126-601: Monasticism (from Ancient Greek μοναχός ( monakhós ) 'solitary, monastic'; from μόνος ( mónos ) 'alone'), also called monachism or monkhood , is a religious way of life in which one renounces worldly pursuits to devote oneself fully to spiritual work. Monastic life plays an important role in many Christian churches, especially in the Catholic , Orthodox and Anglican traditions as well as in other faiths such as Buddhism , Hinduism , and Jainism . In other religions, monasticism
252-501: A buddhavacana recorded the zen patriarch Vimalakirti as being an advocate of marital continence instead of monastic renunciation. This sutra became somewhat popular due to its brash humour as well as its integration of the role of women in lay and spiritual life. There is no commandment in the New Testament that Jesus Christ 's disciples have to live in celibacy. However, it is a general view that Christ himself lived
378-543: A pitch accent . In Modern Greek, all vowels and consonants are short. Many vowels and diphthongs once pronounced distinctly are pronounced as /i/ ( iotacism ). Some of the stops and glides in diphthongs have become fricatives , and the pitch accent has changed to a stress accent . Many of the changes took place in the Koine Greek period. The writing system of Modern Greek, however, does not reflect all pronunciation changes. The examples below represent Attic Greek in
504-592: A samanera (novice). Novices often ordain at a young age, but generally no younger than eight. Samaneras live according to the Ten Precepts , but are not responsible for living by the full set of monastic rules. Higher ordination, conferring the status of a full bhikkhu, is given only to men who are aged 20 or older. Bhikkhunis follow a similar progression, but are required to live as samaneras for longer periods of time, typically five years. The disciplinary regulations for bhikkhus and bhikkhunis are intended to create
630-887: A Jewish sect that flourished from the second century BC to AD 100 which some scholars claim seceded from the Zadokite priests. Being much fewer in number than the Pharisees and the Sadducees (the other two major sects at the time), the Essenes lived in various cities but congregated in communal life dedicated to asceticism , voluntary poverty , daily immersion (in mikvah), and abstinence from worldly pleasures, including (for some groups) marriage . Many separate but related religious groups of that era shared similar mystic , eschatological , messianic , and ascetic beliefs. These groups are collectively referred to by various scholars as
756-662: A Jewish sect during the Second Temple period , practised celibacy. Several hadiths indicate that the Islamic prophet Muhammad denounced celibacy. The English word celibacy derives from the Latin caelibatus , "state of being unmarried", from Latin caelebs , meaning "unmarried". This word derives from two Proto-Indo-European stems, * kaiwelo- "alone" and * lib(h)s- "living". The words abstinence and celibacy are often used interchangeably, but are not necessarily
882-493: A Nazirite vow was for a specified time period and not permanent. In Modern Hebrew, the term "Nazir" is most often used to refer to non-Jewish monastics. Unique among Jewish communities is the monasticism of the Beta Israel of Ethiopia, a practice believed to date to the 15th century. A form of asceticism was practiced by some individuals in pre– World War II European Ashkenazi Jewish communities. Its principal expression
1008-556: A caution for men who were too readily divorcing and remarrying. The view of the Church is that celibacy is a reflection of life in Heaven, a source of detachment from the material world which aids in one's relationship with God. Celibacy is designed to "consecrate themselves with undivided heart to the Lord and to "the affairs of the Lord, they give themselves entirely to God and to men. It is
1134-454: A commitment to a life of prayer, contemplation, and service to others. Teachings from Shenoute of Atripe, an influential figure in the development of the monastic tradition in Egypt and for his writings on monastic life were also implemented throughout monasteries. Sometimes written in the masculine gender as if exclusively applicable to the male congregations, despite the fact Shenoute commanded
1260-513: A conference of the DIMMID in 1995, there are three significant similarities between Muslim and monastic spirituality. Firstly, the central place of obedience in the monastic tradition parallels the importance of surrender or submission in Islam. Secondly, similar to monastic communities which come together several times a day for prayer, Muslims practices ritual prayer (salāt) five times a day. Finally,
1386-497: A crucial role in promoting and financing the monastic movement. Monasteries served as a space for communal living for monks and nuns many operated under different ranges of severity for rules and punishment of disobedience towards practices that largely originated from the Desert Fathers, these parameters were administer by a superior (Father/Mother). While the practices of female monastic communities varied, they were united by
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#17327803059291512-550: A false asceticism whereby worshipers boycotted celebrations presided over by married clergy. The Apostolic Constitutions ( c. 400 ) excommunicated a priest or bishop who left his wife "under the pretense of piety" (Mansi, 1:51). "A famous letter of Synesius of Cyrene ( c. 414 ) is evidence both for the respecting of personal decision in the matter and for contemporary appreciation of celibacy. For priests and deacons clerical marriage continued to be in vogue". "The Second Lateran Council (1139) seems to have enacted
1638-541: A federation that included both male and female congregations. Later, during 379 CE the first monastery for women was founded in Jerusalem by Saint Melania the Elder. This was a significant moment in history: before then, female monasteries were solely adjunct to male monasteries, although the history of female ascetics predates even the earliest recognized female ascetic pioneers, such as Saint Mary of Egypt, who lived during
1764-477: A lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period. They have the same general outline but differ in some of the detail. The only attested dialect from this period is Mycenaean Greek , but its relationship to the historical dialects and
1890-419: A lesser degree. Pamphylian Greek , spoken in a small area on the southwestern coast of Anatolia and little preserved in inscriptions, may be either a fifth major dialect group, or it is Mycenaean Greek overlaid by Doric, with a non-Greek native influence. Regarding the speech of the ancient Macedonians diverse theories have been put forward, but the epigraphic activity and the archaeological discoveries in
2016-675: A life of perfect chastity ; thus, "Voluntary chastity is the imitation of him who was the virgin Son of a virgin Mother". One of his invocations is "King of virgins and lover of stainless chastity" (Rex virginum, amator castitatis) . Furthermore, Christ, when his disciples suggest it is "better not to marry," stated "Not everyone can accept this word, but only those to whom it has been given. For there are eunuchs who have been so from birth, and there are eunuchs who have been made eunuchs by others, and there are eunuchs who have made themselves eunuchs for
2142-494: A life that is simple and focused, rather than one of deprivation or severe asceticism. However, celibacy is a fundamental part of this form of monastic discipline. Monasticism in Christianity, which provides the origins of the words "monk" and "monastery", comprises several diverse forms of religious living. It began to develop early in the history of the Church, but is not mentioned in the scriptures. The precise origins of
2268-436: A living example for the laity, and to serve as a "field of merit" for lay followers—providing laymen and women with the opportunity to earn merit by giving gifts and support to the bhikkhus. In return for the support of the laity, bhikkhus and bhikkhunis are expected to live an austere life focused on the study of Buddhist doctrine, the practice of meditation, and the observance of good moral character. A bhikkhu first ordains as
2394-464: A major influence on the development of Christianity and celibacy. Paul of Thebes is often credited with being the first hermit or anchorite to go to the desert, but it was Anthony the Great who launched the movement that became the Desert Fathers. Sometime around AD 270, Anthony heard a Sunday sermon stating that perfection could be achieved by selling all of one's possessions, giving the proceeds to
2520-470: A matter of Canon Law (and often a criterion for certain religious orders , especially Franciscans ) that priests may not own land and therefore cannot pass it on to legitimate or illegitimate children. The land belongs to the Church through the local diocese as administered by the Local Ordinary (usually a bishop), who is often an ex officio corporation sole . Celibacy is viewed differently by
2646-602: A means to "serve God with joy" (Deut. 28:47). However, until the Destruction of the Second Temple , about two thousand years ago, taking Nazirite vows was a common feature of the religion. Nazirite Jews (in Hebrew : נזיר ) abstained from grape products, haircuts, and contact with the dead. However, they did not withdraw from general society, and they were permitted to marry and own property; moreover, in most cases
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#17327803059292772-606: A message to some companions who wanted to put an end to their sexual life, pray all night long or fast continuously, Muhammad said: "Do not do that! Fast on some days and eat on others. Sleep part of the night, and stand in prayer another part. For your body has rights upon you, your eyes have a right upon you, your wife has a right upon you, your guest has a right upon you." Muhammad once exclaimed, repeating it three times: "Woe to those who exaggerate [who are too strict]!" And, on another occasion, Muhammad said: "Moderation, moderation! For only with moderation will you succeed." Monasticism
2898-431: A monastic life are generally called nuns, religious sisters or, rarely, canonesses, while monastic men are called monks, friars or brothers. During the fourth and fifth century monasticism allowed women to be removed from traditional lifestyles such as marriage and childbearing to live a life devoted to God. Guided by daily rules and lifestyle guidelines, monasticism afforded women great spiritual autonomy. Women also played
3024-529: A monk for most of his lifetime. Gautama, later known as the Buddha, is known for his renunciation of his wife, Princess Yasodharā , and son, Rahula . In order to pursue an ascetic life, he needed to renounce aspects of the impermanent world, including his wife and son. Later on both his wife and son joined the ascetic community and are mentioned in the Buddhist texts to have become enlightened. In another sense,
3150-483: A new understanding of celibacy that is focused on God rather than a future marriage or a lifelong vow to the Church. There are also many Pentecostal churches which practice celibate ministry. For instance, the full-time ministers of the Pentecostal Mission are celibate and generally single. Married couples who enter full-time ministry may become celibate and could be sent to different locations. During
3276-427: A permanent home nor any possessions, wandering barefoot from place to place except during the months of Chaturmas . The quality of life they lead is difficult because of the many constraints placed on them. They don't use a vehicle for commuting and always commute barefoot from one place to another, irrespective of the distance. They don't possess any materialistic things and also don't use the basic services like that of
3402-513: A phone, electricity etc. They don't prepare food and live only on what people offer them. Judaism does not encourage the monastic ideal of celibacy and poverty. To the contrary—all of the Torah 's commandments are a means of sanctifying the physical world. As further disseminated through the teachings of the Yisrael Ba'al Shem Tov , the pursuit of permitted physical pleasures is encouraged as
3528-550: A prefix /e-/, called the augment . This was probably originally a separate word, meaning something like "then", added because tenses in PIE had primarily aspectual meaning. The augment is added to the indicative of the aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect, but not to any of the other forms of the aorist (no other forms of the imperfect and pluperfect exist). The two kinds of augment in Greek are syllabic and quantitative. The syllabic augment
3654-494: A profoundly mystical view of the world. The Pythagorean code further restricted his members from eating meat, fish, and beans which they practised for religious, ethical and ascetic reasons, in particular the idea of metempsychosis – the transmigration of souls into the bodies of other animals. "Pythagoras himself established a small community that set a premium on study, vegetarianism, and sexual restraint or abstinence. Later philosophers believed that celibacy would be conducive to
3780-582: A promise or vow of celibacy may be made in the Anglican Communion and some Protestant churches or communities, such as the Shakers ; for members of religious orders and religious congregations ; and for hermits , consecrated virgins , and deaconesses . Judaism and Islam have denounced celibacy, as both religions emphasize marriage and family life; however, the priests of the Essenes ,
3906-608: A separate historical stage, though its earliest form closely resembles Attic Greek , and its latest form approaches Medieval Greek . There were several regional dialects of Ancient Greek; Attic Greek developed into Koine. Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language , divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic , Aeolic , Arcadocypriot , and Doric , many of them with several subdivisions. Some dialects are found in standardized literary forms in literature , while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms. Homeric Greek
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4032-496: A sign of this new life to the service of which the Church's minister is consecrated; accepted with a joyous heart celibacy radiantly proclaims the Reign of God." In contrast, Saint Peter , whom the Church considers its first Pope , was married given that he had a mother-in-law whom Christ healed (Matthew 8). But some argue that Peter was a widower, due to the fact that this passage does not mention his wife, and that his mother-in-law
4158-451: A small patch of hair on the back of the head, while Saivite monks let their hair and beard grow uncut. A sādhu's vow of renunciation typically forbids him from: Islam forbids the practice of monasticism. In Sunni Islam , one example is Uthman bin Maz'oon ; one of the companions of Muhammad . He was married to Khawlah bint Hakim , both being two of the earliest converts to Islam. There
4284-630: A standard subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance . This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical periods of the language, which are the best-attested periods and considered most typical of Ancient Greek. From the Hellenistic period ( c. 300 BC ), Ancient Greek was followed by Koine Greek , which is regarded as
4410-512: A symbol of the order of creation. Self-centeredness made Adam and Eve eat of it, thus failing to acknowledge and respect the world as it was created by God, with its hierarchy of beings and values. They would not have fallen into pride and lack of wisdom, if Satan had not sown into their senses "the root of evil" (radix mali) . Their nature was wounded by concupiscence or libido , which affected human intelligence and will, as well as affections and desires, including sexual desire. The sin of Adam
4536-556: A vocation from God. His objective is to imitate the life of Christ as far as possible in preparation for attaining eternal life after death. Titles for monastics differ between the Christian denominations. In Roman Catholicism and Anglicanism, monks and nuns are addressed as Brother (or Father, if ordained to the priesthood) or Mother, Sister, while in Eastern Orthodoxy, they are addressed as Father or Mother. Women pursuing
4662-510: A vowel or /n s r/ ; final stops were lost, as in γάλα "milk", compared with γάλακτος "of milk" (genitive). Ancient Greek of the classical period also differed in both the inventory and distribution of original PIE phonemes due to numerous sound changes, notably the following: The pronunciation of Ancient Greek was very different from that of Modern Greek . Ancient Greek had long and short vowels ; many diphthongs ; double and single consonants; voiced, voiceless, and aspirated stops ; and
4788-578: Is a Sunni narration that, out of religious devotion, Uthman bin Maz'oon decided to dedicate himself to night prayers and take a vow of chastity from his wife. His wife got upset and spoke to Muhammad about this. Muhammad reminded Uthman that he himself, as the Prophet, also had a family life, and that Uthman had a responsibility to his family and should not adopt monasticism as a form of religious practice. Muhammad told his companions to ease their burden and avoid excess. According to some Sunni hadiths , in
4914-570: Is a literary form of Archaic Greek (derived primarily from Ionic and Aeolic) used in the epic poems , the Iliad and the Odyssey , and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic and other Classical-era dialects. The origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of
5040-418: Is added to stems beginning with consonants, and simply prefixes e (stems beginning with r , however, add er ). The quantitative augment is added to stems beginning with vowels, and involves lengthening the vowel: Some verbs augment irregularly; the most common variation is e → ei . The irregularity can be explained diachronically by the loss of s between vowels, or that of the letter w , which affected
5166-595: Is also mentioned in the following verse of Qur'an : Then We caused Our messengers to follow in their footsteps; and We caused Isa(A.S.), son of Mariam, to follow, and gave him the Injil, and placed compassion and mercy in the hearts of those who followed him. But monasticism they invented – We ordained it not for them – only seeking Allah's pleasure, and they observed it not with right observance. So We give those of them who believe their reward, but many of them are evil-livers. Nevertheless, as Christian de Chergé laid out in
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5292-406: Is also promoted for peace and to defeat power of lust . Islamic attitudes toward celibacy have been complex, Muhammad denounced it, however some Sufi orders embrace it. Islam does not promote celibacy; rather it condemns premarital sex and extramarital sex . In fact, according to Islam, marriage enables one to attain the highest form of righteousness within this sacred spiritual bond but
5418-666: Is called 'East Greek'. Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian Greek had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, as exemplified in the poems of the Boeotian poet Pindar who wrote in Doric with a small Aeolic admixture. Thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to
5544-544: Is called a sanyāsī , sādhu , or swāmi . A nun is called a sanyāsini , sādhvi , or swāmini . Such renunciates are accorded high respect in Hindu society, because their outward renunciation of selfishness and worldliness serves as an inspiration to householders who strive for mental renunciation. Some monastics live in monasteries, while others wander from place to place, trusting in God alone to provide for their physical needs. It
5670-429: Is considered a highly meritorious act for a lay devotee to provide sadhus with food or other necessaries. Sādhus are expected to treat all with respect and compassion, whether a person may be poor or rich, good or wicked. They are also expected to be indifferent to praise, blame, pleasure, and pain. A sādhu can typically be recognized by his ochre-colored clothing. Generally, Vaisnava monks shave their heads except for
5796-448: Is considered by some linguists to have been closely related to Greek . Among Indo-European branches with living descendants, Greek is often argued to have the closest genetic ties with Armenian (see also Graeco-Armenian ) and Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan ). Ancient Greek differs from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) and other Indo-European languages in certain ways. In phonotactics , ancient Greek words could end only in
5922-455: Is definitely a sin, "Oh you who believe! You are forbidden to inherit women against their will" ( Q4:19 ). In addition, marriage partners can be distractions from practicing religion at the same time, "Your mates and children are only a trial for you" ( Q64:15 ) however that still does not mean Islam does not encourage people who have sexual desires and are willing to marry. Anyone who does not (intend to) get married in this life can always do it in
6048-559: Is echoed by several authors including Elizabeth Abbott, Wendy Keller, and Wendy Shalit . The rule of celibacy in the Buddhist religion, whether Mahayana or Theravada , has a long history. Celibacy was advocated as an ideal rule of life for all monks and nuns by Gautama Buddha , except in Japan where it is not strictly followed due to historical and political developments following the Meiji Restoration . In Japan, celibacy
6174-659: Is generally criticized and not practiced, as in Islam and Zoroastrianism , or plays a marginal role, as in modern Judaism . Many monastics live in abbeys , convents , monasteries , or priories to separate themselves from the secular world, unless they are in mendicant or missionary orders . The Sangha or community of ordained Buddhist bhikkhus ( Pali bhikkhu , like Sanskrit bhikṣuts , means 'simag; one who lives by alms '), and original bhikkhunīs (nuns) were founded by Gautama Buddha during his lifetime over 2500 years ago. This communal monastic lifestyle grew out of
6300-704: Is inherited by all human beings. Already in his pre-Pelagian writings, Augustine taught that original sin was transmitted by concupiscence , which he regarded as the passion of both soul and body, making humanity a massa damnata (mass of perdition, condemned crowd) and much enfeebling, though not destroying, the freedom of the will. In the early 3rd century, the Canons of the Apostolic Constitutions decreed that only lower clerics might still marry after their ordination, but marriage of bishops, priests, and deacons were not allowed. One explanation for
6426-433: Is often in association with the role of a religious official or devotee. In its narrow sense, the term celibacy is applied only to those for whom the unmarried state is the result of a sacred vow , act of renunciation , or religious conviction. In a wider sense, it is commonly understood to only mean abstinence from sexual activity . Celibacy has existed in one form or another throughout history, in virtually all
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#17327803059296552-438: Is often used in yogic practice to refer to celibacy or denying pleasure, but this is only a small part of what brahmacharya represents. The purpose of practicing brahmacharya is to keep a person focused on the purpose in life, the things that instill a feeling of peace and contentment. It is also used to cultivate occult powers and many supernatural feats, called siddhi . In the religious movement of Brahma Kumaris , celibacy
6678-799: Is regarded by many historians and theologians as the "cradle of the Reformation ", as it is where Martin Luther lived as a monk from 1505 to 1511. Today new expressions of Christian monasticism , many of which are ecumenical , are developing in various places such as the Bose Monastic Community in Italy, the Monastic Fraternities of Jerusalem throughout Europe, the Anglo-Celtic Society of Nativitists,
6804-426: Is said to have "[given] the rule of the higher life, founded upon his own most perfect life", for those who seek "the highest perfection" and feel "called to follow Christ in this way"—i.e. through such "exceptional sacrifices". A number of early Christian martyrs were women or girls who had given themselves to Christ in perpetual virginity, such as Saint Agnes and Saint Lucy . According to most Christian thought,
6930-641: Is the White Cloud Monastery of Dragon Gate Taoism in Beijing, which houses a rare complete copy of the Daozang , the major Taoist Canon. Ancient Greek language Ancient Greek ( Ἑλληνῐκή , Hellēnikḗ ; [hellɛːnikɛ́ː] ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into
7056-435: Is the one who serves Christ and the apostles after she is healed. Furthermore, Peter himself states: "Then Peter spoke up, 'We have left everything to follow you!' 'Truly I tell you', Jesus replied, 'no one who has left home or brothers or sisters or mother or father or children or fields for me and the gospel will fail to receive a hundred times as much'" ( Mark 10 ,28–30). Usually, only celibate men are ordained as priests in
7182-422: The parinibbāna (Final Passing) of the Buddha, the Buddhist monastic order developed into a primarily cenobitic or communal movement. The practice of living communally during the rainy vassa season, prescribed by the Buddha, gradually grew to encompass a settled monastic life centered on life in a community of practitioners. Most of the modern disciplinary rules followed by bhikkhus and bhikkhunis—as encoded in
7308-708: The Greek region of Macedonia during the last decades has brought to light documents, among which the first texts written in Macedonian , such as the Pella curse tablet , as Hatzopoulos and other scholars note. Based on the conclusions drawn by several studies and findings such as Pella curse tablet , Emilio Crespo and other scholars suggest that ancient Macedonian was a Northwest Doric dialect , which shares isoglosses with its neighboring Thessalian dialects spoken in northeastern Thessaly . Some have also suggested an Aeolic Greek classification. The Lesbian dialect
7434-547: The Hebrew Bible which were untouched from as early as 300 years before Christ until their discovery in 1946. Some scholars, however, dispute the notion that the Essenes wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls. Rachel Elior , a prominent Israeli scholar, even questions the existence of the Essenes. While Sikhism treats lust as a sin, it at the same time points out that man must share the moral responsibility by leading
7560-643: The Latin Church . Married clergy who have converted from other Christian denominations can be ordained Roman Catholic priests without becoming celibate. Priestly celibacy is not doctrine of the Church (such as the belief in the Assumption of Mary ) but a matter of discipline, like the use of the vernacular (local) language in Mass or Lenten fasting and abstinence. As such, it can theoretically change at any time though it still must be obeyed by Catholics until
7686-581: The Lectio Divina , the meditative reading of Sacred Scripture interpreted as God's word directed to the reader is echoed by the Muslim conviction that in and through the Qur'ān, God speaks to each individual. Islam does encourage one to abstain from pursuing the life of the world solely, but it does not obligate that believers must abandon the worldly life entirely, and this is known as zuhd in Islam. At best,
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#17327803059297812-518: The Patimokkha —relate to such an existence, prescribing in great detail proper methods for living and relating in a community of bhikkhus or bhikkhunis. The number of rules observed varies with the order; Theravada bhikkhus follow around 227 rules, the Vinaya . There are a larger number of rules specified for bhikkhunis (nuns). The Buddhist monastic order consists of the male bhikkhu assembly and
7938-574: The Shakers , the Harmony Society and the Ephrata Cloister . Many evangelicals prefer the term "abstinence" to "celibacy". Assuming everyone will marry, they focus their discussion on refraining from premarital sex and focusing on the joys of a future marriage. But some evangelicals, particularly older singles, desire a positive message of celibacy that moves beyond the "wait until marriage" message of abstinence campaigns. They seek
8064-592: The Taizé Community in France, the Eastern Orthodox monasteries of New Skete , New York, and the mainly Evangelical Protestant New Monasticism . In their quest to attain the spiritual goal of life, some Hindus choose the path of monasticism ( Sannyasa ). Monastics commit themselves to a life of simplicity , celibacy , detachment from worldly pursuits, and the contemplation of God. A Hindu monk
8190-501: The present , future , and imperfect are imperfective in aspect; the aorist , present perfect , pluperfect and future perfect are perfective in aspect. Most tenses display all four moods and three voices, although there is no future subjunctive or imperative. Also, there is no imperfect subjunctive, optative or imperative. The infinitives and participles correspond to the finite combinations of tense, aspect, and voice. The indicative of past tenses adds (conceptually, at least)
8316-506: The "Essenes". Josephus records that Essenes existed in large numbers, and thousands lived throughout Roman Judaea . The Essenes have gained fame in modern times as a result of the discovery of an extensive group of religious documents known as the Dead Sea Scrolls , which are commonly believed to be the Essenes' library—although there is no proof that the Essenes wrote them. These documents include multiple preserved copies of
8442-1031: The 5th century BC. Ancient pronunciation cannot be reconstructed with certainty, but Greek from the period is well documented, and there is little disagreement among linguists as to the general nature of the sounds that the letters represent. /oː/ raised to [uː] , probably by the 4th century BC. Greek, like all of the older Indo-European languages , is highly inflected. It is highly archaic in its preservation of Proto-Indo-European forms. In ancient Greek, nouns (including proper nouns) have five cases ( nominative , genitive , dative , accusative , and vocative ), three genders ( masculine , feminine , and neuter ), and three numbers (singular, dual , and plural ). Verbs have four moods ( indicative , imperative , subjunctive , and optative ) and three voices (active, middle, and passive ), as well as three persons (first, second, and third) and various other forms. Verbs are conjugated through seven combinations of tenses and aspect (generally simply called "tenses"):
8568-483: The 5th century CE. In fourth century Egypt, Christians felt called to a more reclusive or eremitic form of living (in the spirit of the "Desert Theology" for the purpose of spiritual renewal and return to God). Saint Anthony the Great is cited by Athanasius as one of the early "Hermit monks". Especially in the Middle East, eremitic monasticism continued to be common until the decline of Syriac Christianity in
8694-495: The Archaic period of ancient Greek (see Homeric Greek for more details): Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε, πολλὰς δ' ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι· Διὸς δ' ἐτελείετο βουλή· ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε Ἀτρεΐδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς. The beginning of Apology by Plato exemplifies Attic Greek from
8820-504: The Catholic Church and the various Protestant communities. It includes clerical celibacy , celibacy of the consecrated life and voluntary celibacy. The Protestant Reformation rejected celibate life and sexual continence for preachers. Protestant celibate communities have emerged, especially from Anglican and Lutheran backgrounds. A few minor Christian sects advocate celibacy as a better way of life. These groups included
8946-532: The Classical period of ancient Greek. (The second line is the IPA , the third is transliterated into the Latin alphabet using a modern version of the Erasmian scheme .) Ὅτι [hóti Hóti μὲν men mèn ὑμεῖς, hyːmêːs hūmeîs, Celibacy Celibacy (from Latin caelibatus ) is the state of voluntarily being unmarried , sexually abstinent , or both, usually for religious reasons. It
9072-656: The Hereafter instead. Celibacy appears as a peculiarity among some Sufis. Celibacy was practiced by women saints in Sufism. Celibacy was debated along with women's roles in Sufism in medieval times. Celibacy, poverty, meditation, and mysticism within an ascetic context along with worship centered around saints' tombs were promoted by the Qadiri Sufi order among Hui Muslims in China. In China, unlike other Muslim sects,
9198-651: The Latin West. When discerning the population of Christendom in Medieval Europe during the Middle Ages, Will Durant , referring to Plato's ideal community , stated on the oratores (clergy): "The clergy, like Plato's guardians, were placed in authority not by the suffrages of the people, but by their talent as shown in ecclesiastical studies and administration, by their disposition to a life of meditation and simplicity, and (perhaps it should be added) by
9324-556: The Qur'an does not state it as an obligation. The Qur'an ( Q57:27 ) states, "But the Monasticism which they (who followed Jesus) invented for themselves, We did not prescribe for them but only to please God therewith, but that they did not observe it with the right observance." Therefore, religion is clearly not a reason to stay unmarried although people are allowed to live their lives however they are comfortable; but relationships and sex outside of marriage, let alone forced marriage,
9450-469: The [spiritual] aspirant a life of strict celibacy is preferable to married life, if restraint comes to him easily without undue sense of self-repression. Such restraint is difficult for most persons and sometimes impossible, and for them married life is decidedly more helpful than a life of celibacy. For ordinary persons, married life is undoubtedly advisable unless they have a special aptitude for celibacy". Baba also asserted that "The value of celibacy lies in
9576-550: The aorist. Following Homer 's practice, the augment is sometimes not made in poetry , especially epic poetry. The augment sometimes substitutes for reduplication; see below. Almost all forms of the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect reduplicate the initial syllable of the verb stem. (A few irregular forms of perfect do not reduplicate, whereas a handful of irregular aorists reduplicate.) The three types of reduplication are: Irregular duplication can be understood diachronically. For example, lambanō (root lab ) has
9702-419: The augment when it was word-initial. In verbs with a preposition as a prefix, the augment is placed not at the start of the word, but between the preposition and the original verb. For example, προσ(-)βάλλω (I attack) goes to προσ έ βαλoν in the aorist. However compound verbs consisting of a prefix that is not a preposition retain the augment at the start of the word: αὐτο(-)μολῶ goes to ηὐ τομόλησα in
9828-495: The belief that the end of the world would soon come upon them, and saw no point in planning new families and having children. According to Chadwick, this was why Paul encouraged both celibate and marital lifestyles among the members of the Corinthian congregation, regarding celibacy as the preferable of the two. In the counsels of perfection ( evangelical counsels ), which include chastity alongside poverty and obedience, Jesus
9954-438: The center of Greek scholarship, this division of people and language is quite similar to the results of modern archaeological-linguistic investigation. One standard formulation for the dialects is: West vs. non-West Greek is the strongest-marked and earliest division, with non-West in subsets of Ionic-Attic (or Attic-Ionic) and Aeolic vs. Arcadocypriot, or Aeolic and Arcado-Cypriot vs. Ionic-Attic. Often non-West
10080-595: The change were to take place. The Eastern Catholic Churches ordain both celibate and married men. However, in both the East and the West, bishops are chosen from among those who are celibate. In Ireland, several priests have fathered children, the two most prominent being bishop Eamonn Casey and Michael Cleary . The classical heritage flourished throughout the Middle Ages in both the Byzantine Greek East and
10206-606: The clergy. The realization that many non-European countries view celibacy negatively has prompted questions concerning the value of retaining celibacy as an absolute and universal requirement for ordained ministry in the Roman Catholic Church". Some homosexual Christians choose to be celibate following their denomination's teachings on homosexuality. In 2014, the American Association of Christian Counselors amended its code of ethics to eliminate
10332-524: The desert, mostly men but also a handful of women. Religious seekers also began going to the desert seeking advice and counsel from the early Desert Fathers. By the time of Anthony's death, there were so many men and women living in the desert in celibacy that it was described as "a city" by Anthony's biographer. The first Conciliar document on clerical celibacy of the Western Church ( Synod of Elvira , c. 305 can. xxxiii) states that
10458-563: The dialect of Sparta ), and Northern Peloponnesus Doric (including Corinthian ). All the groups were represented by colonies beyond Greece proper as well, and these colonies generally developed local characteristics, often under the influence of settlers or neighbors speaking different Greek dialects. After the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BC, a new international dialect known as Koine or Common Greek developed, largely based on Attic Greek , but with influence from other dialects. This dialect slowly replaced most of
10584-445: The discipline of celibacy is to refrain from the use of marriage, i.e. refrain from having carnal contact with one's spouse. According to the later St. Jerome ( c. 347 – 420), celibacy is a moral virtue, consisting of living in the flesh, but outside the flesh, and so being not corrupted by it ( vivere in carne praeter carnem ). Celibacy excludes not only libidinous acts, but also sinful thoughts or desires of
10710-483: The enforcement of the law. "The earliest decree in which the children [of clerics] were declared to be slaves and never to be enfranchised [freed] seems to have been a canon of the Synod of Pavia in 1018. Similar penalties were promulgated against wives and concubines (see the Synod of Melfi, 1189 can. xii), who by the very fact of their unlawful connexion with a subdeacon or clerk of higher rank became liable to be seized by
10836-465: The exception of the Vestal Virgins , who took a 30-year vow of chastity in order to devote themselves to the study and correct observance of state rituals. In Christianity , celibacy means the promise to live either virginal or celibate in the future. Such a vow of celibacy has been normal for some centuries for Catholic priests, Catholic and Eastern Orthodox monks, and nuns. In addition,
10962-445: The female bhikkhunī assembly. Initially consisting only of males, it grew to include females after the Buddha's stepmother, Mahaprajapati , asked for and received permission to live as an ordained practitioner. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis are expected to fulfill a variety of roles in the Buddhist community. First and foremost, they are expected to preserve the doctrine and discipline now known as Buddhism. They are also expected to provide
11088-688: The first sacred virgin was Mary , the mother of Jesus, who was consecrated by the Holy Spirit during the Annunciation. Tradition also has it that the Apostle Matthew consecrated virgins. In the Catholic Church and the Orthodox churches, a consecrated virgin is a woman who has been consecrated by the church to a life of perpetual virginity in the service of the church. The Desert Fathers were Christian hermits and ascetics who had
11214-461: The first three or four centuries, no law was promulgated prohibiting clerical marriage. Celibacy was a matter of choice for bishops, priests, and deacons. Statutes forbidding clergy from having wives were written beginning with the Council of Elvira (306) but these early statutes were not universal and were often defied by clerics and then retracted by hierarchy. The Synod of Gangra (345) condemned
11340-621: The first written law making sacred orders a direct impediment to marriage for the universal Church." Celibacy was first required of some clerics in 1123 at the First Lateran Council . Because clerics resisted it, the celibacy mandate was restated at the Second Lateran Council (1139) and the Council of Trent (1545–64). In places, coercion and enslavement of clerical wives and children was apparently involved in
11466-677: The flesh. Jerome referred to marriage prohibition for priests when he claimed in Against Jovinianus that Peter and the other apostles had been married before they were called, but subsequently gave up their marital relations. In the Catholic, Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox traditions, bishops are required to be celibate. In the Eastern Catholic and Orthodox traditions, priests and deacons are allowed to be married, yet have to remain celibate if they are unmarried at
11592-526: The following periods: Mycenaean Greek ( c. 1400–1200 BC ), Dark Ages ( c. 1200–800 BC ), the Archaic or Epic period ( c. 800–500 BC ), and the Classical period ( c. 500–300 BC ). Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers . It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been
11718-478: The habit of restraint and the sense of detachment and independence which it gives" and that "The aspirant must choose one of the two courses which are open to him. He must take to the life of celibacy or to the married life, and he must avoid at all costs a cheap compromise between the two. Promiscuity in sex gratification is bound to land the aspirant in a most pitiful and dangerous chaos of ungovernable lust." In Sparta and many other Greek cities, failure to marry
11844-561: The historical Dorians . The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, who regarded themselves as descendants of the population displaced by or contending with the Dorians. The Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people – Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians (including Athenians), each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Allowing for their oversight of Arcadian, an obscure mountain dialect, and Cypriot, far from
11970-476: The historical circumstances of the times imply that the overall groups already existed in some form. Scholars assume that major Ancient Greek period dialect groups developed not later than 1120 BC, at the time of the Dorian invasions —and that their first appearances as precise alphabetic writing began in the 8th century BC. The invasion would not be "Dorian" unless the invaders had some cultural relationship to
12096-409: The influence of their relatives with the powers of state and church. In the latter half of the period in which they ruled [AD 800 onwards], the clergy were as free from family cares as even Plato could desire; and in some cases it would seem they enjoyed no little of the reproductive freedom accorded to the guardians. Celibacy was part of the psychological structure of the power of the clergy; for on
12222-528: The late Middle Ages. Around 318 Saint Pachomius started to organize his many followers in what was to become the first Christian cenobitic or communal monastery . Soon, similar institutions were established throughout the Egyptian desert as well as the rest of the eastern half of the Roman Empire. Notable monasteries in the East include: In the West, the most significant development occurred when
12348-647: The leaders (Shaikhs) of the Qadiriyya Sufi order are celibate. Unlike other Sufi orders in China, the leadership within the order is not a hereditary position, rather, one of the disciples of the celibate Shaikh is chosen by the Shaikh to succeed him. The 92-year-old celibate Shaikh Yang Shijun was the leader of the Qadiriya order in China as of 1998. Celibacy is practiced by Haydariya Sufi dervishes . The spiritual teacher Meher Baba stated that "[F]or
12474-414: The life of a householder. According to Sikhism , being God-centred while being a householder is better than being an ascetic. According to Sikhism, ascetics are not on the right path. When Guru Nanak visited Gorakhmata , he discussed the true meaning of asceticism with some yogis. Asceticism doesn't lie in ascetic robes, or in walking staff, nor in the ashes. Asceticism doesn't lie in the earring, nor in
12600-423: The lifestyle of earlier sects of wandering ascetics , some of whom the Buddha had studied under. It was initially fairly eremitic or reclusive in nature. Bhikkhus and bhikkunis were expected to live with a minimum of possessions, which were to be voluntarily provided by the lay community. Lay followers also provided the daily food that bhikkhus required, and provided shelter for bhikkhus when they needed it. After
12726-455: The major religions of the world, and views on it have varied. Classical Hindu culture encouraged asceticism and celibacy in the later stages of life, after one has met one's societal obligations. Jainism , on the other hand, preached complete celibacy even for young monks and considered celibacy to be an essential behavior to attain moksha . Buddhism is similar to Jainism in this respect. There were, however, significant cultural differences in
12852-667: The most common rule throughout the Middle Ages and is still in use today. The Augustinian Rule , due to its brevity, has been adopted by various communities, chiefly the Canons Regular . Around the 12th century, the Franciscan , Carmelite , Dominican , Servite Order (see Servants of Mary ) and Augustinian mendicant orders chose to live in city convents among the people instead of being secluded in monasteries. St. Augustine's Monastery , founded in 1277 in Erfurt , Germany
12978-450: The movement are obscure but it seems that it originated in more than one place with Egypt and Syria as important early centres. It has come to be regulated by religious rules (e.g. the Rule of St Basil, the Rule of St Benedict) and, in modern times, the Church law of the respective apostolic Christian churches that have forms of monastic living. The Christian monk embraces the monastic life as
13104-508: The older dialects, although the Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language , which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek . By about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosed into Medieval Greek . Phrygian is an extinct Indo-European language of West and Central Anatolia , which
13230-410: The one hand they were unimpeded by the narrowing egoism of the family, and on the other their apparent superiority to the call of the flesh added to the awe in which lay sinners held them …" With respect to clerical celibacy, Richard P. O'Brien stated in 1995, that in his opinion, "greater understanding of human psychology has led to questions regarding the impact of celibacy on the human development of
13356-574: The only monasticism of Islam is Jihad, as mentioned by Hadith and Tafsir. Imam Ahmad recorded that Anas bin Malik said that the Prophet said, "Every Prophet has Rahbaniyyah (monasticism); Jihad in the cause of Allah, the Exalted and Most Honored, is the Rahbaniyyah of this Ummah." In Jainism , monasticism is encouraged and respected. Rules for monasticism are rather strict. A Jain ascetic has neither
13482-456: The origin of obligatory celibacy is that it is based on the writings of Saint Paul , who wrote of the advantages of celibacy allowed a man in serving the Lord. Celibacy was popularised by the early Christian theologians like Saint Augustine of Hippo and Origen . Another possible explanation for the origins of obligatory celibacy revolves around more practical reason, "the need to avoid claims on church property by priests' offspring". It remains
13608-497: The outside to what's going on, and celibacy is a response from the inside". According to her definition, celibacy (even short-term celibacy that is pursued for non-religious reasons) is much more than not having sex. It is more intentional than abstinence, and its goal is personal growth and empowerment. Although Brown repeatedly states that celibacy is a matter of choice, she clearly suggests that those who do not choose this route are somehow missing out. This new perspective on celibacy
13734-597: The over-lord". In the Roman Catholic Church , the Twelve Apostles are considered to have been the first priests and bishops of the Church. Some say the call to be eunuchs for the sake of Heaven in Matthew 19 was a call to be sexually continent and that this developed into celibacy for priests as the successors of the apostles. Others see the call to be sexually continent in Matthew 19 to be
13860-487: The perfect stem eilēpha (not * lelēpha ) because it was originally slambanō , with perfect seslēpha , becoming eilēpha through compensatory lengthening. Reduplication is also visible in the present tense stems of certain verbs. These stems add a syllable consisting of the root's initial consonant followed by i . A nasal stop appears after the reduplication in some verbs. The earliest extant examples of ancient Greek writing ( c. 1450 BC ) are in
13986-464: The poor, and following Christ ( Matthew 19 :21). He followed the advice and made the further step of moving deep into the desert to seek complete solitude. Over time, the model of Anthony and other hermits attracted many followers, who lived alone in the desert or in small groups. They chose a life of extreme asceticism , renouncing all the pleasures of the senses, rich food, baths, rest, and anything that made them comfortable. Thousands joined them in
14112-523: The promotion of conversion therapy for homosexuals and encouraged them to be celibate instead. In Hinduism, celibacy is usually associated with the sadhus ("holy men"), ascetics who withdraw from society and renounce all worldly ties. Celibacy, termed brahmacharya in Vedic scripture, is the fourth of the yamas and the word literally translated means "dedicated to the Divinity of Life". The word
14238-448: The relations between spouses and God's relationship with the church. "Husbands, love your wives even as Christ loved the church. Husbands should love their wives as their own bodies" ( Ephesians 5 :25–28). Paul himself was celibate and said that his wish was "that all of you were as I am" ( 1 Corinthians 7 :7). In fact, this entire chapter endorses celibacy while also clarifying that marriage is also acceptable. The early Christians lived in
14364-656: The rules for monastic communities were written down, the Rule of St Basil being credited with having been the first. The precise dating of the Rule of the Master is problematic. It has been argued that it antedates the Rule of Saint Benedict created by Benedict of Nursia for his monastery in Monte Cassino , Italy (c. 529), and the other Benedictine monasteries he had founded as part of the Order of St Benedict . It would become
14490-469: The sake of the kingdom of heaven. Let anyone accept this who can" (Matthew 19:10-12, NRSV). While eunuchs were not generally celibate, over subsequent centuries this statement has come to be interpreted as referring to celibacy. Paul the Apostle emphasized the importance of overcoming the desires of the flesh and saw the state of celibacy being superior to that of marriage. Paul made parallels between
14616-613: The same thing. Sexual abstinence , also known as continence , is abstaining from some or all aspects of sexual activity, often for some limited period of time, while celibacy may be defined as a voluntary religious vow not to marry or engage in sexual activity. Asexuality is commonly conflated with celibacy and sexual abstinence, but it is considered distinct from the two, as celibacy and sexual abstinence are behavioral and those who use those terms for themselves are generally motivated by factors such as an individual's personal or religious beliefs. A. W. Richard Sipe, while focusing on
14742-503: The shaven head, nor blowing a conch. Asceticism lies in remaining pure amidst impurities. Asceticism doesn't lie in mere words; He is an ascetic who treats everyone alike. Asceticism doesn't lie in visiting burial places, It lies not in wandering about, nor in bathing at places of pilgrimage. Asceticism is to remain pure amidst impurities. Throughout the centuries, Taoism especially Quanzhen School , have developed their own extensive monastic traditions and practices. Particularly well-known
14868-517: The syllabic script Linear B . Beginning in the 8th century BC, however, the Greek alphabet became standard, albeit with some variation among dialects. Early texts are written in boustrophedon style, but left-to-right became standard during the classic period. Modern editions of ancient Greek texts are usually written with accents and breathing marks , interword spacing , modern punctuation , and sometimes mixed case , but these were all introduced later. The beginning of Homer 's Iliad exemplifies
14994-404: The terminology in her A History of Celibacy (2001) writing that she "drafted a definition of celibacy that discarded the rigidly pedantic and unhelpful distinctions between celibacy, chastity, and virginity ..." The concept of "new" celibacy was introduced by Gabrielle Brown in her 1980 book The New Celibacy . In a revised version (1989) of her book, she claims abstinence to be "a response on
15120-401: The time of ordination . In the early Church, higher clerics lived in marriages. Augustine taught that the original sin of Adam and Eve was either an act of foolishness (insipientia) followed by pride and disobedience to God, or else inspired by pride. The first couple disobeyed God, who had told them not to eat of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil (Gen 2:17). The tree was
15246-545: The topic of celibacy in Catholicism, states that "the most commonly assumed definition of celibate is simply an unmarried or single person, and celibacy is perceived as synonymous with sexual abstinence or restraint." Sipe adds that even in the relatively uniform milieu of Catholic priests in the United States there seems to be "simply no clear operational definition of celibacy". Elizabeth Abbott commented on
15372-546: The various areas where Buddhism spread, which affected the local attitudes toward celibacy. A somewhat similar situation existed in Japan, where the Shinto tradition also opposed celibacy. In most native African and Native American religious traditions, celibacy has been viewed negatively as well, although there were exceptions like periodic celibacy practiced by some Mesoamerican warriors. The Romans viewed celibacy as an aberration and legislated fiscal penalties against it, with
15498-578: Was prishut , the practice of a married Talmud student going into self-imposed exile from his home and family to study in the kollel of a different city or town. This practice was associated with, but not exclusive to, the Perushim . The Essenes (in Modern but not in Ancient Hebrew : אִסִּיִים , Isiyim ; Greek : Εσσηνοι, Εσσαιοι, or Οσσαιοι; Essēnoi , Essaioi , or Ossaioi ) were
15624-480: Was Aeolic. For example, fragments of the works of the poet Sappho from the island of Lesbos are in Aeolian. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, or to an island. Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric (including Cretan Doric ), Southern Peloponnesus Doric (including Laconian ,
15750-405: Was an ideal among Buddhist clerics for hundreds of years. But violations of clerical celibacy were so common for so long that finally, in 1872, state laws made marriage legal for Buddhist clerics. Subsequently, ninety percent of Buddhist monks/clerics married. An example is Higashifushimi Kunihide , a prominent Buddhist priest of Japanese royal ancestry who was married and a father whilst serving as
15876-466: Was grounds for loss of citizenship, and could be prosecuted as a crime. Both Cicero and Dionysius of Halicarnassus stated that Roman law forbade celibacy. There are no records of such a prosecution, nor is the Roman punishment for refusing to marry known. Pythagoreanism was the system of esoteric and metaphysical beliefs held by Pythagoras and his followers. Pythagorean thinking was dominated by
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