child, yet to be named. His father, James Chadwick, tutored the scientist John Dalton in music and botany and

6975-462: The very poorest of the city. These apartments were of similar design to other companies, but rents were offered at lower levels, leading to complaints from other MDCs. Tenancy in a Peabody Dwelling came with strict rules: rents had to be paid weekly and punctually, and many trades were not permitted to be carried on at the dwellings. There was also a night-time curfew and a set of moral standards to be adhered to. The largest MDC working in central London

7068-572: Was a private philanthropist who gave to many and varied charitable endeavours. One of the most significant private inputs into the provision of working class housing was Columbia Square in Bethnal Green , a block estate completed in 1857. Architecturally, it was a precursor to the imposing Peabody Dwellings, having been designed by Peabody's architect, Henry Darbishire . The addition of a grand marketplace modelled on Saint Chapelle in Paris made

7161-441: Was a teenager, his father died, and he worked in his brother's shop to support his widowed mother and six siblings. He later expressed "I have never forgotten and never can forget the great privations of my early years". These factors influenced his later devotion to both thrift and philanthropy . In 1816, he moved to Baltimore, where he made his career and would live for the next 20 years. He established his residence and office in

7254-520: Was an "American gentleman of the most unblemished character", the Reform Club had blackballed him for being a citizen of a country that reneged on its debts. At first, Peabody sent letters to scold Baltimore friends about the need for the state to resume interest payment and rewarded reporters with small gratuities for favourable articles about the state. At last, in 1845 he conspired with Barings to push Maryland into resuming payment by setting up

7347-574: Was an American financier and philanthropist. He is often considered the father of modern philanthropy . Born into a poor family in Massachusetts , Peabody went into business in dry goods and later into banking. In 1837 he moved to London (which was then the capital of world finance) where he became the most noted American banker and helped to establish the young country's international credit. Having no son of his own to whom he could pass on his business, Peabody took on Junius Spencer Morgan as

7440-537: Was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal and made a Freeman of the City of London , among many other honors. Peabody was born in 1795 in what was then South Danvers (now Peabody ), Massachusetts. His family had Puritan ancestors in the state. As one of seven children in a poor family, George suffered some deprivations during his childhood, and was able to attend school for only a few years. When he

7533-541: Was completed in 1846 at Bagnigge Wells, Pentonville , designed by Henry Roberts . Although the Society for Improving the Condition of the Labouring Classes (SICLC) had the Prince Consort as its first president and contributed to the Great Exhibition of 1851, their block dwellings, in particular, were subject to criticism. The design of SICLC dwellings paid particular attention to sanitation and ventilation but

7626-536: Was considered to be an advanced liberal politician, thus exposing young Edwin to political and social ideas. His grandfather, Andrew Chadwick, had been a close friend of the Methodist theologian John Wesley . He began his education at a small local school and then at a boarding school in Stockport , where he studied until he was 10. When his family moved to London in 1810, Chadwick continued his education with

7719-488: Was employed by the Royal Commission appointed to inquire into the operation of the Poor Law , and in 1833, he was made a full member of that commission. Chadwick and Nassau William Senior drafted the famous report of 1834, recommending the reform of the old law. Under the 1834 system, individual parishes were formed into Poor Law Unions , and each Poor Law Union was to have a union workhouse . Chadwick favoured

7812-459: Was established in 1871, which led to the formation of the Ministry of Health. Since then, it has been widely acknowledged that public health is a matter of government responsibility, working through local authorities. In 1851, Chadwick made a recommendation that a single authority should take over the nine separate water supply companies that operated in London. Although this idea was rejected by

7905-558: Was eventually implemented in 1902, with the formation of the Metropolitan Water Board. In 1852, Chadwick conversed with Lewis Llewelyn Dillwyn in relation to the construction of a sewerage system in Swansea. Chadwick's efforts were acknowledged by at least one health reformer of the day: Erasmus Wilson dedicated his 1854 book Healthy Skin to Chadwick "In admiration of his strenuous and indefatigable labours in

7998-549: Was founded to meet the increasing demand for securities issued by the American railroads , and – although Peabody continued to deal in dry goods and other commodities – he increasingly focused his attentions on merchant banking , specializing in financing governments and large companies. The bank rose to become the premier American house in London. In Peabody's early years in London, American state governments were notorious for defaulting on their debts to British lenders, and as

8091-482: Was later renamed the Kane Basin , but Peabody Bay survives as the name of a smaller bay at the eastern side of the basin. On July 10, 1862, he was made a Freeman of the City of London , the motion being proposed by Charles Reed in recognition of his financial contribution to London's poor. He became the first of only two Americans (the other being 34th President and General Dwight D. Eisenhower ) to receive

8184-498: Was otherwise functional and utilitarian, and the resulting estate was seen as grim and unpleasant. The Metropolitan Association for Improving the Dwellings of the Industrious Classes (MAIDIC) was formed in 1841, earlier than the SICLC, but spent several years acquiring capital to begin its building projects. These commenced after the company obtained a royal charter which established the company on more commercial grounds, guaranteeing

8277-419: Was set up by James Hall of Hall Brothers Steamship Company, Tynemouth, after visiting Sir Sydney Waterlow's establishment in London. It built 108 flats at Garth Heads between 1869 and 1878; the chairman, directors and shareholders were mostly prominent local businessmen. The company was wound up in 1968 and the buildings at Garth Heads are currently used for private student accommodation. Baroness Burdett-Coutts

8370-508: Was suggested by Francis Preston Blair , an old crony of President Andrew Jackson and an active power in the smoldering Democratic Party as a possible Secretary of the Treasury in the cabinet of President Andrew Johnson . At about the same time, Peabody was also mentioned in newspapers as a future presidential candidate. Peabody described the presidential suggestion as a "kind and complimentary reference", but considered that, at age 72, he

8463-605: Was the Improved Industrial Dwellings Company (IIDC), founded by Sir Sydney Waterlow in 1863, which housed around 30,000 individuals by 1900. Its rigorous selection procedure, rules and financial regulations meant that the IIDC was one of the more financially successful of these firms. The Artizans' Company became one of the largest of the MDCs, concentrating on suburban, low-rise estates rather than

8556-518: Was the Peabody Education Fund, which had a dramatic impact in improving southern public schools. It was the first major philanthropic institution that gave large sums to poor blacks on the same terms as whites, albeit within the limits of racial segregation. Even more important was the institutional framework that Peabody devised, of a permanent professional foundation run by experts in philanthropy, who were guided by and indeed invented

8649-526: Was too old for either office. While serving as a volunteer in the War of 1812 , Peabody met Elisha Riggs , who, in 1814, provided financial backing for what became the wholesale dry goods firm of Riggs, Peabody & Co. The firm specialized in importing dry goods from Britain. Branches were opened in New York and Philadelphia in 1822. Riggs retired in 1829, and the firm became Peabody, Riggs & Co., with

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