Misplaced Pages

#872127

96-696: The Jurchen rulers of the Jin dynasty collected tribute from some of the nomadic tribes living on the Mongol steppes and encouraged rivalries among them. When the Mongols were unified under Khabul in the 12th century, the Jurchens encouraged the Tatars to destroy them, but the Mongols were able to drive Jin forces out of their territory. The Tatars eventually captured Khabul's successor, Ambaghai , and handed him over to

192-541: A country where 85% of its inhabitants were nomadic herders. Today only 15% remain nomads. As many as 2 million nomadic Kuchis wandered over Afghanistan in the years before the Soviet invasion , and most experts agreed that by 2000 the number had fallen dramatically, perhaps by half. A severe drought had destroyed 80% of the livestock in some areas. Niger experienced a serious food crisis in 2005 following erratic rainfall and desert locust invasions. Nomads such as

288-563: A couple of kilometres from each other. The geographical closeness of families is usually for mutual support. Pastoral nomad societies usually do not have large populations. One nomadic society, the Mongols , gave rise to the largest land empire in history. The Mongols originally consisted of loosely organized nomadic tribes in Mongolia, Manchuria, and Siberia. In the late 12th century, Genghis Khan united them and other nomadic tribes to found

384-418: A derogatory sense. According to Gérard Chaliand , terrorism originated in nomad-warrior cultures. He points to Machiavelli 's classification of war into two types, which Chaliand interprets as describing a difference between warfare in sedentary and nomadic societies: There are two different kinds of war. The one springs from the ambition of princes or republics that seek to extend their empire; such were

480-438: A desire for improved standards of living, effectively led most Bedouin to become settled citizens of various nations, rather than stateless nomadic herders. A century ago, nomadic Bedouin still made up some 10% of the total Arab population. Today, they account for some 1% of the total. At independence in 1960, Mauritania was essentially a nomadic society. The great Sahel droughts of the early 1970s caused massive problems in

576-620: A fixed annual or seasonal pattern of movements and settlements. Nomadic people traditionally travel by animal, canoe or on foot. Animals include camels, horses and alpaca. Today, some nomads travel by motor vehicle. Some nomads may live in homes or homeless shelters, though this would necessarily be on a temporary or itinerant basis. Nomads keep moving for different reasons. Nomadic foragers move in search of game, edible plants, and water. Aboriginal Australians, Negritos of Southeast Asia, and San of Africa, for example, traditionally move from camp to camp to hunt and gather wild plants. Some tribes of

672-505: A new army for himself in Hebei, he returned to Henan and established his base in Guide (present-day Anyang ). Scattered Jin armies began to gather at Guide from the surrounding region and Hebei, and the supplies in the city could no longer feed all these soldiers. Thus Emperor Aizong was left with only 450 Han Chinese troops under the command of Pucha Guannu and 280 men under Ma Yong to guard

768-413: A number of men who push carts and are called 'Transport Commissioner' or 'Attendant Courtier.' In Changchun Palace, 'Palace of Long Spring,' there are many gentlemen of the vanquished Jin court, who by being there avoid baijiao , escape taxes and corvée labor, and receive clothing and food. It is to a great extent the cause for the people's sorrow and distress. James Waterson cautioned against attributing

864-458: A part of the secondary-products revolution proposed by Andrew Sherratt , in which early pre-pottery Neolithic cultures that had used animals as live meat ("on the hoof") also began using animals for their secondary products, for example: milk and its associated dairy products , wool and other animal hair, hides (and consequently leather ), manure (for fuel and fertilizer ), and traction. The first nomadic pastoral society developed in

960-435: A pattern of transhumance . Since the 1990s, as the cash economy shrank, unemployed relatives were reabsorbed into family farms, and the importance of this form of nomadism has increased. The symbols of nomadism, specifically the crown of the grey felt tent known as the yurt , appears on the national flag, emphasizing the central importance of nomadism in the genesis of the modern nation of Kyrgyzstan . From 1920 to 2008,

1056-435: A plot to assassinate Guannu, and then quickly began preparations to move to Caizhou. By the time new reports reached him that Caizhou was still too weak in defences, troops and supplies, he was already on the way there. The fate of the Jin dynasty was then sealed for good, despite the earlier victory against great odds at Guide. The Southern Song dynasty , wishing to give the Jin dynasty the coup de grâce , declared war upon

SECTION 10

#1732775975873

1152-401: A puppet ruler and became the real master of the Jin imperial court. At this point the Mongols had arrived outside Guide and were preparing to besiege the city. The Mongol general Sajisibuhua had set up camp north of the city, on the bank of a river. Guannu then led his 450 troops out on boats from the southern gate at night, armed with fire-lances. They rowed along the river by the eastern side of

1248-519: A rebellion against the Jin dynasty in Jilin Province . The rebel movement gained thousands of followers within months. Yelü Liuge submitted to the Mongols and led the rebels to defeat a 600,000-strong Jin army in Dijinao'er (迪吉腦兒; near present-day Changtu County , Liaoning Province ). Wanyan Yongji was known for being indecisive, undiscerning, and generally ineffective and weak as a ruler. In

1344-576: A separate dialect or language is spoken. They are speaking languages of Indic origin and many are structured somewhat like an argot or secret language, with vocabularies drawn from various languages. There are indications that in northern Iran at least one community speaks Romani language , and some groups in Turkey also speak Romani. In Afghanistan, the Nausar worked as tinkers and animal dealers. Ghorbat men mainly made sieves , drums, and bird cages, and

1440-510: A service community to the Jamshedi , after they fled Baluchistan because of feuds. Still some groups such as Sarıkeçililer continues nomadic lifestyle between coastal towns Mediterranean and Taurus Mountains even though most of them were settled by both late Ottoman and Turkish republic. The Bukat people of Borneo in Malaysia live within the region of the river Mendalam , which

1536-414: A valley with several tens of thousands of cavalry hidden behind the crest of either mountain, but Tolui's spies alerted him and he kept his main force with the supply train, sending only a smaller force of light cavalry to skirt around the valley and attack the Jin troops from behind. Wanyan Heda saw that his plan had been foiled and prepared his troops for a Mongol assault. At Mount Yu, southwest of Dengzhou,

1632-411: A variety of commercial or service activities. Formerly, all or a majority of their members were itinerant, and this largely holds true today. Migration generally takes place within the political boundaries of a single state these days. Each of the peripatetic communities is multilingual, it speaks one or more of the languages spoken by the local sedentary populations, and, additionally, within each group,

1728-440: Is tsampa and they drink Tibetan style butter tea . Pala will eat heartier foods in the winter months to help keep warm. Some of the customary restrictions they explain as cultural saying only that drokha do not eat certain foods, even some that may be naturally abundant. Though they live near sources of fish and fowl these do not play a significant role in their diet, and they do not eat carnivorous animals, rabbits or

1824-706: Is known for certain about the past of these communities; the history of each is almost entirely contained in their oral traditions. Although some groups—such as the Vangawala—are of Indian origin, some—like the Noristani—are most probably of local origin; still others probably migrated from adjoining areas. The Ghorbat and the Shadibaz claim to have originally come from Iran and Multan, respectively, and Tahtacı traditional accounts mention either Baghdad or Khorāsān as their original home. The Baluch say they were attached as

1920-487: Is served in bowls, possibly with sugar or milk . Milk and other dairy products, like cheese and yogurt , are especially important. Kumiss is a drink of fermented milk. Wrestling is a popular sport, but the nomadic people do not have much time for leisure. Horse riding is a valued skill in their culture. Ann Marie Kroll Lerner states that the pastoral nomads were viewed as "invading, destructive, and altogether antithetical to civilizing, sedentary societies" during

2016-504: Is the most efficient strategy for exploiting scarce resources. For example, many groups living in the tundra are reindeer herders and are semi-nomadic, following forage for their animals. Sometimes also described as "nomadic" are various itinerant populations who move among densely populated areas to offer specialized services ( crafts or trades ) to their residents—external consultants , for example. These groups are known as " peripatetic nomads ". The English word nomad comes from

SECTION 20

#1732775975873

2112-484: Is thought to have developed in three stages that accompanied population growth and an increase in the complexity of social organization . Karim Sadr has proposed the following stages: The pastoralists are sedentary to a certain area, as they move between the permanent spring, summer, autumn and winter (or dry and wet season) pastures for their livestock . The nomads moved depending on the availability of resources. Nomadic pastoralism seems to have developed first as

2208-501: The Battle of Sanfengshan , Mongol troops took the city of Yuzhou. Kaifeng was doomed and Emperor Aizong soon abandoned the city and entered Hebei Province in a vain attempt to reestablish himself there. Thousands of people offered a stubborn resistance to the Mongols, who entrusted the conduct of the attack to Subutai , the most daring of all their commanders. Emperor Aizong was driven south again, and by this time Kaifeng had been taken by

2304-694: The Fulani of the Sahel , the Khoikhoi of South Africa and Namibia , groups of Northeast Africa such as Somalis and Oromo , and the Bedouin of the Middle East. Most nomads travel in groups of families, bands, or tribes . These groups are based on kinship and marriage ties or on formal agreements of cooperation. A council of adult males makes most of the decisions, though some tribes have chiefs. In

2400-840: The Gadia Lohar blacksmiths of India, the Roma traders, Scottish travellers and Irish travellers. Many nomadic and pastorally nomadic peoples are associated with semi-arid and desert climates ; examples include the Mongolic and Turkic peoples of Central Asia , the Plains Indians of the Great Plains , and the Amazigh and other peoples of the Sahara Desert . Pastoral nomads who are residents of arid climates include

2496-541: The Middle French nomade , from Latin nomas ("wandering shepherd"), from Ancient Greek νομᾰ́ς ( nomás , “roaming, wandering, esp. to find pasture”), which is derived from the Ancient Greek νομός ( nomós , “pasture”). Nomads are communities who move from place to place as a way of obtaining food, finding pasture for livestock, or otherwise making a living. Most nomadic groups follow

2592-552: The Mongol Empire , which eventually stretched the length of Asia. The nomadic way of life has become increasingly rare. Many countries have converted pastures into cropland and forced nomadic peoples into permanent settlements. Modern forms of nomadic peoples are variously referred to as "shiftless", " gypsies ", " rootless cosmopolitans ", hunter-gatherers, refugees and urban homeless or street-people , depending on their individual circumstances. These terms may be used in

2688-438: The Mongols , under the leadership of Genghis Khan , had been planning to attack the Jin dynasty. The Mongols first attacked Western Xia , a vassal state under the Jin dynasty. When Western Xia requested aid from the Jin dynasty, Wanyan Yongji ignored them; Western Xia eventually surrendered to the Mongols. In 1211, the Mongols launched a full-scale invasion of the Jin dynasty and defeated the Jin armies in some small battles. In

2784-656: The Tuareg and Fulani , who make up about 20% of Niger's 12.9 million population, had been so badly hit by the Niger food crisis that their already fragile way of life is at risk. Nomads in Mali were also affected. The Fulani of West Africa are the world's largest nomadic group. Pala nomads living in Western Tibet have a diet that is unusual in that they consume very few vegetables and no fruit. The main staple of their diet

2880-457: The posthumous name "Shao" (紹), hence Wanyan Yongji is generally known in historiography as the " Prince Shao of Wei " (or Wei Shao Wang ). Wanyan Yongji's birth name was "Wanyan Yun ji" (完顏允濟); his given name was changed to " Yong ji" later to avoid naming taboo because Emperor Zhangzong 's father was Wanyan Yun gong (完顏允恭). He was the seventh son of Wanyan Yong (Emperor Shizong) and an uncle of Wanyan Jing (Emperor Zhangzong). His mother

2976-569: The Americas followed this way of life. Pastoral nomads, on the other hand, make their living raising livestock such as camels, cattle, goats, horses, sheep, or yaks; these nomads usually travel in search of pastures for their flocks. The Fulani and their cattle travel through the grasslands of Niger in western Africa. Some nomadic peoples, especially herders, may also move to raid settled communities or to avoid enemies. Nomadic craftworkers and merchants travel to find and serve customers. They include

Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty - Misplaced Pages Continue

3072-614: The Baluch were musicians and dancers. The Baluch men were warriors that were feared by neighboring tribes and often were used as mercenaries. Jogi men and women had diverse subsistence activities, such as dealing in horses, harvesting, fortune-telling , bloodletting , and begging . In Iran, the Asheq of Azerbaijan, the Challi of Baluchistan, the Luti of Kurdistan, Kermānshāh, Īlām, and Lorestān,

3168-716: The Basseri were smiths and tinkers, traded in pack animals, and made sieves, reed mats, and small wooden implements. In the Fārs region, the Qarbalband, the Kuli, and Luli were reported to work as smiths and to make baskets and sieves; they also dealt in pack animals, and their women peddled various goods among pastoral nomads. In the same region, the Changi and Luti were musicians and balladeers, and their children learned these professions from

3264-741: The Eurasian steppe ( c.  3300–2600 BCE), and of the Mongol spread in the later Middle Ages . Yamnaya steppe pastoralists from the Pontic–Caspian steppe , who were among the first to master horseback riding , played a key role in Indo-European migrations and in the spread of Indo-European languages across Eurasia. Trekboers in southern Africa adopted nomadism from the 17th century. Some elements of gaucho culture in colonial South America also re-invented nomadic lifestyles. One of

3360-465: The Jin armies defected to the Mongols and launched an attack on Zhongdu from the south, taking Lugou Bridge . Genghis Khan then dispatched his troops to attack Zhongdu again, led by the surrendered Khitan generals Shimo Ming'an , Yelü Ahai and Yelü Tuhua . Moran Jinzhong's second-in-command, Pucha Qijin, surrendered to the Mongols with all the troops under him, throwing Zhongdu into crisis. Emperor Xuanzong then sent reinforcements north: Yongxi leading

3456-610: The Jin field commander, made a tactical mistake in not attacking the Mongols at the first opportunity. Instead, he sent a messenger to the Mongol side, Shimo Ming'an , who promptly defected and told the Mongols that the Jin army was waiting on the other side of the pass. At this engagement, fought at Yehuling, the Mongols massacred thousands of Jin troops. While Genghis Khan headed southward, his general Jebe travelled even further east into Manchuria and captured Mukden (present-day Shenyang ). The Khitan leader Liu-ke had declared his allegiance to Genghis in 1212 and conquered Manchuria from

3552-408: The Jin imperial court. Emperor Xizong of the Jin dynasty had ordered Ambaghai executed by crucifixion (nailed to a wooden mule). The Jin dynasty also conducted regular punitive expeditions against the Mongol nomads, either enslaving or killing them. In 1210, a delegation arrived at the court of Genghis Khan (r. 1206–27) to proclaim the ascension of Wanyan Yongji to the Jin throne and demanded

3648-418: The Jin. When the Mongol army besieged the Jin central capital, Zhongdu (present-day Beijing ), in 1213, Li Ying, Li Xiong and a few other Jin generals assembled a militia of more than 10,000 men who inflicted several defeats on the Mongols. The Mongols smashed the Jin armies, each numbering in the hundreds of thousands, and broke through Juyong Pass and Zijing Gap by November 1213. From 1213 until early 1214,

3744-560: The Jurchens, and placed a large army in the field. The remainder of the Jin army took shelter in Caizhou, where they were closely besieged by the Mongols on one side and the Song army on the other. Driven thus into a corner, the Jurchens fought with the courage of despair and long held out against the combined efforts of their enemies. At last, Emperor Aizong saw that the struggle could not be prolonged, and he prepared himself to end his life. When

3840-743: The Mehtar in the Mamasani district, the Sazandeh of Band-i Amir and Marv-dasht, and the Toshmal among the Bakhtyari pastoral groups worked as professional musicians. The men among the Kowli worked as tinkers, smiths, musicians, and monkey and bear handlers; they also made baskets, sieves, and brooms and dealt in donkeys. Their women made a living from peddling, begging, and fortune-telling. The Ghorbat among

3936-417: The Mongol empire and Yuan dynasty since the previous dynasties. Nomad Nomads are communities without fixed habitation who regularly move to and from areas. Such groups include hunter-gatherers , pastoral nomads (owning livestock ), tinkers and trader nomads. In the twentieth century, the population of nomadic pastoral tribes slowly decreased, reaching an estimated 30–40 million nomads in

Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty - Misplaced Pages Continue

4032-701: The Mongol stockades were all burned to the ground. Sajisibuhua was also killed in the battle. Pucha Guannu had achieved a remarkable victory and was promoted by Emperor Aizong. But Guide was not defensible in the long term, and the other courtiers urged Emperor Aizong to move to Caizhou, which had stronger walls and more provisions and troops. Pucha Guannu opposed the move, afraid that his power base would be weakened and arguing that Caizhou's advantages had been overstated. The Han Chinese general Shi Tianze led troops to pursue Emperor Aizong as he retreated, and destroyed an 80,000-strong Jin army led by Wanyan Chengyi (完顏承裔) at Pucheng (蒲城). Three months later, Emperor Aizong used

4128-537: The Mongols and Jurchens. After Genghis Khan returned to the Kherlen River , in early 1211, he summoned a kurultai . By organising a long discussion, everyone in the community was included in the process. The Khan prayed privately on a nearby mountain. He removed his hat and belt, bowed down before the Eternal Sky , and recounted the generations of grievances his people held against the Jurchens and detailed

4224-525: The Mongols easily took county after county, and burnt all the supplies they captured so as to cut off Wanyan Heda's supply lines. Wanyan Heda was forced to withdraw, and ran into the Mongols at Three-peaked Hill in Junzhou. At this point, the Jin troops on the Yellow River were also diverted southwards to meet Tolui's attack, and the Mongol northern force under Ögedei Khan seized this opportunity to cross

4320-661: The Mongols pillaged the entire North China plain. In 1214, Genghis Khan surrounded the court of the Golden Khan in Zhongdu. The Jin general Hushahu had murdered the emperor Wanyan Yongji and enthroned Wanyan Yongji's nephew, Emperor Xuanzong . When the Mongols besieged Zhongdu, the Jin government temporarily agreed to become a tributary state of the Mongol Empire, presenting to Genghis Khan Jurchen Princess Qiguo, daughter of Jurchen Jin emperor Wanyan Yongji . But when

4416-653: The Mongols retreated. This was the siege in which the Western Xia troops supporting the Mongols gave up and went home, incurring the wrath of Genghis Khan. In the wars against the Mongols, therefore, the Jin relied heavily on subjects or allies like the Uighurs , Tanguts and Khitans to supply cavalry. When Ögedei Khan succeeded his father, he rebuffed Jin offers of peace talks but the Jin officers murdered Mongol envoys. Jin armies under Emperor Aizong successfully stopped several Mongol offensives, with major victories in

4512-474: The Mongols so he established his new capital at Caizhou (present-day Runan County , Henan Province ). Subutai wished to massacre the whole of the population. But Yelü Chucai was more humane, and under his advice Ögedei Khan rejected the cruel proposal. The Jurchens used fire arrows against the Mongols during the defence of Kaifeng in 1232. The Mongols adopted this weapon in later conquests. In 1233, after Emperor Aizong had abandoned Kaifeng and failed to raise

4608-426: The Mongols withdrew in 1214, believing the war was over after being given a large tribute by the Jurchens, Li Ying wanted to ambush them on the way with his forces (which had grown to several tens of thousands). However, the Jin ruler, Emperor Xuanzong , was afraid of offending the Mongols again so he stopped Li Ying. Emperor Xuanzong and the general Zhuhu Gaoqi then decided to shift the capital south to Kaifeng , above

4704-456: The Mongols would invade the Song after they were done with the Jin ;– a forecast that would later be proven true – but the Song ignored the warning and rebuffed the request. They instead formed an alliance with the Mongols against the Jin. The Song provided supplies to the Mongols in return for parts of Henan. Wanyan Heda's army still had more than 100,000 men after

4800-745: The Mongols. Many Han Chinese and Khitans defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin dynasty. Two Han Chinese leaders, Shi Tianze and Liu Heima (劉黑馬), and the Khitan Xiao Zhala (蕭札剌) defected and commanded the three tumens in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Genghis Khan's successor, Ögedei Khan . Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols. There were four Han tumens and three Khitan tumens, with each tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The three Khitan generals Shimo Beidi'er (石抹孛迭兒), Tabuyir (塔不已兒), and Xiao Zhongxi (蕭重喜; Xiao Zhala's son) commanded

4896-525: The age of 7 or 8 years. The nomadic groups in Turkey make and sell cradles, deal in animals, and play music. The men of the sedentary groups work in towns as scavengers and hangmen; elsewhere they are fishermen, smiths, basket makers, and singers; their women dance at feasts and tell fortunes. Abdal men played music and made sieves, brooms, and wooden spoons for a living. The Tahtacı traditionally worked as lumberers; with increased sedentarization, however, they have taken to agriculture and horticulture. Little

SECTION 50

#1732775975873

4992-441: The animals can graze. Most nomads usually move within the same region and do not travel very far. Since they usually circle around a large area, communities form and families generally know where the other ones are. Often, families do not have the resources to move from one province to another unless they are moving out of the area permanently. A family can move on its own or with others; if it moves alone, they are usually no more than

5088-401: The battle at Mount Yu, and the Mongols adopted a strategy of exhausting the enemy. The Jin troops had little rest all the way from Dengzhou, and had not eaten for three days because of the severing of their supply lines. Their morale was plummeting and their commanders were losing confidence. When they reached Sanfengshan (Three-peaked Hill), a snowstorm suddenly broke out, and it was so cold that

5184-512: The camp and most do not eat again until they return to camp for the evening meal. The typical evening meal may include thin stew with tsampa , animal fat and dried radish . Winter stew would include a lot of meat with either tsampa or boiled flour dumplings . Nomadic diets in Kazakhstan have not changed much over centuries. The Kazakh nomad cuisine is simple and includes meat, salads, marinated vegetables and fried and baked breads . Tea

5280-408: The case of Mongolian nomads, a family moves twice a year. These two movements generally occur during the summer and winter. The winter destination is usually located near the mountains in a valley and most families already have fixed winter locations. Their winter locations have shelter for animals and are not used by other families while they are out. In the summer they move to a more open area in which

5376-517: The city, and dispersed the rest of the troops to forage in Su (in Anhui Province ), Xu (present-day Xuzhou , Jiangsu Province ), and Chen (present-day Huaiyang , Henan Province). Pucha Guannu then launched a coup with his troops, killing Ma Yong and more than 300 other courtiers, as well as about 3,000 officers, palace guards and civilians who refused to cooperate with him. He made Emperor Aizong

5472-573: The city, pulling back to Henan Province with all the city's population. One month later, the Mongols decided to use a three-pronged attack to converge on Kaifeng from north, east and west. The western force under Tolui would start from Fengxiang, enter Tong Pass, and then pass through Song territory at the Han River (near Xiangyang ) to reemerge south of Kaifeng to catch the Jurchens by surprise. Wanyan Heda learned of this plan and led 200,000 men to intercept Tolui. At Dengzhou, he set an ambush in

5568-411: The city, reaching the Mongol camp early in the morning. Emperor Aizong watched the battle from the northern gate of the city, with his imperial boat prepared for him to flee to Xuzhou if the Jin troops were defeated. The Jin troops assaulted the Mongol camp from two directions, using their fire-lances to throw the Mongols into a panic. More than 3,500 Mongols drowned in the river while trying to flee, and

5664-626: The conquest of the Tangut -led Western Xia empire started, there were multiple raids between 1207 and 1209. When the Mongols invaded Jin territory in 1211, Ala 'Qush, the chief of the Ongut , supported Genghis Khan and showed him a safe road to the Jin dynasty's heartland. The first important battle between the Mongol Empire and the Jin dynasty was the Battle of Yehuling at a mountain pass in Zhangjiakou which took place in 1211. There, Wanyan Jiujin,

5760-656: The development of agriculture, most hunter-gatherers were eventually either displaced or converted to farming or pastoralist groups. Only a few contemporary societies, such as the Pygmies , the Hadza people , and some uncontacted tribes in the Amazon rainforest , are classified as hunter-gatherers; some of these societies supplement, sometimes extensively, their foraging activity with farming or animal husbandry. Pastoral nomads are nomads moving between pastures. Nomadic pastoralism

5856-620: The east in 1219, due to another event in Central Asia and Persia . In 1223, the Mongol general Muqali had struck into Shaanxi Province , attacking Chang'an when Genghis Khan was attacking Khwarezmia . The garrison in Chang'an, 200,000 under Wanyan Heda, was too strong and Muqali had to turn to besieging Feng County with 100,000 men. The siege dragged on for months and the Mongols were harassed by local militia, while Jin reinforcements were about to arrive. Muqali then died of illness, and

SECTION 60

#1732775975873

5952-426: The eighth month of 1213, when the Mongols attacked Zhongdu again, the general Heshilie Zhizhong (紇石烈執中; also known as Hushahu 胡沙虎) rebelled against Wanyan Yongji and assassinated him. In the following month, Hushahu installed Wanyan Xun (Emperor Xuanzong) on the throne to replace Wanyan Yongji. He also gathered about 300 officials to support him and openly urged Emperor Xuanzong to posthumously demote Wanyan Yongji to

6048-575: The enemy breached the city walls, Emperor Aizong committed suicide after passing the throne to his general Wanyan Chenglin . Wanyan Chenglin, historically known as Emperor Mo, ruled for less than a day before he was finally killed in battle. Thus the Jin dynasty came to an end on February 9, 1234. There are great men of the vanquished Jin who have gotten mixed up in odd jobs falling as low as butchering and peddling, or leaving to become Yellow Caps. All of them are still referred to by their old government [titles]. The family of Pacification Commissioner Wang has

6144-454: The faces of the Jin troops went as white as corpses, and they could hardly march. Rather than attack them when they were desperate with their backs to the wall, the Mongols left them an escape route and then ambushed them when they let down their guard during the retreat. The Jin army collapsed without a fight, and the Mongols pursued the fleeing Jin troops relentlessly. Wanyan Heda was killed, and most of his commanders also lost their lives. After

6240-425: The fissures of Dryobalanops aromaticus); several types of rotan of cane ( Calamus rotan and other species); poison for blowpipe darts (one source is ipoh or ipu : see Nieuwenhuis 1900a:137); the antlers of deer (the sambar, Cervus unicolor); rhinoceros horn (see Tillema 1939:142); pharmacologically valuable bezoar stones (concretions formed in the intestines and gallbladder of the gibbon, Seminopithecus, and in

6336-518: The frozen river and join up with Tolui – even at this point, their combined strength was only about 50,000. By 1232, the Jurchen ruler, Emperor Aizong , was besieged in Kaifeng. They together smashed the Jin forces. Ögedei Khan soon departed, leaving the final conquest to his generals. In 1233, Emperor Aizong dispatched diplomats to implore the Song for supplies. Jin envoys reported to the Song that

6432-583: The largest nomadic populations in the world, an estimated 1.5 million in a country of about 70 million. In Kazakhstan where the major agricultural activity was nomadic herding, forced collectivization under Joseph Stalin 's rule met with massive resistance and major losses and confiscation of livestock. Livestock in Kazakhstan fell from 7 million cattle to 1.6 million and from 22 million sheep to 1.7 million. The resulting famine of 1931–1934 caused some 1.5 million deaths: this represents more than 40% of

6528-577: The late 19th and early 20th centuries. According to Lerner, they are rarely accredited as "a civilizing force". Allan Hill and Sara Randall observe that western authors have looked for "romance and mystery, as well as the repository of laudable characteristics believed lost in the West, such as independence, stoicism in the face of physical adversity, and a strong sense of loyalty to family and to tribe" in nomadic pastoralist societies. Hill and Randall observe that nomadic pastoralists are stereotypically seen by

6624-593: The natives call Buköt . Bukat is an ethnonym that encapsulates all the tribes in the region. These natives are historically self-sufficient but were also known to trade various goods. This is especially true for the clans who lived on the periphery of the territory. The products of their trade were varied and fascinating, including: "...resins (damar, Agathis dammara; jelutong bukit, Dyera costulata, gutta-percha, Palaquium spp.); wild honey and beeswax (important in trade but often unreported); aromatic resin from insence wood ( gaharu, Aquilaria microcarpa); camphor (found in

6720-406: The ninth month, the Mongols besieged the Jin central capital, Zhongdu (中都; present-day Xicheng and Fengtai districts of Beijing ), but were forced to retreat because of Zhongdu's strong defences. In 1212, the Mongols attacked the Jin dynasty and besieged the Jin western capital, Datong Prefecture (大同府; present-day Datong , Shanxi Province ). In the same year, Yelü Liuge (耶律留哥), a Khitan , led

6816-478: The objections of many courtiers including Li Ying. From then on, the Jin were strictly on the defensive and Zhongdu fell to the Mongols in 1215. Jurchen Princess Qiguo was married to Genghis Khan in exchange for relieving the Mongol siege upon Zhongdu (Beijing) in the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty. After the shift of the Jin capital to Kaifeng, the Jin chancellor Wanyan Chenghui and general Moran Jinzhong were left to guard Zhongdu. At this point, one of

6912-399: The order to demonstrate submission, Genghis Khan reportedly turned to the south and spat on the ground; then he mounted his horse, and rode toward the north, leaving the stunned envoy choking in his dust. He gave the Jin emperor a very insulting message which the envoy dared not repeat upon his return to the Jin court. His defiance of the Jin envoys was tantamount to a declaration of war between

7008-519: The period from 8,500 to 6,500 BCE in the area of the southern Levant . There, during a period of increasing aridity, Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) cultures in the Sinai were replaced by a nomadic, pastoral pottery-using culture, which seems to have been a cultural fusion between them and a newly-arrived Mesolithic people from Egypt (the Harifian culture), adopting their nomadic hunting lifestyle to

7104-526: The population drop in northern China to Mongol slaughter since much of the population may have moved to southern China under the Southern Song or died of disease and famine as agricultural and urban city infrastructure were destroyed. The Mongols spared cities from massacre and sacking if they surrendered, such as Kaifeng, which was surrendered to Subetai by Xu Li, Yangzhou, which was surrendered to Bayan by Li Tingzhi's second in command after Li Tingzhi

7200-399: The population of nomadic pastoral tribes slowly decreased from over a quarter of Iran 's population. Tribal pastures were nationalized during the 1960s. The National Commission of UNESCO registered the population of Iran at 21 million in 1963, of whom two million (9.5%) were nomads. Although the nomadic population of Iran has dramatically decreased in the 20th century, Iran still has one of

7296-450: The process, such as at the Battle of Dachangyuan in 1229, Battle of Weizhou (1230), Battle of Daohuigu (1231). The Kheshig commander Doqolqu was dispatched to attempt a frontal attack on Tong Pass , but Wanyan Heda defeated him and forced Subutai to withdraw in 1230. In 1231, the Mongols attacked again and finally took Fengxiang. The Jin garrison in Chang'an panicked and abandoned

7392-450: The purpose of seeking a new home in a new country, not for the purpose of subjecting it to their dominion as in the first case, but with the intention of taking absolute possession of it themselves and driving out or killing its original inhabitants. Primary historical sources for nomadic steppe-style warfare are found in many languages: Chinese, Persian, Polish, Russian, Classical Greek, Armenian, Latin and Arabic. These sources concern both

7488-524: The raising of stock. This lifestyle quickly developed into what Jaris Yurins has called the circum- Arabian nomadic pastoral techno-complex and is possibly associated with the appearance of Semitic languages in the region of the Ancient Near East . The rapid spread of such nomadic pastoralism was typical of such later developments as of the Yamnaya culture of the horse and cattle nomads of

7584-693: The results of the break-up of the Soviet Union and the subsequent political independence and economic collapse of its Central Asian republics has been the resurgence of pastoral nomadism. Taking the Kyrgyz people as a representative example, nomadism was the centre of their economy before Russian colonization at the turn of the 20th century, when they were settled into agricultural villages. The population became increasingly urbanized after World War II, but some people still take their herds of horses and cows to high pastures ( jailoo ) every summer, continuing

7680-454: The settled populace in Africa and Middle East as "aimless wanderers, immoral, promiscuous and disease-ridden" peoples. According to Hill and Randall, both of these perceptions "misrepresent the reality". Peripatetic minorities are mobile populations moving among settled populations offering a craft or trade . Each existing community is primarily endogamous, and subsists traditionally on

7776-415: The status of a commoner. Eventually, as a compromise between Hushahu's faction and another opposing faction, Emperor Xuanzong agreed to posthumously demote Wanyan Yongji to the position of "Marquis of Donghai Commandery" (東海郡侯). One month later, Hushahu was assassinated by another general, Zhuhu Gaoqi (朮虎高琪). In 1216, Emperor Xuanzong posthumously restored Wanyan Yongji to the status of "Prince of Wei" (衛王) –

7872-534: The submission of the Mongols as a vassal state. Because the Jurchens had defeated the powerful steppe nomads and allied with the Keraites and the Tatars, they claimed sovereignty over all the tribes of the steppe. High court officials in the Jin government defected to the Mongols and urged Genghis Khan to attack the Jin dynasty. But fearful of a trap or some other nefarious scheme, Genghis Khan refused. Upon receiving

7968-617: The three Khitan tumens and the four Han generals Zhang Rou (張柔), Yan Shi (嚴實), Shi Tianze and Liu Heima commanded the four Han tumens under Ögedei Khan . Shi Tianze, Zhang Rou, Yan Shi and other Han Chinese who served in the Jin dynasty and defected to the Mongols helped build the structure for the administration of the new Mongol state. The Mongols valued physicians, craftsmen and religious clerics and ordered them to be spared from death and brought to them when cities were taken in northern China. The Han Chinese nobles Duke Yansheng and Celestial Masters continued possessing their titles in

8064-477: The torture and murder of his ancestors. He explained that he had not sought this war against the Jurchens. At the dawn on the fourth day, Genghis Khan emerged with the verdict: "The Eternal Blue Sky has promised us victory and vengeance". Wanyan Yongji, angry on hearing how Genghis Khan behaved, sent the message to the Khan that "Our Empire is like the sea; yours is but a handful of sand ... How can we fear you?" When

8160-566: The total Kazakh population at that time. In the 1950s as well as the 1960s, large numbers of Bedouin throughout the Middle East started to leave the traditional, nomadic life to settle in the cities of the Middle East, especially as home ranges have shrunk and population levels have grown. Government policies in Egypt and Israel , oil production in Libya and the Persian Gulf , as well as

8256-522: The troops from Zhending and Zhongshan (numbers not given), and Wugulun Qingshou leading 18,000 imperial guards, 11,000 infantry and cavalry from the southwestern route, and 10,000 soldiers from Hebei Province , with Li Ying in charge of the supply train. Zhongdu fell to the Mongols on June 1, 1215. Then they systematically rooted out all resistance in Shanxi , Hebei and Shandong provinces from 1217 to 1223. Genghis Khan did however need to turn his attention to

8352-433: The true steppe nomads ( Mongols , Huns , Magyars and Scythians ) and also the semi-settled people like Turks , Crimean Tatars and Russians , who retained or, in some cases, adopted the nomadic form of warfare. Hunter-gatherers (also known as foragers) move from campsite to campsite, following game and wild fruits and vegetables . Hunting and gathering describes early peoples' subsistence living style. Following

8448-404: The two armies met in a pitched battle. The Jin army had an advantage in numbers, and fought fiercely. The Mongols then withdrew from Mount Yu by about 30 li , and Tolui changed his strategy. Leaving a part of his force to keep Wanyan Heda occupied, he sent most of his men to strike northwards at Kaifeng in several dispersed contingents to avoid alerting Heda. On the way from Dengzhou to Kaifeng,

8544-516: The wars of Alexander the Great, and those of the Romans, and those which two hostile powers carry on against each other. These wars are dangerous but never go so far as to drive all its inhabitants out of a province, because the conqueror is satisfied with the submission of the people... The other kind of war is when an entire people, constrained by famine or war, leave their country with their families for

8640-469: The wild asses that are abundant in the environs, classifying the latter as horse due to their cloven hooves. Some families do not eat until after the morning milking, while others may have a light meal with butter tea and tsampa . In the afternoon, after the morning milking, the families gather and share a communal meal of tea, tsampa and sometimes yogurt . During winter months the meal is more substantial and includes meat. Herders will eat before leaving

8736-702: The women peddled these as well as other items of household and personal use; they also worked as moneylenders to rural women. Peddling and the sale of various goods was also practiced by men and women of various groups, such as the Jalali, the Pikraj, the Shadibaz, the Noristani, and the Vangawala. The latter and the Pikraj also worked as animal dealers. Some men among the Shadibaz and the Vangawala entertained as monkey or bear handlers and snake charmers; men and women among

8832-443: The world as of 1995 . Nomadic hunting and gathering—following seasonally available wild plants and game—is by far the oldest human subsistence method. Pastoralists raise herds of domesticated livestock, driving or accompanying them in patterns that normally avoid depleting pastures beyond their ability to recover. Nomadism is also a lifestyle adapted to infertile regions such as steppe , tundra , or ice and sand , where mobility

8928-486: The wounds of porcupines, Hestrix crassispinus); birds' nests, the edible nests of swifts ( Collocalia spp.); the heads and feathers of two species of hornbills ( Buceros rhinoceros, Rhinoplax vigil) ; and various hides (clouded leopards, bears, and other animals)." These nomadic tribes also commonly hunted boar with poison blow darts for their own needs. Figurative use of the term: Wanyan Yongji Wanyan Yongji (died 11 September 1213), childhood name Xingsheng ,

9024-427: Was Lady Li, a Balhae concubine of Emperor Shizong. In 1171, he was given the title "Prince of Xue" (薛王) but was later changed to "Prince of Sui" (禭王). His princely title had subsequently been changed to "Prince of Lu" (潞王), then "Prince of Han" (韓王), and finally "Prince of Wei" (衛王). When Emperor Zhangzong died without a male heir in 1208, Wanyan Yongji was selected to be the new emperor. During Wanyan Yongji's reign,

9120-616: Was executed by the Southern Song, and Hangzhou, which was spared from sacking when it surrendered to Kublai Khan . Han Chinese and Khitan soldiers defected en masse to Genghis Khan against the Jurchen Jin dynasty. Towns which surrendered were spared from sacking and massacre by Kublai Khan. The Khitan reluctantly left their homeland in Manchuria as the Jin moved their primary capital from Beijing south to Kaifeng and defected to

9216-494: Was the seventh emperor of the Jurchen -led Jin dynasty of China. He reigned for about five years from 1208 until 1213, when he was assassinated by the general Heshilie Zhizhong. Despite having ruled as an emperor, Wanyan Yongji was not posthumously honoured as such. Instead, in 1216, his successor, Emperor Xuanzong , reverted his status to "Prince of Wei" (衛王) – the title Wanyan Yongji held before he became emperor – and gave him

#872127