New branches:
125-515: New branches: Tantric techniques : Fourfold division: Twofold division: Thought forms and visualisation: Yoga : Buddhism is the largest religion in Mongolia practiced by 51.7% of Mongolia's population, according to the 2020 Mongolia census. Buddhism in Mongolia derives much of its recent characteristics from Tibetan Buddhism of the Gelug and Kagyu lineages, but
250-516: A Mongol military leader with ambitions to unite the Mongols and to emulate the career of Genghis Khan , invited the 3rd Dalai Lama , the head of the rising Gelug lineage to a summit. They formed an alliance that gave Altan Khan legitimacy and religious sanction for his imperial pretensions and that provided the Buddhist school with protection and patronage. Altan Khan recognized Sonam Gyatso lama as
375-438: A campaign marked by shifts of tactics, alternating between conciliation and persecution, and a few reported uprisings led by monks and abbots, the Buddhist church was removed progressively from public administration, was subjected to confiscatory taxes, was forbidden to teach children, and was prohibited from recruiting new monks or replacing living Buddhas. The campaign's timing matched the phases of Joseph Stalin 's persecution of
500-466: A challenge to its dominance and that—because Buddhism had played so large a part in the history of Mongolia and traditional arts and culture , total extirpation of knowledge about the religion and its practices would cut modern Mongols off from much of their past to the detriment of their national identity. A few aged former monks were employed to translate Tibetan-language handbooks on herbs and traditional Tibetan medicine . Government spokesmen described
625-477: A cynical and realistic anticlericalism, sensitive to the faults and the human fallibility of individual monks or groups of monks, with a deep and unwavering concern for the transcendent values of the church. When the revolutionaries took power and formed the Mongolian People's Republic , determined to modernize and reform Mongolian society, they confronted a massive ecclesiastical structure that enrolled
750-636: A few monastics. The most prestigious monasteries have support from rich elites, and the smallest are usually in small villages. The Chinese word 纯净素 (chún jìng sù ) meaning pure Buddhist Vegan/ Vegetarian is widely promoted and practiced in Chinese Buddhism. The practice is promoted in various Mahayana sutras, like the 楞伽阿跋多羅寶經 léngqié ābáduōluó bǎojīng . Monastics are often required to be vegetarian or Vegan and other animal products are often banned in Buddhist temples and monasteries. Other dietary restrictions may include avoiding eggs, dairy, and
875-799: A journal for international circulation; and maintained contacts with such groups as the Christian Peace Conference , the Soviet Afro-Asian Solidarity Committee and the Russian Orthodox Church. It sponsored the visits of the Dalai Lama to Mongolia in 1979 and 1982. The organization, headed by the abbot of then-Gandan Monastery, advanced the foreign policy goals of the Mongolian government , which were in accord with those of
1000-406: A kind of sacred podium. Other important Buddhist rituals are those related to death, which is seen as a key moment for Buddhists who want to attain a good rebirth in the pure land of a Buddha (the most popular being Amitabha's pure land). The focus of these rituals is to keep the dying person free of distractions and offer spiritual support (so they can focus their minds on Amitabha Buddha through
1125-443: A large part of the population, monopolized education and medical services, administered justice in a part of the country, and controlled a great deal of the national wealth. The Buddhist church, moreover, had no interest in reforming itself or in modernizing the country. The result was a protracted political struggle that absorbed the energies and attention of the party and its Soviet advisers for nearly twenty years. As late as 1934,
1250-415: A liminal zone on the borders between fields and forests. Their rites involved the conjunction of sexual practices and Buddhist mandala visualization with ritual accoutrements made from parts of the human body, so that control may be exercised over the forces hindering the natural abilities of the siddha to manipulate the cosmos at will. At their most extreme, siddhas also represented a defensive position within
1375-532: A mantra. Vajrayāna Buddhists developed a large corpus of texts called the Buddhist Tantras , some of which can be traced to at least the 7th century CE but might be older. The dating of the tantras is "a difficult, indeed an impossible task" according to David Snellgrove . Some of the earliest of these texts, Kriya tantras such as the Mañjuśrī-mūla-kalpa ( c. 6th century ), teach
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#17327910026581500-538: A movement called Sahaja -siddhi developed in the 8th century in Bengal . It was dominated by long-haired, wandering mahasiddhas who openly challenged and ridiculed the Buddhist establishment. The mahasiddhas pursued siddhis , magical powers such as flight and extrasensory perception as well as spiritual liberation. Ronald M. Davidson states that Buddhist siddhas demonstrated the appropriation of an older sociological form—the independent sage/magician, who lived in
1625-422: A number of ancillary halls also house the images of lesser Buddhist divinities, giving residents and visitors alike a wide choice of objects of worship and supplication." Another common structure is a pagoda , which may contain Buddhist relics and statues or images of Buddhas and bodhisattvas. There is a conception of an "impersonal god" in Chinese Buddhism likely inspired by Shangdi . Buddhist monasticism
1750-456: A reincarnation of Phagpa lama, gave the Tibetan leader the title of Dalai Lama ("Ocean Lama "), which his successors still hold. Sonam Gyatso, in turn, recognized Altan as a reincarnation of Kublai Khan. Thus, Altan added legitimacy to the title "khan" that he had assumed, while Sonam Gyatso received support for the supremacy he sought over the Tibetan sangha. Since this meeting, the heads of
1875-432: A single state. Viharas (Mongolian datsan ) were built across Mongolia, often sited at the juncture of trade and migration routes or at summer pastures where large numbers of herders would congregate for shamanistic rituals and sacrifices. Buddhist monks carried out a protracted struggle with the indigenous shamans and succeeded, to some extent, in taking over their functions and fees as healers and diviners, and in pushing
2000-714: A thoroughly Indic foundation for Chinese Buddhist philosophy, which previously had been heavily influenced by Taoist philosophy. By the 460s Buddhism was a mainstream institution in China, and its iconography and art were widely recognized. The Dunhuang and Yungang cave complexes are a great example of early Chinese Buddhist art from this period. Another important translator was Paramārtha ( Zhēndì , 499–569 CE) who along with his team of Chinese disciples translated numerous works on Abhidharma , Yogachara philosophy, and other Mahayana texts. The work of other sixth century translators like Bodhiruci and Ratnamati also contributed to
2125-407: Is "obscured by discursive thought". This doctrine is often associated with the idea of the inherent or natural luminosity ( Skt: prakṛti-prabhāsvara-citta , T. ’od gsal gyi sems ) or purity of the mind ( prakrti-parisuddha ). Another fundamental theory of Tantric practice is that of transformation. In Vajrayāna, negative mental factors such as desire, hatred, greed, pride are used as part of
2250-677: Is a Buddhist tradition of tantric practice that developed in Medieval India . Tantrism, which originated within Hinduism during the first millennium CE, significantly influenced South Asian Mahāyāna Buddhism, giving rise to distinct Buddhist tantric traditions. Emerging in the 7th century CE, these traditions spread across Southeast, East, and Central Asia, leading to distinct East Asian and Tibetan practices. Vajrayāna practices are connected to specific lineages in Buddhism, through
2375-630: Is a sinicized form of Mahāyāna Buddhism , which draws on the Chinese Buddhist Canon (大藏經, Dàzàngjīng , "Great Storage of Scriptures") as well as numerous Chinese traditions. Chinese Buddhism focuses on studying Mahayana sutras and Mahāyāna treatises and draws its main doctrines from these sources. Some of the most important scriptures in Chinese Buddhism include: the Lotus Sutra , the Flower Ornament Sutra ,
2500-523: Is a method which works faster. Various classifications are possible when distinguishing Vajrayāna from the other Buddhist traditions. Vajrayāna can be seen as a third yana , next to Śrāvakayāna and Mahayana . Vajrayāna can be distinguished from the Sutrayana . The Sutrayana is the method of perfecting good qualities, where the Vajrayāna is the method of taking the intended outcome of Buddhahood as
2625-615: Is a mythical weapon associated with Indra which was said to be indestructible and unbreakable (like a diamond) and extremely powerful (like thunder). Thus, the term is variously translated as Diamond Vehicle, Thunderbolt Vehicle, Indestructible Vehicle and so on. Chinese Esoteric Buddhism it is generally known by various terms such as Zhēnyán ( Chinese : 真言, literally "true word", referring to mantra), Tángmì or Hanmì (唐密 - 漢密, " Tang Esotericism" or " Han Esotericism") , Mìzōng (密宗, "Esoteric Sect") or Mìjiao (Chinese: 密教; Esoteric Teaching). The Chinese term mì 密 ("secret, esoteric")
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#17327910026582750-609: Is a translation of the Sanskrit term Guhya ("secret, hidden, profound, abstruse"). In Japan , Buddhist esotericism is known as Mikkyō ( 密教 , secret teachings) or by the term Shingon (a Japanese rendering of Zhēnyán ), which also refers to a specific school of Shingon-shū ( 真言宗 ) . The term "Esoteric Buddhism" is first used by Western occultist writers, such as Helena Blavatsky and Alfred Percy Sinnett , to describe theosophical doctrines passed down from "supposedly initiated Buddhist masters." Tantric Buddhism
2875-603: Is an important part of Chinese Buddhism. Chinese Buddhist monastics (both male and female) follow the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya , which is known as the Four Part Vinaya ( Sifen lü ) in China and has 250 rules for monks and 348 for nuns. Buddhist monks and nuns perform numerous religious practices and services, including offerings to altars, liturgical services, circumambulating the Buddha hall, preaching
3000-553: Is associated with groups of wandering yogis called mahasiddhas in medieval India . According to Robert Thurman , these tantric figures thrived during the latter half of the first millennium CE. According to John Myrdhin Reynolds, the mahasiddhas date to the medieval period in North India and used methods that were radically different from those used in Buddhist monasteries, including practicing on charnel grounds . Since
3125-494: Is bound, by passion too it is released, but by heretical Buddhists this practice of reversals is not known. The Hevajra further states that "one knowing the nature of poison may dispel poison with poison." As Snellgrove notes, this idea is already present in Asanga 's Mahayana-sutra-alamkara-karika and therefore it is possible that he was aware of Tantric techniques, including sexual yoga. According to Buddhist Tantra, there
3250-530: Is developed. Other early tantras include the Mahāvairocana Abhisaṃbodhi and the Guhyasamāja (Gathering of Secrets). The Guhyasamāja is a Mahayoga class of Tantra, which features forms of ritual practice considered "left-hand" ( vamachara ) such as the use of taboo substances like alcohol, consort practices, and charnel ground practices which evoke wrathful deities . Ryujun Tajima divides
3375-575: Is distinct and presents its own unique characteristics. Buddhism in Mongolia began with the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) emperors' conversion to Tibetan Buddhism . The Mongols returned to shamanic traditions after the collapse of the Mongol Empire , but Buddhism reemerged in the 16th and 17th centuries. Buddhism in Mongolia derives many of its recent characteristics from Tibetan Buddhism of
3500-534: Is more common for a yogi or yogini to use an imagined consort (a buddhist tantric deity, i.e. a yidam). These later tantras such as the Hevajra Tantra and the Chakrasamvara are classed as " Yogini tantras" and represent the final form of development of Indian Buddhist tantras in the ninth and tenth centuries. The Kalachakra tantra developed in the 10th century. It is farthest removed from
3625-444: Is more complex than a simple process of religious imitation and textual appropriation. There can be no question that the Buddhist tantras were heavily influenced by Kapalika and other Saiva movements, but the influence was apparently mutual. Perhaps a more nuanced model would be that the various lines of transmission were locally flourishing and that in some areas they interacted, while in others they maintained concerted hostility. Thus
3750-496: Is no strict separation of the profane or samsara and the sacred or nirvana , rather they exist in a continuum. All individuals are seen as containing the seed of enlightenment within, which is covered over by defilements . Douglas Duckworth notes that Vajrayana sees Buddhahood not as something outside or an event in the future, but as immanently present. Indian Tantric Buddhist philosophers such as Buddhaguhya , Vimalamitra , Ratnākaraśānti and Abhayakaragupta continued
3875-672: Is not specifically Buddhist, Shaiva or Vaishnava . According to Alexis Sanderson , various classes of Vajrayāna literature developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and Shaivism. The relationship between the two systems can be seen in texts like the Mañjusrimulakalpa , which later came to be classified under Kriya tantra , and states that mantras taught in the Shaiva, Garuda and Vaishnava tantras will be effective if applied by Buddhists since they were all taught originally by Manjushri . Sanderson notes that
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4000-461: Is said to be the purpose of all the various tantric techniques practiced in the Vajrayana. Chinese Buddhism Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism ( simplified Chinese : 汉传佛教 ; traditional Chinese : 漢傳佛教 ; pinyin : Hànchuán Fójiào ; Jyutping : Hon3 Cyun4 Fat6 Gaau3 ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : Hàn-thoân Hu̍t-kàu ) is a Chinese form of Mahayana Buddhism which draws on
4125-656: Is the largest institutionalized religion in mainland China . Currently, there are an estimated 185 to 250 million Chinese Buddhists in the People's Republic of China . It is also a major religion in Taiwan, Singapore, and Malaysia, as well as among the Chinese Diaspora . Buddhism was first introduced to China during the Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE). It was promoted by multiple emperors , especially during
4250-522: Is the superiority of Tantric methods, which provide a faster vehicle to liberation and contain many more skillful means ( upaya ). The importance of the theory of emptiness is central to the Tantric Buddhist view and practice. The Buddhist emptiness view sees the world as being fluid, without an ontological foundation or inherent existence, but ultimately a fabric of constructions. Because of this, tantric practice such as self-visualization as
4375-524: Is the use of mantras and dhāraṇī s , such as the popular Mahā Karuṇā Dhāraṇī and the Cundī Dhāraṇī . Robert Gimello has also observed that in Chinese Buddhist communities, the esoteric practices of Cundī enjoyed popularity among both the common people and the elite. Various Mahāyāna Buddhist deities are venerated in Chinese Buddhism, most of which are Buddhas and bodhisattvas. Some of
4500-522: Is to become a Sammāsambuddha (fully awakened Buddha ); those on this path are termed Bodhisattvas . As with the Mahayana, motivation is a vital component of Vajrayāna practice. The Bodhisattva-path is an integral part of the Vajrayāna, which teaches that all practices are to be undertaken with the motivation to achieve Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings. In the vehicle of Sutra Mahayana,
4625-463: The Hīnayāna ) and Mahāyāna (a.k.a. Pāramitāyāna ). There are several Buddhist tantric traditions that are currently practiced, including Tibetan Buddhism , Chinese Esoteric Buddhism , Shingon Buddhism and Newar Buddhism . Historically, there were also other esoteric Buddhist traditions, such as that of maritime Southeast Asia , which are no longer practiced today. In India, the initial term
4750-613: The Vimalakirtī Sutra , the Nirvana Sutra , and the Amitābha Sutra . As such, Chinese Buddhism follows the classic Mahāyāna Buddhist worldview, which includes a belief in many realms of existence , the existence of many Buddhas and bodhisattvas , as well as many other kinds of divine beings, ghosts, and so on. Chinese Buddhism also upholds classic Mahayana Buddhist doctrines like karma ( 報應 ) and rebirth ( 超生 ),
4875-584: The Chinese Buddhist canon that includes the indigenous cultural traditions of Confucianism and Taoism (Chinese: 三教; pinyin: sān jiào) and the rituals of local colloquialised folk religions. Chinese Buddhism focuses on studying Mahayana sutras and Mahāyāna treatises and draws its main doctrines from these sources. Some of the most important scriptures in Chinese Buddhism include: Lotus Sutra , Flower Ornament Sutra , Vimalakirtī Sutra , Nirvana Sutra , and Amitābha Sutra . Chinese Buddhism
5000-522: The Gelug and Kagyu lineages, but is distinct and presents its own unique characteristics. Traditionally, the Mongolian ethnic religions involved worship of Heaven (the "eternal blue sky") and ancestors and the ancient North Asian practices of shamanism , in which human intermediaries went into trance and spoke to and for some of the numberless infinities of spirits responsible for human luck or misfortune. The earliest introduction of Buddhism into
5125-712: The Guhyasiddhi of Padmavajra, a work associated with the Guhyasamaja tradition , which prescribes acting as a Shaiva guru and initiating members into Saiva Siddhanta scriptures and mandalas. Sanderson says that the Samvara tantra texts adopted the pitha list from the Shaiva text Tantrasadbhāva , introducing a copying error where a deity was mistaken for a place. Ronald M. Davidson meanwhile, argues that Sanderson's arguments for direct influence from Shaiva Vidyapitha texts are problematic because "the chronology of
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5250-411: The Han dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) and the religion was present in China at the beginning of the common era. Buddhist missionaries made use of both the overland Central Asian Silk Road and the maritime routes. Initially Buddhism was poorly understood and often confused with and mixed with Taoism. The Chinese saw many similarities between the two religions. There was also much criticism leveled at
5375-567: The Kuchan scholar Kumārajīva (334–413 CE) was a key event. Unlike the previous translators, Kumārajīva was supported by the state and given the title of national preceptor. The numerous high quality translations of his translation team had a great impact on Chinese Buddhism. He is also known for introducing the Madhyamaka school of Buddhist philosophy, which would later be called Sanlun (the "Three Treatise school"). His work also established
5500-680: The Longmen Grottoes , also attest to the artistic vibrancy of Chinese Buddhism at this time. A famous proponent of Buddhism during the Tang era was empress Wu Zetian (r. 690–705) and she is known for her promotion of the Longmen cave complex . She also depicted herself as a bodhisattva. The next important event in the history of Chinese Buddhism was the arrival of Subhakarasimha , Vajrabodhi , and Amoghavajra , and their establishment of Chinese Esoteric Buddhism from 716 to 720, during
5625-606: The Mantrayana leads one to Buddhahood in a single lifetime. According to the literature, the mantra is an easy path without the difficulties innate to the Paramitayana . Mantrayana is sometimes portrayed as a method for those of inferior abilities. However the practitioner of the mantra still has to adhere to the vows of the Bodhisattva . The goal of spiritual practice within the Mahayana and Vajrayāna traditions
5750-584: The Russian Orthodox Church . Robert Rupen reports that in the 1920s there were over 112,000 Mongolian Buddhist monks, representing more than 13% of Mongolia's overall population. By the 1940s, nearly every monk was either dead or had apostatized. In 1938—amid accusations that the church and monasteries were trying to cooperate with the Japanese, who were promoting a pan-Mongol puppet state—the remaining monasteries were dissolved, their property
5875-936: The Tang dynasty (618–907), which helped it spread across the country. The translation of a large body of Indian Buddhist scriptures into Chinese and the inclusion of these translations (along with Taoist and Confucian works) into a Chinese Buddhist canon had far-reaching implications for the dissemination of Buddhism throughout the East Asian cultural sphere , including Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Chinese Buddhism also developed various unique traditions of Buddhist thought and practice, including Tiantai , Huayan , Chan Buddhism , and Pure Land Buddhism . From its inception, Chinese Buddhism has been influenced by native Chinese religions and philosophy , especially Confucianism and Taoism , but also Chinese folk religion . Buddhist missionaries began bringing Buddhism to China during
6000-553: The Uyghur language and contain Turkic language words like sümbür tay (Sumeru Mountain), ayaγ-wa (a dative form of ayaq, a Uyghur word meaning honor), quvaray (monk) and many proper names and titles like buyuruγ and külüg of 12th-century Turkic origin. Genghis Khan (c. 1162 – 1227) and his immediate successors conquered nearly all of Asia and European Russia and sent armies as far as central Europe and Southeast Asia. The emperors of
6125-561: The Vidyapitha tantras is by no means so well established" and that "the available evidence suggests that received Saiva tantras come into evidence sometime in the ninth to tenth centuries with their affirmation by scholars like Abhinavagupta (c. 1000 c.e.)" Davidson also notes that the list of pithas or sacred places "are certainly not particularly Buddhist, nor are they uniquely Kapalika venues, despite their presence in lists employed by both traditions." Davidson further adds that like
6250-751: The Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) in the 13th and 14th century converted to Tibetan Buddhism . The founder of the Yuan dynasty , Kublai Khan , invited lama Drogön Chögyal Phagpa of the Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism to spread Buddhism throughout his realm (the second introduction of Buddhism among the Mongols). Around this time, influence from the Church of the East was noted to be a major cultural factor for Mongols that indirectly spread and altered Mongolian Buddhism, and therefore Chinese Buddhism . However, Church of
6375-524: The bodhisattva path, and the doctrines of emptiness , buddha-nature , and the one vehicle . When it comes to Buddhist philosophy , Chinese Buddhism contains various doctrinal traditions, the most important being the Tiantai, Huayan , Sanlun , and Weishi schools of thought. These different doctrinal traditions developed their own scriptural commentaries and treatises and also various doctrinal classifications ( panjiao ), which hierarchically ordered
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#17327910026586500-524: The de facto state religion of the Yuan dynasty. In 1269, Kublai Khan commissioned Phagpa lama to design a new writing system to unify the writing systems of the multilingual empire. The 'Phags-pa script , also known as the "Square script", was based on the Tibetan script and written vertically from top was designed to write in Mongolian , Tibetan , Chinese , Uighur and Sanskrit languages and served as
6625-428: The eight precepts , silent meditation, and Dharma lectures . Textual practices are also commonly practiced by monks and laypersons. These include printing, copying, propagating and reciting Buddhist scriptures, studying Buddhist texts, and attending lectures. Buddhist temples may also have special elements associated with sacred texts, such as lecture halls or dharma halls , libraries, and scripture platforms (施法壇),
6750-488: The "path of the cause" is taken whereby a practitioner starts with his or her potential Buddha-nature and nurtures it to produce the fruit of Buddhahood. In the Vajrayāna, the "path of the fruit" is taken whereby the practitioner takes his or her innate Buddha-nature as the means of practice. The premise is that since we innately have an enlightened mind, practicing seeing the world in terms of ultimate truth can help us to attain our full Buddha-nature. Experiencing ultimate truth
6875-450: The Buddha's name ( nianfo ), which is the core practice of Pure Land Buddhism , and seated meditation ( zazen ), which is the focus of the Chan tradition. The practice of recitation of the Buddha's name is commonly done in a group setting, sometimes as part of an intensive nianfo recitation retreat, which can last for several days. These retreats might also include chanting sutras, taking of
7000-567: The Buddhist canon. He supported the Yellow Church (the Tibetan Buddhist Gelukpa sect) to "maintain peace among the Mongols" since the Mongols were followers of the Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama of the Yellow Church. Mark Elliott concludes that these actions delivered political benefits but "meshed seamlessly with his personal faith." The Khalkha nobles' power was deliberately undermined by Qianlong , when he appointed
7125-447: The Buddhist tradition, adopted and sustained for the purpose of aggressive engagement with the medieval culture of public violence. They reinforced their reputations for personal sanctity with rumors of the magical manipulation of various flavors of demonic females ( dakini , yaksi , yogini ), cemetery ghouls ( vetala ), and other things that go bump in the night. Operating on the margins of both monasteries and polite society, some adopted
7250-521: The Buddhists, the Shaiva tradition was also involved in the appropriation of Hindu and non-Hindu deities, texts and traditions, an example being "village or tribal divinities like Tumburu". Davidson adds that Buddhists and Kapalikas as well as other ascetics (possibly Pasupatas ) mingled and discussed their paths at various pilgrimage places and that there were conversions between the different groups. Thus he concludes: The Buddhist-Kapalika connection
7375-474: The East Christianity was a minority religion among Mongols. Some Mongolian Buddhist institutions borrowed large amounts of doctrine from Nestorian Christians . Other religions such as Manichaeism , Islam , and Zoroastrianism also influenced Mongolian Buddhism. Catholic Church elements and even Roman Catholic believers also contributed to the syncretic practices of the time. Buddhism became
7500-518: The Gelugpa school became known as Dalai Lamas . Altan Khan also bestowed the title Ochirdara (Очирдар, from Sanskr. Vajradhara) to Sonam Gyatso. Altan Khan died soon after, but in the next century the Gelug spread throughout Mongolia, aided in part by the efforts of contending Mongol aristocrats to win religious sanction and mass support for their ultimately unsuccessful efforts to unite all Mongols in
7625-661: The Mongolian steppes took place during the periods of the nomadic empires. Buddhism penetrated Mongolia from Nepal via Central Asia . Many Buddhist terms of Sanskrit origin were adopted via the Sogdian language . The rulers of the nomadic empires such as the Xiongnu (209 BC – 93 CE), Xianbei (93–234), Rouran Khaganate (late 4th c. – middle 6th c.) and the Göktürks (middle first mill. CE) received missionaries and built temples for them. Buddhism prevailed among aristocrats and
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#17327910026587750-487: The Soviet Union . After the 1990 overthrow of communism , there has been a resurgence of Buddhism in the country, with about 200 temples now in existence and a monastic sangha of around 300 to 500 Mongolian monks and nuns. According to Vesna Wallace, a professor of religious studies at UC Santa Barbara: "Now more people are coming to temples and visiting monasteries. There is also a new interest in meditation among
7875-732: The Tibetan Ishi-damba-nima of the Lithang royal family of the eastern Tibetans as the 3rd reincarnated Jebtsundamba , instead of the Khalkha Mongol which they wanted to be appointed. The decision was first protested against by the Outer Mongol Khalkha nobles, and then the Khalkhas sought to have him placed at a distance from them at Dolonnor. Nevertheless, Qianlong snubbed both of their requests, sending
8000-631: The United States, and lectured on both Chan and Huayan teachings. Monks are required to obtain certificates from the authorities that permit them to reside in monasteries. The Buddhist Association of China is the sole official government supervisory organ of Buddhism in the country. It is directed by the United Front Work Department of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Chinese Buddhism
8125-476: The Vajrayāna Yogini tantras draw extensively from the material also present in Shaiva Bhairava tantras classified as Vidyapitha . Sanderson's comparison of them shows similarity in "ritual procedures, style of observance, deities, mantras, mandalas, ritual dress, Kapalika accouterments like skull bowls, specialized terminology, secret gestures, and secret jargons. There is even direct borrowing of passages from Shaiva texts." Sanderson gives numerous examples such as
8250-405: The Yogachara texts are where the "third turning" of the Dharma can be found, and thus, represent the final and ultimate teaching of the Buddha. Chinese Buddhism contains a wide array of religious practices and observances. Ritual and devotional practices are commonly seen as generating karmic merit , which can bring about positive results in this life or the next. According to Mario Poceski, for
8375-435: The adherents and texts of Vajrayāna claim these teachings have been passed down by an unbroken lineage going back to the historical Buddha ( c. the 5th century BCE ) or to other mythical Buddhas and bodhisattvas (e.g. Vajrapani ). According to Vajrayāna scriptures, the term Vajrayāna refers to one of three vehicles or routes to enlightenment , the other two being the Śrāvakayāna (also known pejoratively as
8500-558: The arrival of Christian missionaries to China, a right which had been granted to Western powers after the Opium Wars . During the Republican period (1912–1949), there were various attempts to reform and modernize Chinese Buddhism and to respond to the various challenges of modernity. The most notable of these reformers were the Humanistic Buddhists , like Taixu and Yin Shun . Humanistic Buddhism sought to move away from ritualistic and otherworldly obsessions to embrace more worldly pursuits like education and charitable work. There
8625-467: The behaviors associated with ghosts ( preta , pisaca ), not only as a religious praxis but also as an extension of their implied threats. Tantrism originated within Hinduism and significantly influenced early South Asian Mahāyāna Buddhist practices, contributing to the emergence of unique Buddhist tantric traditions. These Buddhist tantric traditions, which developed in the 7th century CE, spread quickly across Southeast, East, and Central Asia, resulting in
8750-484: The capital of Luoyang . His work was followed by the extensive Mahayana translations of the Kushan monk Lokakṣema (Ch. 支婁迦讖 , active c. 164 –186 CE), as well as the work of Dharmarakṣa (3rd century). During this early period, the Dharmaguptaka school was very influential in establishing Buddhism in China. This resulted in the widespread adoption of the Dharmaguptaka school's Vinaya (monastic rule) by all Chinese Buddhist schools . The arrival of
8875-425: The collapse of the Yuan dynasty in 1368. Hutuhtai Secen Hongtaiji of Ordos and his two brothers invaded Tibet in 1566. He sent an ultimatum to some of the ruling clergy of Tibet demanding their submission. The Tibetan supreme monks decided to surrender and Hutuhtai Secen Hongtaiji returned to Ordos with three high ranking monks. Tumen Jasaghtu Khan invited a monk of the Kagyu school in 1576. In 1578 Altan Khan ,
9000-564: The dead). According to Chün-fang Yü, the most popular Chinese Buddhist ritual that is most widely performed today is the Great Compassion Repentance associated with Guanyin and the Great Compassion Dharani . Keeping sets of ethical rules, like the classic Buddhist five precepts , are another key part of Buddhist practice. Taking up the ethical precepts in a ceremony, along with taking refuge in
9125-490: The deity is seen as being no less real than everyday reality, but a process of transforming reality itself, including the practitioner's identity as the deity. As Stephan Beyer notes, "In a universe where all events dissolve ontologically into Emptiness, the touching of Emptiness in the ritual is the re-creation of the world in actuality". The doctrine of Buddha-nature , as outlined in the Ratnagotravibhāga of Asanga ,
9250-424: The earlier Buddhist traditions, and incorporates concepts of messianism and astrology not present elsewhere in Buddhist literature. According to Ronald M. Davidson, the rise of Tantric Buddhism was a response to the feudal structure of Indian society in the early medieval period (ca. 500–1200 CE) which saw kings being divinized as manifestations of gods. Likewise, tantric yogis reconfigured their practice through
9375-795: The end of the Cultural Revolution . Chinese Buddhism suffered extensive repression, persecution, and destruction during the Cultural Revolution (from 1966 until Mao Zedong 's death in 1976). Maoist propaganda depicted Buddhism as one of the Four Olds , as a superstitious instrument of the ruling class and as counter-revolutionary . Buddhist clergy were attacked, disrobed, arrested, and sent to camps. Buddhist writings were burned. Buddhist temples, monasteries, and art were systematically destroyed and Buddhist lay believers ceased any public displays of their religion. During
9500-417: The establishment of a new Chinese Yogacara school , also known as the "Consciousness-Only school" (唯識宗; pinyin: Wéishí-zōng). The 6th and 7th centuries saw a flowering of new and unique Chinese Buddhist traditions, including: During the Tang dynasty, the monk Xuanzang (602–664) journeyed to India and back and wrote extensive and detailed reports of his findings, which have subsequently become important for
9625-599: The form of a weakly centralized theocracy, headed by the Jebtsundamba Khutukhtu in Yehe Kuriye. By the twentieth century, Buddhism had penetrated deeply into the culture of Mongolia , and the populace willingly supported the lamas and the monasteries. Foreign observers usually had a negative opinion of Mongolian monks, condemning them as lazy, ignorant, corrupt, and debauched, but the Mongolian people did not concur. Ordinary Mongolians apparently combined
9750-756: The formation of various distinct traditions in East Asia and Tibet. There are other Mahāyāna sutras which contain "proto-tantric" material such as the Gandavyuha and the Dasabhumika which might have served as a central source of visual imagery for Tantric texts. Later Mahāyāna texts like the Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra ( c. 4th –5th century CE) expound the use of mantras such as Om mani padme hum , associated with vastly powerful beings like Avalokiteshvara . The popular Heart Sutra also includes
9875-769: The general public." According to the national census of 2010, 53% of the Mongolians identify as Buddhists. [REDACTED] This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain . Country Studies . Federal Research Division . Tantra techniques (Vajrayana) Tantric techniques : Fourfold division: Twofold division: Thought forms and visualisation: Yoga : Vajrayāna ( Sanskrit : वज्रयान ; lit. ' vajra vehicle'), also known as Mantrayāna ('mantra vehicle'), Mantranāya ('path of mantra'), Guhyamantrayāna ('secret mantra vehicle'), Tantrayāna ('tantra vehicle'), Tantric Buddhism , and Esoteric Buddhism ,
10000-415: The images of these holy beings." According to Mario Poceski, Chinese Buddhist temples generally follow a traditional Chinese palace layout. They "consist of a series of halls and courtyards that are arranged symmetrically around a central axis, which usually runs from north to south. The main hall is typically a large building that is centrally located along the main axis. In larger monasteries or temples,
10125-409: The influence was both sustained and reciprocal, even in those places where Buddhist and Kapalika siddhas were in extreme antagonism. Davidson also argues for the influence of non-Brahmanical and outcaste tribal religions and their feminine deities (such as Parnasabari and Janguli). According to several Buddhist tantras as well as traditional Tibetan Buddhist sources, the tantras and the Vajrayana
10250-546: The key figures include: Chinese Buddhist temples usually include numerous images and statues of Buddhas and bodhisattvas. They are often ritually carved and installed as part of a consecration ritual that may include chanting and scripture reading. Devotion towards these are a major part of Chinese Buddhism. As Chün-fang Yü writes, "people in China worship Buddhas and bodhisattvas in rituals, write poems and novels about them, praise them in songs and hymns, and tell stories and stage plays about them. And above all else, they worship
10375-669: The late 1940s, one monastery, Gandan Monastery, with a community of 100 monks, was open in Ulaanbaatar. It was the country's sole monastery and was more for international display than functionality. A few of the old monasteries survived as museums, and the Gandan Monastery served as a living museum and a tourist attraction. Its monks included a few young men who had undergone a five-year training period, but whose motives and mode of selection were unknown to Western observers. The party apparently thought that Buddhism no longer posed
10500-451: The male population, although many of these lived outside the monasteries and did not observe their vows. About 250,000 people, more than a third of the total population, either lived in territories administered by monasteries and living Buddhas or were hereditary dependents of the monasteries. With the end of Manchu rule in 1911, the Buddhist church and its clergy provided the only political structure available. The autonomous state thus took
10625-643: The mass of Buddhist scriptures in order to advance their school's hermeneutical worldview. For example, according to master Zhiyi's "eight teachings and five periods" classification, the final and supreme teaching of the Buddha is found in the Lotus Sutra and the Nirvana Sutra . According to the Huayan masters like Fazang , the Huayan sutra contains the supreme teaching, while the Weishi school held that
10750-459: The message that he was putting an end to Outer Mongolian autonomy. The decision to make Tibet the only place where the reincarnation came from was intentional by the Qing to curtail the Mongols. By the beginning of the twentieth century, Outer Mongolia had 583 monasteries and temple complexes, which controlled an estimated 20 percent of the country's wealth. Almost all Mongolian cities have grown up on
10875-413: The metaphor of being consecrated ( abhiśeka ) as the overlord ( rājādhirāja ) of a mandala palace of divine vassals, an imperial metaphor symbolizing kingly fortresses and their political power. The question of the origins of early Vajrayāna has been taken up by various scholars. David Seyfort Ruegg has suggested that Buddhist tantra employed various elements of a “pan-Indian religious substrate” which
11000-415: The monasteries. Some herders dedicated themselves and their families to serve the monasteries, either from piety or from the desire to escape the arbitrary exactions of the nobility. In some areas, the monasteries and their living buddhas (of whom there were a total of 140 in 1924) were also the secular authorities. In the 1920s, there were about 110,000 monks, including children, who made up about one-third of
11125-633: The monks of the Gandan Monastery as doing useful work. Today the monastery has been reinvigorated as Gandantegchinlen Monastery by the post-Communist governments of the country. Buddhism, furthermore played a role in Mongolia's foreign policy by linking Mongolia with the communist and the noncommunist states of East and Southeast Asia. Ulaanbaatar was the headquarters of the Asian Buddhist Conference for Peace , which has held conferences for Buddhists from such countries as Japan , Vietnam , Cambodia , Sri Lanka , and Bhutan ; published
11250-562: The most influential school, with close ties to the imperial government and a highly organized system of temple rank and administration system developed. It was during this time that the classic Five Houses of Chan developed. Many classic Chan texts were written during this era, such as the famed koan collections of the Linji school , like the Blue Cliff Record (1125) and The Gateless Gate (1228). Likewise, during this time,
11375-673: The new foreign religion by the Confucian elites. Centuries after Buddhism originated in India , the Mahayana Buddhism arrived in China through the Silk Route in 1st century CE via Tibet . One of the central tasks of the initial missionaries was the translation of Buddhist texts. The first surviving translations of Buddhist texts into Chinese were those of the 2nd century Parthian An Shigao (Ch. 安世高 ), who worked in
11500-549: The normalization period ( Boluan Fanzheng , 1977 to early 80s) led by Deng Xiaoping , a new revival of Chinese Buddhism began to take place. This was a period which saw the restoration of damaged Buddhist temples like Guoqing Temple and Guanghua Temple , as well as the return of monastic ordination and Buddhist institutions. Monks like Zhenchan (真禪) and Mengcan (夢參), who were trained in the Chan and Huayan traditions, traveled widely throughout China as well as other countries, such as
11625-601: The official script of the empire. Tibetan Buddhist monasticism had an important influence on the early development of Mongolian Buddhism. Buddhist monkhood played significant political roles in Central and Southeast Asia , and the sangha in Mongolia was no exception. The activities of the Mongols were conducive to the prominency of the Sakya school and then the Gelug, and to the further development of Tibeto-Mongolian culture. The Mongols returned to shamanic traditions after
11750-399: The party counted 843 major Buddhist centers, about 3,000 temples of various sizes, and nearly 6000 associated buildings, which usually were the only fixed structures in a world of yurts . The annual income of the church was 31 million tögrögs , while that of the state was 37.5 million tögrögs. A party source claimed that, in 1935, monks constituted 48 percent of the adult male population. In
11875-453: The path. As noted by French Indologist Madeleine Biardeau, the tantric doctrine is "an attempt to place kama , desire, in every meaning of the word, in the service of liberation." This view is outlined in the following quote from the Hevajra tantra : Those things by which evil men are bound, others turn into means and gain thereby release from the bonds of existence. By passion the world
12000-471: The path. Vajrayāna can also be distinguished from the paramitayana. According to this schema, Indian Mahayana revealed two vehicles ( yana ) or methods for attaining enlightenment: the method of the perfections ( Paramitayana ) and the method of mantra ( Mantrayana ). The Paramitayana consists of the six or ten paramitas , of which the scriptures say that it takes three incalculable aeons to lead one to Buddhahood. The tantra literature, however, says that
12125-569: The practice of Tantra focuses on the transformation of poisons into wisdom, the yogic circles came together in tantric feasts , often in sacred sites ( pitha ) and places ( ksetra ) which included dancing, singing, consort practices and the ingestion of taboo substances like alcohol, urine, and meat. At least two of the mahasiddhas cited in the Buddhist literature are comparable with the Shaiva Nath saints ( Gorakshanath and Matsyendranath ) who practiced Hatha Yoga . According to Schumann,
12250-487: The pre- revolutionary name of the settlement known to outsiders as Urga , Ikh Huree , means "Big Monastery". Over the centuries, the monasteries acquired riches and secular dependents, gradually increasing their wealth and power as the wealth and power of the Mongol nobility declined. Some nobles donated a portion of their dependent families—people, rather than land, were the foundation of wealth and power in old Mongolia—to
12375-423: The reign of Emperor Xuanzong of Tang . This Chinese form of Vajrayana Buddhism now became popular with the elites and by the time of Emperor Daizong of Tang (r. 762–779), its influence among the upper classes was significant. The Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution (841–845) under Emperor Wuzong of Tang greatly impacted and weakened the Buddhist institutions in China. Perhaps the main reason for this persecution
12500-504: The repetition of the Buddha's name). It is commonly believed that during these rituals one can experience auspicious signs, like visions of Amitabha and bright lights. Pilgrimages to well-known monasteries and sites, like the Four Sacred Buddhist Mountains ( Mount Wutai , Mount Emei , Mount Jiuhua , and Mount Putuo ) are also undertaken by monastics and lay practitioners alike. Another popular practice
12625-539: The revelation of Buddhist tantras to Padmasambhava , saying that he was an emanation of Amitabha and Avaloketishvara and that his arrival was predicted by the Buddha. Some accounts also maintain Padmasambhava is a direct reincarnation of Buddha Shakyamuni. According to Alex Wayman , the philosophical view of the Vajrayana is based on Mahayana Buddhist philosophy , mainly the Madhyamaka and Yogacara schools. The major difference seen by Vajrayana thinkers
12750-400: The scriptures, Dharma lectures, ritual meals, and chanting at mealtime, as well as confession and repentance rituals. There have been many different types of monasteries throughout Chinese Buddhist history. There are city monasteries, country monasteries, and monasteries deep in the mountains. Some monasteries may be large and rich, with thousands of monastics, while others are small with just
12875-533: The shamans to the fringes of Mongolian culture and religion. Church and state supported each other. Reincarnations of living Buddhas were often discovered in the families of Mongolian nobility until this practice was outlawed by the Qianlong Emperor of the Qing dynasty . During the Qing's founding emperor Hong Taiji 's (1592–1643) campaign against the last Northern Yuan ruler Ligdan Khan , he started
13000-580: The sites of monasteries. Ikh Huree , as Ulaanbaatar was then known, was the seat of the preeminent living Buddha of Mongolia (the 8th Jebtsundamba Khutuktu , also known as the Bogdo Gegen and later as the Bogd Khan ), who ranked third in the ecclesiastical hierarchy after the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama . Two monasteries there contained approximately 13,000 and 7000 monks, respectively, and
13125-781: The sponsorship of Tibetan Buddhism to gain support. According to the Manchu historian Jin Qicong , Buddhism was used by Qing rulers to control Mongolians and Tibetans; it was of little relevance to ordinary Manchus in the Qing dynasty. The long association of the Manchu rulership with the Bodhisattva Manjusri , and his own interest in Tibetan Buddhism, gave credence to the Qianlong Emperor's patronage of Tibetan Buddhist art, and patronage of translations of
13250-420: The study of India during this period. Xuanzang also brought back many Buddhist texts and led a translation team which was responsible for many influential Chinese translations of classic Buddhist works. His efforts led to the establishment of the idealistic Yogachara (Consciousness-only) tradition in East Asia. The Tang era was one of the golden ages of Buddhism in China. During this time, a sinicized Buddhism
13375-465: The tantras into those which were "a development of Mahāyānist thought" and those "formed in a rather popular mould toward the end of the eighth century and declining into the esoterism of the left", this "left esoterism" mainly refers to the Yogini tantras and later works associated with wandering yogis. This practice survives in Tibetan Buddhism, but it is rare for this to be done with an actual person. It
13500-455: The tantric view continued to be debated in medieval Tibet. Tibetan Buddhist Rongzom Chokyi Zangpo (1012–1088) held that the views of sutra such as Madhyamaka were inferior to that of tantra, which was based on basic purity of ultimate reality. Tsongkhapa (1357–1419) on the other hand, held that there is no difference between Vajrayāna and other forms of Mahayana in terms of prajnaparamita (perfection of insight) itself, only that Vajrayāna
13625-422: The teachings of lineage holders. Others might generally refer to these texts as the Buddhist Tantras . It includes practices that make use of mantras , dharanis , mudras , mandalas and the visualization of deities and Buddhas. According to contemporary historical scholarship, Vajrayāna practice originated in the tantric era of medieval India ( c. the 5th century CE onwards ). However, traditionally,
13750-556: The three jewels (Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha), is a common way of entering the Buddhist path. Another important set of ethical precepts is the " bodhisattva precepts " of the Brahmā's Net Sutra , which are often practiced by both laity and monastics. Acts of charity or social service ( 結緣 ) are also an important of part of Chinese Buddhist ethics . Another key part of Chinese Buddhism is engaging in Buddhist meditations such as chanting
13875-706: The tradition of Buddhist philosophy and adapted it to their commentaries on the major Tantras. Abhayakaragupta's Vajravali is a key source in the theory and practice of tantric rituals. After monks such as Vajrabodhi and Śubhakarasiṃha brought Tantra to Tang China (716 to 720), tantric philosophy continued to be developed in Chinese and Japanese by thinkers such as Yi Xing and Kūkai . Likewise in Tibet , Sakya Pandita (1182–28 – 1251), as well as later thinkers like Longchenpa (1308–1364) expanded on these philosophies in their tantric commentaries and treatises. The status of
14000-418: The two dominant Chan schools: Linji and Caodong . At this point in its history, Chinese Buddhism had also become quite eclectic, drawing from all the main Chinese traditions. An example of this is the figure of Hanshan Deqing , one of the great reformers of Chinese Buddhism. Like many of his contemporaries, he advocated the dual practice of the Chan and Pure Land methods. He also directed practitioners in
14125-482: The use of mantras and dharanis for mostly worldly ends including curing illness, controlling the weather and generating wealth. The Tattvasaṃgraha Tantra ( Compendium of Principles ), classed as a "Yoga tantra", is one of the first Buddhist tantras which focuses on liberation as opposed to worldly goals. In another early tantra, the Vajrasekhara (Vajra Peak), the influential schema of the five Buddha families
14250-548: The use of mantras as well as scripture reading. He was also renowned as a lecturer and commentator and was admired for his strict adherence to the precepts. During the Qing dynasty (1644–1911), the imperial court shifted its support to the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism. Chinese Buddhism suffered much during the various imperial and internal conflicts of the Qing dynasty, especially the devastating Taiping rebellion (December 1850 – August 1864), which saw many temples destroyed and scriptures burned by rebels. This era also saw
14375-446: The vast majority of ordinary Chinese Buddhists, "prevalent expressions of Buddhist piety were (and still are) channeled via a variety of popular modes of worship and ritual observance." Worship services can include Buddhist devotional practices like offerings to an altar (of items like incense, flowers, food, and candles), ceremonial bowing, and extensive liturgies (including repentance ceremonies, rites for good health, and memorials for
14500-452: The works of Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091–1157) developed the silent sitting method of "silent illumination". Both of these traditions of Chan practice were very influential (and remain so) on East Asian Zen Buddhism (including on Japanese Zen , Korean Seon , and Vietnamese Thiền ). The Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) patronized Tibetan Buddhism and thus, during this period there was a steady growth of this tradition in China. A common perception
14625-480: Was Mantranāya (Path of Mantras), and Mantrayāna (Mantra Vehicle). Later, other terms were adopted, like Vajrayāna. In Tibetan Buddhism practiced in the Himalayan regions of India , Nepal , and Bhutan , Buddhist Tantra is most often termed Vajrayāna (Tib. རྡོ་རྗེ་ཐེག་པ་, dorje tekpa , Wyl. rdo rje theg pa ) and Secret mantra (Skt. Guhyamantra , Tib. གསང་སྔགས་, sang ngak , Wyl. gsang sngags ). The vajra
14750-735: Was also a revival of Chinese Chan by Hsu Yun and Sheng Yen , as well as a revival of Tiantai Buddhism by Dixian and Tanxu (1875 – 1963). After the Chinese Communist Revolution , many Buddhists and monastics followed the Republican exodus to Taiwan . In the latter half of the twentieth century, many new Buddhist temples and organizations were set up by the exiles in Taiwan, including Fo Guang Shan , Dharma Drum Mountain , and Tzu Chi . These organizations also became influential back in Mainland China after
14875-457: Was also an important theory which became the basis for Tantric views. As explained by the Tantric commentator Lilavajra, this "intrinsic secret (behind) diverse manifestation" is the utmost secret and aim of Tantra. According to Wayman this "Buddha embryo" ( tathāgatagarbha ) is a "non-dual, self-originated Wisdom ( jnana ), an effortless fount of good qualities" that resides in the mindstream but
15000-777: Was patronised by the monarchs of the Xianbei -led Northern Wei dynasty (386–535) and of the Khitan -led Liao dynasty (916–1125). The Khitans aristocracy regarded Buddhism as the culture of the Uyghur Khaganate that dominated the Mongolian steppes before the rise of the Liao dynasty. The monarchs of the Jurchen -led Jin dynasty (1115–1234) also regarded Buddhism as part of their culture. The oldest known Mongolian language translations of Buddhist literature were translated from
15125-464: Was seized, and their monks were secularized, interned or executed. Those monastic buildings that had not been destroyed were taken over to serve as local government offices or schools. Only then was the ruling party, which since 1921 gradually had built a cadre of politically reliable and secularly educated administrators, able to destroy the church and to mobilize the country's wealth and population for its program of modernization and social change. Since
15250-545: Was taught by the Buddha Shakyamuni , but only to some individuals. There are several stories and versions of how the tantras were disseminated. The Jñana Tilaka Tantra , for example, has the Buddha state that the tantras will be explained by the bodhisattva Vajrapani . One of the most famous legends is that of king Indrabhuti (also known as King Ja) of Oddiyana (a figure related to Vajrapani, in some cases said to be an emanation of him). Other accounts attribute
15375-502: Was that this patronage of lamas caused corrupt forms of tantra to become widespread. When the Yuan dynasty was overthrown and the Ming dynasty was established, the Tibetan lamas were expelled from the court, and this form of Buddhism was denounced as not being an orthodox path. During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), there was a revival of the study of native Chinese traditions like Tiantai, Huayan , and Yogachara, and most monks belonged to
15500-464: Was the Chinese state's need for tax and wealth. The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960/979), an era of great political upheaval and civil war, also negatively impacted Chinese Buddhism. Various Chinese Buddhist traditions contracted or died out during this period. The Song dynasty (960–1279) saw the flourishing of Chinese Buddhist culture. During the Song, Chan Buddhism grew to become
15625-459: Was widely accepted and practiced throughout the empire, with many monasteries and temples. Buddhism was popular with all social classes and was very influential on Chinese culture, being more popular and having more followers than Taoism. Buddhist themes can be found in much of the literature of this period, such as in the works of famous poets like Wang Wei (701–761) and Bo Juyi (772 – 846). The various artistic complexes from this period, such as
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