49-455: Modern warfare generally refers to contemporary warfare as contrasted with previous methods. Aspects of modern warfare: Modern warfare Modern warfare is warfare that diverges notably from previous military concepts, methods, and technology , emphasizing how combatants must modernize to preserve their battle worthiness. As such, it is an evolving subject, seen differently in different times and places. In its narrowest sense, it
98-403: A source into symbols for communication or storage. Decoding is the reverse process, converting code symbols back into a form that the recipient understands, such as English or/and Spanish. One reason for coding is to enable communication in places where ordinary plain language , spoken or written, is difficult or impossible. For example, semaphore , where the configuration of flags held by
147-432: A corresponding sequence of amino acids that form a protein molecule; a type of codon called a stop codon signals the end of the sequence. In mathematics , a Gödel code was the basis for the proof of Gödel 's incompleteness theorem . Here, the idea was to map mathematical notation to a natural number (using a Gödel numbering ). There are codes using colors, like traffic lights , the color code employed to mark
196-598: A front for the American Black Chamber run by Herbert Yardley between the First and Second World Wars. The purpose of most of these codes was to save on cable costs. The use of data coding for data compression predates the computer era; an early example is the telegraph Morse code where more-frequently used characters have shorter representations. Techniques such as Huffman coding are now used by computer-based algorithms to compress large data files into
245-467: A little and then to retreat. Propaganda Propaganda is an ancient form of disinformation concerted with sending a set of messages aimed at influencing the opinions or behavior of large numbers of people. Instead of impartially providing information, propaganda in its most basic sense presents information in order to influence its audience. The most effective propaganda is often completely truthful, but some propaganda presents facts selectively to encourage
294-412: A more compact form for storage or transmission. Character encodings are representations of textual data. A given character encoding may be associated with a specific character set (the collection of characters which it can represent), though some character sets have multiple character encodings and vice versa. Character encodings may be broadly grouped according to the number of bytes required to represent
343-526: A particular synthesis, or gives loaded messages in order to produce an emotional rather than rational response to the information presented. The desired result is a change of the cognitive narrative of the subject in the target audience. Psychological Psychological warfare had its beginnings during the campaigns of Genghis Khan through the allowance of certain civilians of the nations, cities, and villages to flee said place, spreading terror and fear to neighboring principalities. Psychological actions have
392-440: A person, through speech , to communicate what they thought, saw, heard, or felt to others. But speech limits the range of communication to the distance a voice can carry and limits the audience to those present when the speech is uttered. The invention of writing , which converted spoken language into visual symbols , extended the range of communication across space and time . The process of encoding converts information from
441-410: A sequence of target symbols. In this section, we consider codes that encode each source (clear text) character by a code word from some dictionary, and concatenation of such code words give us an encoded string. Variable-length codes are especially useful when clear text characters have different probabilities; see also entropy encoding . A prefix code is a code with the "prefix property": there
490-461: A signaler or the arms of a semaphore tower encodes parts of the message, typically individual letters, and numbers. Another person standing a great distance away can interpret the flags and reproduce the words sent. In information theory and computer science , a code is usually considered as an algorithm that uniquely represents symbols from some source alphabet , by encoded strings, which may be in some other target alphabet. An extension of
539-659: A single character: there are single-byte encodings, multibyte (also called wide) encodings, and variable-width (also called variable-length) encodings. The earliest character encodings were single-byte, the best-known example of which is ASCII . ASCII remains in use today, for example in HTTP headers . However, single-byte encodings cannot model character sets with more than 256 characters. Scripts that require large character sets such as Chinese, Japanese and Korean must be represented with multibyte encodings. Early multibyte encodings were fixed-length, meaning that although each character
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#1732782327700588-631: A size and weight as to require a specialized mount for firing and transport. Weapons covered by this term include the howitzer , cannon , mortar , and field gun (collectively called cannon artillery , gun artillery or tube artillery ) and rocket artillery . The term "artillery" has traditionally not been used for projectiles with internal guidance systems , even though some artillery units employ surface-to-surface missiles . Recent advances in terminal guidance systems for small munitions has allowed large caliber shells to be fitted with precision guidance fuses, blurring this distinction. Guerrilla warfare
637-411: A skunk!"), or AYYLU ("Not clearly coded, repeat more clearly."). Code words were chosen for various reasons: length , pronounceability , etc. Meanings were chosen to fit perceived needs: commercial negotiations, military terms for military codes, diplomatic terms for diplomatic codes, any and all of the preceding for espionage codes. Codebooks and codebook publishers proliferated, including one run as
686-547: A sympathetic populace, whom guerrillas often seek to win over or dominate by propaganda and reform. Guerrilla warfare has played a significant role in modern history, especially when waged by Communist liberation movements in Southeast Asia (most notably in the Vietnam War ) and elsewhere. Guerrilla fighters gravitate toward weapons which are easily accessible, low in technology, and low in cost. A typical arsenal of
735-519: A versatile array of attacks, capable of hitting ground targets, air targets, or other seafaring vessels. Most modern navies also have a large naval aviation contingent, deployed from aircraft carriers . In World War II, small craft ( motor torpedo boats variously called PT boats, MTBs, MGBs, Schnellboote , or MAS-boats) fought near shore. This developed in the Vietnam War into riverine warfare ( brown water navy ), in intertidal and river areas. Irregular warfare makes this sort of combat more likely in
784-439: Is a total function mapping each symbol from S to a sequence of symbols over T. The extension C ′ {\displaystyle C'} of C {\displaystyle C} , is a homomorphism of S ∗ {\displaystyle S^{*}} into T ∗ {\displaystyle T^{*}} , which naturally maps each sequence of source symbols to
833-461: Is a concept defined by William S. Lind and expanded by Thomas X. Hammes , used to describe the decentralized nature of modern warfare. The simplest definition includes any war in which one of the major participants is not a state but rather a violent ideological network. Fourth Generation wars are characterized by a blurring of the lines between war and politics, combatants and civilians, conflicts and peace, battlefields and safety. While this term
882-414: Is a type of warfare which relies on nuclear weapons . There are two types of warfare in this category. In a limited nuclear war, a small number of weapons are used in a tactical exchange aimed primarily at enemy combatants. In a full-scale nuclear war, large numbers of weapons are used in an attack aimed at entire countries. This type of warfare would target both combatants and non-combatants. Space warfare
931-416: Is access to concise and timely information on agent characteristics and treatment, as well as health-based exposure guidelines derived in a clear manner by contemporary methods of data analysis. Electronic warfare refers to mainly non-violent practices used chiefly to support other areas of warfare. The term was originally coined to encompass the interception and decoding of enemy radio communications , and
980-546: Is called the Global Information Grid . New generation warfare is a Russian military theory of unconventional warfare based on the Gerasimov doctrine which prioritizes the psychological and people-centered aspects over traditional military concerns, and emphasizes a phased approach of non-military influence such that armed conflict, if it arises, is much less costly in human or economic terms. Nuclear war
1029-476: Is defined as fighting by groups of irregular troops (guerrillas) within areas occupied by the enemy. When guerrillas obey the laws and customs of war , they are entitled, if captured, to be treated as ordinary prisoners of war ; however, they are often treated by their captors as unlawful combatants and executed. The tactics of guerrilla warfare stress deception and ambush, as opposed to mass confrontation, and succeed best in an irregular, rugged terrain, and with
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#17327823277001078-436: Is further complicated in a democracy by the power of the media . Ground warfare involves three types of combat units: infantry , armor , and artillery . Infantry in modern times would consist of mechanized infantry and airborne forces . Usually having a type of rifle or sub-machine gun , an infantryman is the basic unit of an army. Armored warfare in modern times involves a variety of armored fighting vehicles for
1127-559: Is merely a synonym for contemporary warfare . In its widest sense, it includes all warfare since the "gunpowder revolution" that marks the start of early modern warfare , but other landmark military developments have been used instead, including the emphasis of artillery marked by the Crimean War , the military reliance on railways beginning with the American Civil War , the launch of the first dreadnought in 1905, or
1176-529: Is no valid code word in the system that is a prefix (start) of any other valid code word in the set. Huffman coding is the most known algorithm for deriving prefix codes. Prefix codes are widely referred to as "Huffman codes" even when the code was not produced by a Huffman algorithm. Other examples of prefix codes are country calling codes , the country and publisher parts of ISBNs , and the Secondary Synchronization Codes used in
1225-409: Is purely science fiction . Code In communications and information processing , code is a system of rules to convert information —such as a letter , word , sound, image, or gesture —into another form, sometimes shortened or secret , for communication through a communication channel or storage in a storage medium . An early example is an invention of language , which enabled
1274-463: Is similar to terrorism and asymmetric warfare, it is much narrower. Classical insurgencies and the Indian Wars are examples of pre-modern wars, not 4GW. Fourth generation warfare usually has the insurgency group or non-state side trying to implement their own government or reestablish an old government over the one currently running the territory. The blurring of lines between state and non-state
1323-495: Is the hypothetical warfare that occurs outside the Earth's atmosphere . As of 2023, no wars have been fought here yet. The weapons would include orbital weaponry and space weapons . High value outer space targets would include satellites , military satellites and weapon platforms . Notably no real weapons exist in space yet, though ground-to-space missiles have been successfully tested against target satellites . As of now, this
1372-476: Is the use of any organism (bacteria, virus or other disease-causing organism) or toxin found in nature, as a weapon of war. It is meant to incapacitate or kill enemy combatants. It may also be defined as the employment of biological agents to produce casualties in man or animals and damage to plants or material; or defense against such employment. Biological warfare involves the intentional release of living pathogens either in their naturally occurring form, for example
1421-511: The UMTS WCDMA 3G Wireless Standard. Kraft's inequality characterizes the sets of codeword lengths that are possible in a prefix code. Virtually any uniquely decodable one-to-many code, not necessarily a prefix one, must satisfy Kraft's inequality. Codes may also be used to represent data in a way more resistant to errors in transmission or storage. This so-called error-correcting code works by including carefully crafted redundancy with
1470-621: The Unicode character set; UTF-8 is the most common encoding of text media on the Internet. Biological organisms contain genetic material that is used to control their function and development. This is DNA , which contains units named genes from which messenger RNA is derived. This in turn produces proteins through a genetic code in which a series of triplets ( codons ) of four possible nucleotides can be translated into one of twenty possible amino acids . A sequence of codons results in
1519-1400: The 1500s with modernized military techniques and designs. Major wars in the specific era were the Thirty Years' War , Seven Years' War , the Napoleonic Wars , World War I , World War II , Cold War and the War on Terror . Some argue that the changing forms of third generation warfare represents nothing more than an evolution of earlier technology . Aerial warfare is the use of military aircraft and other flying machines in warfare. Aerial warfare includes bombers attacking enemy concentrations or strategic targets ; fighter aircraft battling for control of airspace; attack aircraft engaging in close air support against ground targets; naval aviation flying against sea and nearby land targets; gliders , helicopters and other aircraft to carry airborne forces such as paratroopers ; aerial refueling tankers to extend operation time or range; and military transport aircraft to move cargo and personnel. A military situation in which two belligerents of unequal strength interact and take advantage of their respective strengths and weaknesses. This interaction often involves strategies and tactics outside conventional warfare. Biological warfare, also known as germ warfare,
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1568-457: The code for representing sequences of symbols over the source alphabet is obtained by concatenating the encoded strings. Before giving a mathematically precise definition, this is a brief example. The mapping is a code, whose source alphabet is the set { a , b , c } {\displaystyle \{a,b,c\}} and whose target alphabet is the set { 0 , 1 } {\displaystyle \{0,1\}} . Using
1617-426: The communications technologies and cryptography methods used to counter such interception, as well as jamming , radio stealth, and other related areas. Over the later years of the 20th century and early years of the 21st century, this has expanded to cover a wide range of areas: the use of, detection of and avoidance of detection by radar and sonar systems, computer hacking , etc. Fourth generation warfare (4GW)
1666-404: The confidentiality of communications, although ciphers are now used instead. Secret codes intended to obscure the real messages, ranging from serious (mainly espionage in military, diplomacy, business, etc.) to trivial (romance, games) can be any kind of imaginative encoding: flowers , game cards, clothes, fans, hats, melodies, birds, etc., in which the sole requirement is the pre-agreement on
1715-546: The diseased corpses of animals, or in the form of specific human-modified organisms. Chemical warfare is warfare (associated military operations) using the toxic properties of chemical substances to incapacitate or kill enemy combatants. Chemical warfare nerve agents are potent anticholinesterase compounds deliberately formulated to induce debilitating effects or death during wartime hostilities. A key need for both community emergency preparedness, and restoration of military installations where agents have been processed and/or stored,
1764-484: The extension of the code, the encoded string 0011001 can be grouped into codewords as 0 011 0 01, and these in turn can be decoded to the sequence of source symbols acab . Using terms from formal language theory , the precise mathematical definition of this concept is as follows: let S and T be two finite sets, called the source and target alphabets , respectively. A code C : S → T ∗ {\displaystyle C:\,S\to T^{*}}
1813-651: The future. Network-centric warfare is essentially a new military doctrine made possible by the Information Age . Weapons platforms , sensors , and command and control centers are being connected through high-speed communication networks. The doctrine is related to the Revolution in Military Affairs debate. The overall network which enables this strategy in the United States military
1862-425: The infantry on the battlefield, etc. Communication systems for sensory impairments, such as sign language for deaf people and braille for blind people, are based on movement or tactile codes. Musical scores are the most common way to encode music . Specific games have their own code systems to record the matches, e.g. chess notation . In the history of cryptography , codes were once common for ensuring
1911-472: The meaning by both the sender and the receiver. Other examples of encoding include: Other examples of decoding include: Acronyms and abbreviations can be considered codes, and in a sense, all languages and writing systems are codes for human thought. International Air Transport Association airport codes are three-letter codes used to designate airports and used for bag tags . Station codes are similarly used on railways but are usually national, so
1960-498: The modern guerrilla would include the AK-47 , RPGs , and Improvised explosive devices . The guerrilla doctrines' main disadvantage is the inability to access more advanced equipment due to economic, influence, and accessibility issues. They must rely on small unit tactics involving hit and run. This situation leads to low intensity warfare , asymmetrical warfare , and war amongst the people . The rules of Guerrilla warfare are to fight
2009-415: The nominal value of the electrical resistors or that of the trashcans devoted to specific types of garbage (paper, glass, organic, etc.). In marketing , coupon codes can be used for a financial discount or rebate when purchasing a product from a (usual internet) retailer. In military environments, specific sounds with the cornet are used for different uses: to mark some moments of the day, to command
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2058-541: The primary purpose of influencing the opinions, emotions, attitudes, and behavior of hostile foreign groups in such a way as to support the achievement of national objectives. Information Made possible by the widespread use of the electronic media during World War II, Information warfare is a kind of warfare where information and attacks on information and its system are used as a tool of warfare . Some examples of this type of warfare are electronic "sniffers" which disrupt international fund-transfer networks as well as
2107-411: The purpose of battle and support. Tanks or other armored vehicles (such as armored personnel carriers or tank destroyers ) are slower, yet stronger hunks of metal. They are invulnerable to enemy machine gun fire but prone to rocket infantry, mines, and aircraft so are usually accompanied by infantry. In urban areas, because of smaller space, an armored vehicle is exposed to hidden enemy infantry but as
2156-530: The same information to be sent with fewer characters , more quickly, and less expensively. Codes can be used for brevity. When telegraph messages were the state of the art in rapid long-distance communication, elaborate systems of commercial codes that encoded complete phrases into single mouths (commonly five-minute groups) were developed, so that telegraphers became conversant with such "words" as BYOXO ("Are you trying to weasel out of our deal?"), LIOUY ("Why do you not answer my question?"), BMULD ("You're
2205-439: The signals of television and radio stations. Jamming such signals can allow participants in the war to use the stations for a misinformation campaign . Naval warfare takes place on the high seas (blue water navy). Usually, only large, powerful nations have competent blue water or deep water navies. Modern navies primarily use aircraft carriers , submarines , frigates , cruisers , and destroyers for combat. This provides
2254-424: The so-called "Thunder Run" at Baghdad in 2003 showed, armored vehicles can play a critical role in urban combat . In rural areas, an armored vehicle does not have to worry about hidden units though muddy and damp terrain that have always been a factor of weakness for tanks and vehicles. Artillery in contemporary times is distinguished by its large caliber, firing an explosive shell or rocket , and being of such
2303-422: The stored (or transmitted) data. Examples include Hamming codes , Reed–Solomon , Reed–Muller , Walsh–Hadamard , Bose–Chaudhuri–Hochquenghem , Turbo , Golay , algebraic geometry codes , low-density parity-check codes , and space–time codes . Error detecting codes can be optimised to detect burst errors , or random errors . A cable code replaces words (e.g. ship or invoice ) with shorter words, allowing
2352-490: The use of the machine gun , aircraft , tank , or radio in World War I . In other senses, it is tied to the introduction of total war , industrial warfare , mechanized warfare , nuclear warfare , counter-insurgency , or (more recently) the rise of asymmetric warfare also known as fourth-generation warfare . Modern warfare has its beginnings to the early modern period and multiple conflicts have been fought from
2401-500: Was represented by more than one byte, all characters used the same number of bytes ("word length"), making them suitable for decoding with a lookup table. The final group, variable-width encodings, is a subset of multibyte encodings. These use more complex encoding and decoding logic to efficiently represent large character sets while keeping the representations of more commonly used characters shorter or maintaining backward compatibility properties. This group includes UTF-8 , an encoding of
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