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126-640: Politically, the plateau spans all of Mongolia , along with parts of China and Russia . Inner Mongolia and parts of the Dzungarian basin in Xinjiang encompass the Chinese portion of the plateau. In Russia, the plateau forms Transbaikal , part of Buryatia , and the southern Irkutsk Oblast . The Mongolian Plateau comprises the majority of the area known as the Mongol heartland . The average elevation of

252-502: A market economy . Approximately 30% of the population is nomadic or semi-nomadic; horse culture remains integral. Buddhism is the majority religion (51.7%), with the nonreligious being the second-largest group (40.6%). Islam is the third-largest religious identification (3.2%), concentrated among ethnic Kazakhs . The vast majority of citizens are ethnic Mongols, with roughly 5% of the population being Kazakhs , Tuvans , and other ethnic minorities, who are especially concentrated in

378-675: A quadripoint . The geography of Mongolia is varied, with the Gobi Desert to the south and cold, mountainous regions to the north and west. Much of Mongolia consists of the Mongolian-Manchurian grassland , with forested areas accounting for 11.2% of the total land area, a higher percentage than Ireland (10%). The whole of Mongolia is considered to be part of the Mongolian Plateau. The highest point in Mongolia

504-653: A 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.36/10, ranking it sixth globally out of 172 countries. Mongolia's total population as of January 2015 was estimated by the U.S. Census Bureau to be 3,000,251 people, ranking around 121st in the world. But the U.S. Department of State Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs uses the United Nations (UN) estimations instead of the U.S. Census Bureau estimations. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division estimates Mongolia's total population (mid-2007) as 2,629,000 (11% less than

630-532: A bigger Mandala to repel surrounding despotic empires trying to annex their homelands. Only the pastoral part of the population and military troops migrated frequently, but most of the population lived in organized agricultural and industrial small scale townships, which are called in Europe gords . Examples are the oases of Sogdia and Sparia along the Silk Road ( Śaka , Tokarians/Tokharians etc.) and around

756-517: A category of arid rangeland with insufficient vegetation to support marmots but with enough to support camels. Mongols distinguish Gobi from desert proper, although the distinction is not always apparent to outsiders unfamiliar with the Mongolian landscape. Gobi rangelands are fragile and easily destroyed by overgrazing, which results in expansion of the true desert, a stony waste where not even Bactrian camels can survive. The arid conditions in

882-681: A century between the mid 8th and 9th centuries. It was a tribal confederation under the Orkhon Uyghur nobility. It was established by Kutlug I Bilge Kagan in 744, taking advantage of the power vacuum in the region after the fall of the Gökturk Empire. It collapsed after a Kyrgyz invasion in 840. The Liao dynasty was ruled by the Yelü clan of the Khitan people in northern China. It was founded by Yelü Abaoji (Emperor Taizu of Liao) around

1008-482: A combined area of 503,000 sq mi or 1,302,764 km . Sarmatians were basically Scythian veterans ( Saka , Iazyges , Skolotoi, Parthians ...) returning to the Pontic–Caspian steppe after the siege of Nineveh . Many noble families of Polish Szlachta claimed a direct descent from Sarmatians as a part of Sarmatism . The Xiongnu were a confederation of nomadic tribes from northern China and Inner Asia with

1134-592: A confederation in 209 BC. Soon they emerged as the greatest threat to the Qin dynasty , forcing the latter to construct the Great Wall of China . It was guarded by up to almost 300,000 soldiers during Marshal Meng Tian 's tenure, as a means of defense against the destructive Xiongnu raids. The vast Xiongnu empire (209 BC–93 AD) was followed by the Mongolic Xianbei empire (93–234 AD), which also ruled more than

1260-524: A dictatorship and organized Stalinist purges in Mongolia between 1937 and 1939, died suspiciously in the Soviet Union in 1952. Comintern leader Bohumír Šmeral said, "People of Mongolia are not important, the land is important. Mongolian land is larger than England, France and Germany". After the Japanese invasion of neighboring Manchuria in 1931, Mongolia was threatened on this front. During

1386-497: A large confederation of Iranian people during classical antiquity , flourishing from about the 6th century BCE to the 4th century CE. They spoke Scythian , an Indo-European language from the Eastern Iranian family. According to authors Arrowsmith, Fellowes and Graves Hansard in their book A Grammar of Ancient Geography published in 1832, Sarmatia had two parts, Sarmatia Europea and Sarmatia Asiatica covering

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1512-488: A large group of Mongolic-speaking tribes united under the rule of Genghis Khan . Since the adoption of the new Constitution of Mongolia on 13 February 1992, the official name of the state is "Mongolia" ( Mongol Uls ). The Khoit Tsenkher Cave in Khovd Province shows lively pink, brown, and red ochre paintings (dated to 20,000 years ago) of mammoths , lynx , bactrian camels , and ostriches , earning it

1638-507: A market economy was often rocky; during the early 1990s the country had to deal with high inflation and food shortages. The first election victories for non-communist parties came in 1993 (presidential elections) and 1996 (parliamentary elections). China has supported Mongolia's application for membership in the Asia Cooperation Dialogue (ACD), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and granting it observer status in

1764-415: A minor revival of the historic Mongolian script , which is still the official script used by Mongols in neighboring Inner Mongolia . Although Mongolian script has officially been declared the national script , and is taught from the sixth grade onward at schools, it remains mostly confined to ceremonial usage in daily life. In March 2020, the Mongolian government announced plans to use both Cyrillic and

1890-487: A quarter of Earth's total population at the time). The emergence of Pax Mongolica also significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia during its height. After Genghis Khan's death, the empire was subdivided into four kingdoms or Khanates . These eventually became quasi-independent after the Toluid Civil War (1260–1264), which broke out in a battle for power following Möngke Khan 's death in 1259. One of

2016-706: A result of the Russian Civil War , the White Russian Lieutenant General Baron Ungern led his troops into Mongolia in October 1920, defeating the Chinese forces in Niislel Khüree (now Ulaanbaatar) in early February 1921 with Mongol support. To eliminate the threat posed by Ungern, Bolshevik Russia decided to support the establishment of a communist Mongolian government and army. This Mongolian army took

2142-690: A ruling class of unknown origin and other subjugated tribes. They lived on the Mongolian Plateau between the 3rd century BCE and the 460s CE, their territories including the modern-day northern China, Mongolia , southern Siberia . The Xiongnu was the first unified empire of nomadic peoples. Relations between early Central Plain dynasties and the Xiongnu were complicated and included military conflict, exchanges of tribute and trade, and marriage alliances . When Qin Shi Huang drove them away from

2268-422: A scenario, the originally nomadic dynasty may become culturally assimilated to the culture of the occupied nation before it is ultimately overthrown. Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) described a similar cycle on a smaller scale in 1377 in his Asabiyyah theory. Historians of the early medieval period may refer to these polities as " khanates " (after khan , the title of their rulers). After the Mongol conquests of

2394-924: A sedentary agricultural people who lived in fixed villages, farmed crops, and practiced hunting and mounted archery. The Sushen used flint-headed wooden arrows, farmed, hunted, and fished and lived in caves and trees. The cognates Sushen or Jichen (稷真) again appear in the Shan Hai Jing and Book of Wei during the dynastic era referring to Tungusic Mohe tribes of the far northeast. The Mohe enjoyed eating pork, practiced pig farming extensively, and were mainly sedentary, and also used both pig and dog skins for coats. They were predominantly farmers and grew soybean, wheat, millet, and rice, in addition to engaging in hunting. The Jurchens were sedentary, settled farmers with advanced agriculture. They farmed grain and millet as their cereal crops, grew flax, and raised oxen, pigs, sheep, and horses. Their farming way of life

2520-534: A series of alliances and intermarriages, as well as military and economic measures. Ambans , Manchu "high officials", were installed in Khüree , Uliastai , and Khovd , and the country was divided into numerous feudal and ecclesiastical fiefdoms (which also placed people in power with loyalty to the Qing). Over the course of the 19th century, the feudal lords attached more importance to representation and less importance to

2646-420: A year, and it is usually at the center of a region of high atmospheric pressure. Precipitation is highest in the north (average of 200 to 350 millimeters (8 to 14 in) per year) and lowest in the south, which receives 100 to 200 millimeters (4 to 8 in) annually. The highest annual precipitation of 622.297 mm (24.500 in) occurred in the forests of Bulgan Province near the border with Russia and

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2772-673: Is of uncertain etymology. Sükhbataar (1992) and de la Vaissière (2021) proposed it being a derivation from Mugulü , the 4th-century founder of the Rouran Khaganate , first attested as the 'Mungu', ( Chinese : 蒙兀 , Modern Chinese Měngwù , Middle Chinese Muwngu ), a branch of the Shiwei in an 8th-century Tang dynasty list of northern tribes, presumably related to the Liao -era Mungku (Chinese: 蒙古 , Modern Chinese Měnggǔ , Middle Chinese MuwngkuX ). After

2898-692: Is the Khüiten Peak in the Tavan bogd massif in the far west at 4,374 m (14,350 ft). The basin of the Uvs Lake , shared with Tuva Republic in Russia, is a natural World Heritage Site . Mongolia is known as the "Land of the Eternal Blue Sky" or "Country of Blue Sky" (Mongolian: "Mönkh khökh tengeriin oron") because it has over 250 sunny days a year. Most of the country is hot in

3024-659: The Pax Mongolica facilitated cultural exchange and trade on the Silk Route between the East , West , and the Middle East in the period of the 13th and 14th centuries. It had significantly eased communication and commerce across Asia during its height. After the death of Möngke Khan in 1259, the empire split into four parts ( Yuan dynasty , Ilkhanate , Chagatai Khanate and Golden Horde ), each of which

3150-677: The Bulgars . Kim, however, argues that the Huns continued under Ernak, becoming the Kutrigur and Utigur Hunno- Bulgars . This conclusion is still subject to some controversy. Some scholars also argue that another group identified in ancient sources as Huns, the North Caucasian Huns , were genuine Huns. The rulers of various post-Hunnic steppe peoples are known to have claimed descent from Attila in order to legitimize their right to

3276-721: The Caucasus and the Sea of Azov as early as 1300 BCE until they were driven southward by the Scythians into Anatolia during the 8th century BCE. Linguistically they are usually regarded as Iranian, or possibly Thracian with an Iranian ruling class. Scythia ( / ˈ s ɪ θ i ə / ; Ancient Greek : Σκυθική ) was a region of Central Eurasia in classical antiquity , occupied by the Eastern Iranian Scythians , encompassing parts of Eastern Europe east of

3402-694: The Central Plain . During the subsequent centuries, the Northern Yuan dynasty tended to continue their nomadic way of life. On the other hand, the Dzungars were a confederation of several Oirat tribes who formed and maintained the last horse archer empire from the early 17th century to the middle 18th century. They emerged in the early 17th century to fight the Altan Khan of the Khalkha ,

3528-649: The Dzungars (western Mongols or Oirats) were virtually annihilated during the Qing conquest of Dzungaria in 1757 and 1758. Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the 600,000 or more Dzungar were killed by a combination of disease and warfare. Outer Mongolia was given relative autonomy, being administered by the hereditary Genghisid khanates of Tusheet Khan, Setsen Khan, Zasagt Khan and Sain Noyon Khan. The Jebtsundamba Khutuktu of Mongolia had immense de facto authority. The Manchu forbade mass Chinese immigration into

3654-790: The Eurasian lynx , snow leopards , Corsac foxs as well as carnivorous birds such as the bearded vulture , saker falcon , and the cinereous vulture . Marmots are common throughout the region including the Tarbagan marmot with large parts of its range located in the Mongolian plateau. The plateau was inhabited and conquered by various groups, including (chronologically) the Xiongnu , Xianbei , Göktürks , Tang dynasty , Liao dynasty , Mongol Empire , Yuan dynasty , Northern Yuan dynasty , and Qing dynasty . Between 1980 and 2010, rising global temperatures and direct human activity (particularly

3780-708: The Indian subcontinent at least as far as Saketa and Sarnath near Varanasi (Benares), where inscriptions have been found dating to the era of the Kushan emperor Kanishka the Great . The Xianbei state or Xianbei confederation was a nomadic empire which existed in modern-day Inner Mongolia , northern Xinjiang , Northeast China , Gansu , Mongolia , Buryatia , Zabaykalsky Krai , Irkutsk Oblast , Tuva , Altai Republic and eastern Kazakhstan from 156 to 234 CE. Like most ancient peoples known through Chinese historiography ,

3906-688: The Jasaghtu Khan and their Manchu patrons for dominion and control over the Mongol tribes. In 1756, this last nomadic power was dissolved due to the Oirat princes' succession struggle and costly war with the Qing dynasty . The Qing dynasty is mistakenly confused as a nomadic empire by people who wrongly think that the Manchus were a nomadic people, when in fact they were not nomads, but instead were

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4032-582: The Jin dynasty who were farmers that foraged, hunted, herded and harvested crops in the Liao and Yalu river basins. They gathered ginseng root, pine nuts, hunted for came pels in the uplands and forests, raised horses in their stables, and farmed millet and wheat in their fallow fields. They engaged in dances, wrestling and drinking strong liquor as noted during midwinter by the Korean Sin Chung-il when it

4158-691: The Kup'i Bulgar , Duč'i Bulkar , Olxontor Błkar and immigrant Č'dar Bulkar tribes are mentioned as being in the North Caucasian-Kuban steppes. An obscure reference to Ziezi ex quo Vulgares , with Ziezi being an offspring of Biblical Shem , is in the Chronography of 354 . The Bulgars became semi-sedentary during the 7th century in the Pontic-Caspian steppe , establishing the polity of Old Great Bulgaria c. 635, which

4284-534: The Mongol Empire , the largest contiguous land empire in world history. Under his successors it stretched from present-day Poland in the west to Korea in the east, and from parts of Siberia in the north to the Gulf of Oman and Vietnam in the south, covering some 33,000,000 square kilometres (13,000,000 sq mi), (22% of Earth's total land area) and had a population of over 100 million people (about

4410-594: The Mongolian People's Republic to prevent Mongolian reunification. All leaders of Mongolia who did not fulfill Stalin's demands to perform Red Terror against Mongolians were executed, including Peljidiin Genden and Anandyn Amar . The Stalinist purges in Mongolia , which began in 1937, killed more than 30,000 people. Under Stalinist influence in the Mongolian People's Republic , an estimated 17,000 monks were killed, official figures show. Choibalsan , who led

4536-634: The Mongolian part of Kyakhta from Chinese forces on 18 March 1921, and on 6 July, Russian and Mongolian troops arrived in Khüree. Mongolia declared its independence again on 11 July 1921. As a result, Mongolia was closely aligned with the Soviet Union over the next seven decades. In 1924, after the Bogd Khaan died of laryngeal cancer or, as some sources claim, at the hands of Russian spies,

4662-639: The Pontic–Caspian steppe and the Volga region during the 7th century. Emerging as nomadic equestrians in the Volga-Ural region , according to some researchers their roots can be traced to Central Asia . During their westward migration across the Eurasian steppe the Bulgars absorbed other ethnic groups and cultural influences, including Hunnic and Indo-European peoples. Modern genetic research on Central Asian Turkic people and ethnic groups related to

4788-563: The Republic of China used its Security Council veto in 1955, to stop the admission of the Mongolian People's Republic to the United Nations on the grounds it recognized all of Mongolia —including Outer Mongolia— as part of China. This was the only time the Republic of China ever used its veto. Hence, and because of the repeated threats to veto by the ROC, Mongolia did not join the UN until 1961 when

4914-842: The Second Turkic Khaganate , was recognised by Qapagan . In 710–711, as a result of the war with the Göktürks, the Kyrgyz Khaganate fell, and the descendants of Bars Bek remained vassals of the Second Turkic Khaganate until its fall in 744. After that, the Kyrgyz tribes became part of the ascendant Uyghur Khaganate . In 820, war broke out between the Kyrgyz and the Uyghur Khaganate, which continued with varying success for 20 years. In 840,

5040-461: The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation . At 1,564,116 km (603,909 sq mi), Mongolia is the world's 18th-largest country. It is significantly larger than the next-largest country, Peru. It mostly lies between latitudes 41° and 52°N (a small area is north of 52°), and longitudes 87° and 120°E . As a point of reference the northernmost part of Mongolia is on roughly the same latitude as Berlin (Germany) and Saskatoon (Canada), while

5166-417: The Soviet-Japanese Border War of 1939, the Soviet Union successfully defended Mongolia against Japanese expansionism. Mongolia fought against Japan during the Battles of Khalkhin Gol in 1939 and during the Soviet–Japanese War in August 1945 to liberate Inner Mongolia from Japan and Mengjiang . The February 1945 Yalta Conference provided for the Soviet Union's participation in the Pacific War . One of

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5292-440: The Tarim Basin ( Tarim mummies , Kingdom of Khotan ) or the rural areas of Europe ( Sarmatia , Pannonia , Vysperia , Spyrgowa/Spirgovia , Boioaria/Boghoaria ...) and Indian subcontinent ( Kaśperia , Pandžab etc.). Since the 2nd century BCE, the growing number of Turkic nomads and invaders among them, who adopted their horse-riding, metallurgy, technologies, clothing, and customs caused them to be also often confused with

5418-518: The Vistula River and Central Asia , with the eastern edges of the region vaguely defined by the Greeks. The Ancient Greeks gave the name Scythia (or Great Scythia) to all the lands north-east of Europe and the northern coast of the Black Sea . The Scythians—the Greeks' name for this initially nomadic people—inhabited Scythia from at least the 11th century BCE to the 2nd century CE. The Sarmatians ( Latin : Sarmatæ or Sauromatæ ; Ancient Greek : Σαρμάται, Σαυρομάται ) were

5544-481: The Xiongnu , the Xianbei , the Rouran , the First Turkic Khaganate , the Second Turkic Khaganate , the Uyghur Khaganate and others. In 1206, Genghis Khan founded the Mongol Empire , which became the largest contiguous land empire in history. His grandson Kublai Khan conquered China proper and established the Yuan dynasty . After the collapse of the Yuan, the Mongols retreated to Mongolia and resumed their earlier pattern of factional conflict, except during

5670-461: The empires erected by the bow -wielding, horse -riding, nomadic people in the Eurasian Steppe , from classical antiquity ( Scythia ) to the early modern era ( Dzungars ). They are the most prominent example of non- sedentary polities . Some nomadic empires consolidated by establishing a capital city inside a conquered sedentary state and then exploiting the existing bureaucrats and commercial resources of that non-nomadic society. In such

5796-432: The 13th century the term orda ("horde") also came into use — as in " Golden Horde ". In the history of China , Central Plain polities relied on horses to resist nomadic incursions into their territories, but were only able to purchase the needed horses from the nomads . Trading in horses actually gave these nomadic groups the means to acquire goods by commercial means and reduced the number of attacks and raids into

5922-412: The 5th century. At the height of its power in the first half of the 6th century, the Hephthalite Empire controlled territory in present-day Afghanistan , Turkmenistan , Uzbekistan , Tajikistan , Kyrgyzstan , Kazakhstan , Pakistan , India and China . The Huns were a confederation of Eurasian tribes from the Steppes of Central Asia . Appearing from beyond the Volga River some years after

6048-405: The Bulgars points to an affiliation with Western Eurasian populations. The Bulgars spoke a Turkic language , i.e. Bulgar language of Oghuric branch. They preserved the military titles, organization and customs of Eurasian steppes, as well as pagan shamanism and belief in the sky deity Tangra . After Dengizich 's death, the Huns seem to have been absorbed by other ethnic groups such as

6174-595: The Eight Banners, which was initially capped to 4 and then grew to 8 with three different types of ethnic banners as Han, Mongol and Jurchen were recruited into Nurhaci's forces. Jurchens like Nurhaci spoke both their native Tungusic language and Chinese and adopted the Mongol script for their own language unlike the Jin Jurchen's script, which was derived from Khitan. They adopted Confucian values and practiced their shamanist traditions. The Qing stationed "New Manchu" Warka foragers in Ningguta and attempted to turn them into normal agricultural farmers like normal Old Manchus, but

6300-463: The Genghisids. In the mid-16th century, Altan Khan of the Tümed, a grandson of Dayan Khan – but not a hereditary or legitimate Khan – became powerful. He founded Hohhot in 1557. After he met with the Dalai Lama in 1578, he ordered the introduction of Tibetan Buddhism to Mongolia. (It was the second time this had occurred.) Abtai Khan of the Khalkha converted to Buddhism and founded the Erdene Zuu monastery in 1585. His grandson Zanabazar became

6426-467: The Gobi are attributed to the rain shadow effect caused by the Himalayas. Before the Himalayas were formed by the collision of the Indo-Australian plate with the Eurasian plate 10 million years ago, Mongolia was a flourishing habitat for major fauna but still somewhat arid and cold due to distance from sources of evaporation. Sea turtle and mollusk fossils have been found in the Gobi, apart from well-known dinosaur fossils. Tadpole shrimps are still found in

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6552-428: The Gobi today. The eastern part of Mongolia including the Onon and Kherlen rivers and Lake Buir form part of the Amur river basin draining to the Pacific Ocean. It hosts some unique species like the Eastern brook lamprey, Daurian crayfish ( cambaroides dauricus ) and Daurian pearl oyster ( dahurinaia dahurica ) in the Onon/Kherlen rivers as well as Siberian prawn ( exopalaemon modestus ) in Lake Buir. Mongolia had

6678-407: The Göktürks established the Second Turkic Khaganate which later declined after 734 following the establishment of the Uyghur Khaganate . The Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate was a Turkic-led empire occupying the territories of modern-day northern China , Mongolia , and southern Siberia around the Yenisei River . The khaganate was founded in 693 by Bars Bek , and in 695, after a confrontation with

6804-412: The Jianzhou Jurchens and Maolian (毛怜) Jurchens were sedentary, and hunting and fishing was the way of life of the "Wild Jurchens". Han Chinese society resembled that of the sedentary Jianzhou and Maolian, who were farmers. Hunting, archery on horseback, horsemanship, livestock raising, and sedentary agriculture were all practiced by the Jianzhou Jurchens as part of their culture. In spite of the fact that

6930-438: The Jurchen leader Nurhaci chose variously to emphasize either differences or similarities in lifestyles with other peoples like the Mongols. Nurhaci said to the Mongols, "The languages of the Chinese and Koreans are different, but their clothing and way of life is the same. It is the same with us Manchus (Jušen) and Mongols. Our languages are different, but our clothing and way of life is the same." Later, Nurhaci indicated that

7056-479: The Kyrgyz. The Mongolic Khitans , descendants of the Xianbei, ruled Mongolia during the Liao dynasty (907–1125), after which the Khamag Mongol (1125–1206) rose to prominence. Lines 3–5 of the memorial inscription of Bilge Khagan (684–737) in central Mongolia summarizes the time of the Khagans : In battles they subdued the nations of all four sides of the world and suppressed them. They made those who had heads bow their heads, and who had knees genuflect them. In

7182-491: The Manchus practiced archery on horseback and equestrianism, the Manchu's immediate progenitors practiced sedentary agriculture. Although the Manchus also partook in hunting, they were sedentary. Their primary mode of production was farming, and they lived in villages, forts, and towns surrounded by walls. Farming was practiced by their Jurchen Jin predecessors. “建州毛怜则渤海大氏遗孽，乐住种，善缉纺，饮食服用，皆如华人，自长白山迤南，可拊而治也。" "The (people of) Chien-chou and Mao-lin [YLSL always reads Mao-lien] are

7308-412: The Ming armies pursued the Mongols into their homeland, they successfully sacked and destroyed the Mongol capital Karakorum and other cities. Some of these attacks were repelled by the Mongols under Ayushridar and his general Köke Temür . After the expulsion of the Yuan rulers from China proper , the Mongols continued to rule their homeland, known in historiography as the Northern Yuan dynasty. With

7434-462: The Mongolian Plateau ranges from 915 to 1,525 meters (3,002 to 5,003 ft) above sea level . The highest point in the plateau is found in Tavan Bogd at 4,374 meters (14,350 ft) above sea level. The ecology of Mongolia is complex, having varying regions of highland and lowland areas. Grazing species such as yaks , Przewalski's horses , domesticated sheep , saiga antelope , Siberian ibex and Argali are common. Predator species include

7560-497: The Qing lived and their ancestors lived in such a way before the Jin. Alongside Mongols and Jurchen clans there were migrants from Liaodong provinces of the Ming dynasty and Joseon living among those Jurchens in a cosmopolitan manner. Nurhaci who was hosting Sin Chung-il was uniting all of them into his own army, having them adopt the Jurchen hairstyle of a long queue and a shaved fore=crown and wearing leather tunics. His armies had black, blue, red, white, and yellow flags. They became

7686-404: The Qing, and after the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, the contract of Mongolian submission to the Manchu had become invalid. The area controlled by the Bogd Khaan was approximately that of the former Outer Mongolia during the Qing period. In 1919, after the October Revolution in Russia, Chinese troops led by warlord Xu Shuzheng occupied Mongolia. Warfare erupted on the northern border. As

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7812-400: The Republic of China in 1921. Shortly thereafter, the country became a satellite state of the Soviet Union . In 1924, the Mongolian People's Republic was founded as a socialist state . After the anti-communist revolutions of 1989 , Mongolia conducted its own peaceful democratic revolution in early 1990. This led to a multi-party system , a new constitution of 1992 , and transition to

7938-447: The Soviet Union agreed to lift its veto on the admission of Mauritania (and any other newly independent African state), in return for the admission of Mongolia. Faced with pressure from nearly all the other African countries, the ROC relented under protest. Mongolia and Mauritania were both admitted to the UN on 27 October 1961. (see China and the United Nations ) On 26 January 1952, Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal took power in Mongolia after

8064-420: The Soviet Union to the West, and English has become the dominant foreign language, aided by liberalized media, international aid agencies, the rise of private education and tutoring, as well as official government policy. In the 2014–2015 academic year, 59% of the overall student population studied English at public secondary schools. In 2023, English was declared the "first foreign language", and to be taught from

8190-410: The Soviet conditions for its participation, put forward at Yalta, was that after the war Outer Mongolia would retain its independence. The referendum took place on 20 October 1945, with (according to official numbers) 100% of the electorate voting for independence. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China , both countries confirmed their mutual recognition on 6 October 1949. However,

8316-413: The U.S. Census Bureau figure). UN estimates resemble those made by the Mongolian National Statistical Office (2,612,900, end of June 2007). Mongolia's population growth rate is estimated at 1.2% (2007 est.). About 59% of the total population is under age 30, 27% of whom are under 14. This relatively young and growing population has placed strains on Mongolia's economy. The first census in the 20th century

8442-446: The Uyghur Khaganate fell, and the Kyrgyz Khaganate was restored on its territory. It reached its peak of power at the end of the 9th century, but had little geopolitical influence thereafter. Eventually, the Kyrgyz Khaganate was finally dissolved in 1207 after becoming part of the Mongol Empire . The Uyghur Khaganate was an empire that existed in present-day northern China , Mongolia , southern Siberia , and surrounding areas for about

8568-567: The Warka just reverted to hunter gathering and requested money to buy cattle for beef broth. The Qing wanted the Warka to become soldier-farmers and imposed that on them, but the Warka simply left their garrison at Ningguta and went back to the Sungari River to their homes to herd, fish, and hunt. The Qing accused them of desertion. Similarly, the Indo-European dominions, like the Cimmerian, Scythian, Sarmatian or Kushan ones, were not strictly nomadic or strictly empires. They were organized in small Kšatrapies / Voivodeships that sometimes united into

8694-437: The ancestors of modern Bulgarians . The Rouran (柔然), Ruanruan (蠕蠕), or Ruru (茹茹) were a confederation of Mongolic -speaking nomadic tribes in northern China from the late 4th century until the late 6th century. They controlled an area corresponding to modern-day northern China, Mongolia , and southern Siberia . The Göktürks or Kök-Türks were a Turkic people of inhabiting much of northern China and Inner Asia . Under

8820-418: The area, which allowed the Mongols to keep their culture. The Oirats who migrated to the Volga steppes in Russia became known as Kalmyks . The main trade route during this period was the Tea Road through Siberia; it had permanent stations located every 25 to 30 kilometres (16 to 19 mi), each of which was staffed by 5–30 chosen families. Until 1911, the Qing dynasty maintained control of Mongolia with

8946-441: The balance of power. The grandsons of Seljuk, Tughril and Chagri Begs decisively defeated Ghaznavids in the Battle of Dandanaqan , gained the power in the Khorasan. Tughril Beg sent Chagri Beg into Eastern Anatolia to seek proper pastures, so the conflicts between Oghuz Turks and Byzantine Empire began. During Tughril's reign, the life styles of nomadic Oghuz tribes changed as they conquered lands of Persia. The Mongol Empire

9072-498: The bond with the Mongols was not based in any real shared culture. It was for pragmatic reasons of "mutual opportunism" since Nurhaci said to the Mongols, "You Mongols raise livestock, eat meat and wear pelts. My people till the fields and live on grain. We two are not one country and we have different languages." Only the Mongols and the northern "wild" Jurchen were semi-nomadic, unlike the mainstream Jiahnzhou Jurchens descended from

9198-588: The country's political system was changed. The Mongolian People's Republic was established. In 1928, Khorloogiin Choibalsan rose to power. The early leaders of the Mongolian People's Republic (1921–1952) included many with Pan-Mongolist ideals. However, changing global politics and increased Soviet pressure led to the decline of Pan-Mongol aspirations in the following period. Khorloogiin Choibalsan instituted collectivization of livestock, began

9324-540: The country's livestock dying from starvation or freezing temperatures or both, resulting in economic upheaval for the largely pastoral population. The annual average temperature in Ulaanbaatar is −1.3 °C (29.7 °F), making it the world's coldest capital city. Mongolia is high, cold and windy. It has an extreme continental climate with long, cold winters and short summers, during which most of its annual precipitation falls. The country averages 257 cloudless days

9450-553: The death of Choibalsan. Tsedenbal was the leading political figure in Mongolia for more than 30 years. While Tsedenbal was visiting Moscow in August 1984, his severe illness prompted the parliament to announce his retirement and replace him with Jambyn Batmönkh . The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 strongly influenced Mongolian politics and youth . Its people undertook the peaceful Democratic Revolution in January 1990 and

9576-551: The descendants of the family Ta of Po-hai. They love to be sedentary and sow, and they are skilled in spinning and weaving. As for food, clothing and utensils, they are the same as (those used by) the Chinese. (Those living) south of the Ch'ang-pai mountain are apt to be soothed and governed." — 据魏焕《皇明九边考》卷二《辽东镇边夷考》 Translation from Sino-J̌ürčed relations during the Yung-Lo period, 1403–1424 by Henry Serruys For political reasons,

9702-499: The destruction of the Buddhist monasteries, and carried out Stalinist purges , which resulted in the murders of numerous monks and other leaders. In Mongolia during the 1920s, approximately one-third of the male population were monks. By the beginning of the 20th century, 750 monasteries were functioning in Mongolia and by the end of the 1930s almost all had been looted or razed. In 1930, the Soviet Union stopped Buryat migration to

9828-633: The division of the Mongol tribes, it was subsequently also known as "The Forty and the Four" (Döčin dörben) among them. The next centuries were marked by violent power struggles among various factions, notably the Genghisids and the non-Genghisid Oirats , as well as by several Ming invasions (such as the five expeditions led by the Yongle Emperor ). In the early 16th century, Dayan Khan and his khatun Mandukhai reunited all Mongol groups under

9954-665: The dominant culture. Horse-riding nomadism has been documented by archeological evidence in Mongolia during the Copper and Bronze Age Afanasevo culture (3500–2500 BC); this Indo-European culture was active to the Khangai Mountains in Central Mongolia. The wheeled vehicles found in the burials of the Afanasevans have been dated to before 2200 BC. Pastoral nomadism and metalworking became more developed with

10080-634: The east up to the Kadyrkhan common people, in the west up to the Iron Gate they conquered... These Khagans were wise. These Khagans were great. Their servants were wise and great too. Officials were honest and direct with people. They ruled the nation this way. This way they held sway over them. When they died ambassadors from Bokuli Cholug (Baekje Korea), Tabgach (Tang China), Tibet (Tibetan Empire), Avar (Avar Khaganate), Rome (Byzantine Empire), Kirgiz , Uch-Kurykan, Otuz-Tatars, Khitans , Tatabis came to

10206-526: The entirety of present-day Mongolia. The Mongolic Rouran Khaganate (330–555), of Xianbei provenance was the first to use "Khagan" as an imperial title. It ruled a massive empire before being defeated by the Göktürks (555–745), an even larger empire. The Göktürks laid siege to Panticapaeum , present-day Kerch , in 576. They were succeeded by the Uyghur Khaganate (745–840) who were defeated by

10332-485: The era of Dayan Khan and Tumen Zasagt Khan . In the 16th century, Tibetan Buddhism spread to Mongolia, being further led by the Manchu -founded Qing dynasty , which absorbed the country in the 17th century. By the early 20th century, almost one-third of the adult male population were Buddhist monks. After the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongolia declared independence , and achieved actual independence from

10458-762: The ethnic makeup of the Xianbei is unclear. The Xianbei were a northern branch of the earlier Donghu and it is likely at least some were proto-Mongols . After it collapsed, the tribe immigrated into the Central Plain and founded the Northern Wei dynasty . The Hephthalites , Ephthalites , Ye-tai , White Huns , or, in Sanskrit , the Sveta Huna , were a confederation of nomadic and settled people in Central Asia who expanded their domain westward in

10584-663: The fall of the Liao dynasty in 1125, the Khamag Mongols became a leading tribe on the Mongolian Plateau . However, their wars with the Jurchen -ruled Jin dynasty and the Tatar confederation had weakened them. The last head of the tribe was Yesügei , whose son Temüjin eventually united all the Shiwei tribes as the Mongol Empire ( Yekhe Monggol Ulus ). In the thirteenth century, the word Mongol grew into an umbrella term for

10710-575: The fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongolia under the Bogd Khaan declared its independence. However, the newly established Republic of China considered Mongolia to be part of its own territory. Yuan Shikai , the President of the Republic of China , considered the new republic to be the successor of the Qing. Bogd Khaan said that both Mongolia and China had been administered by the Manchu during

10836-538: The fertility value increased to 2.8 in 2013 and stabilised afterwards at a rate of about 2.5-2.6 children per woman around 2020. The Mongols are moderately homogeneous; ethnic Mongols account for about 95% of the population and consist of Khalkha and other groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language. The Khalkha make up 86% of the ethnic Mongol population. The remaining 14% include Oirats, Buryats and others. Turkic peoples ( Kazakhs and Tuvans ) constitute 4.5% of Mongolia's population, and

10962-479: The first Jebtsundamba Khutughtu in 1640. Following the leaders, the entire Mongolian population embraced Buddhism. Each family kept scriptures and Buddha statues on an altar at the north side of their yurt . Mongolian nobles donated land, money and herders to the monasteries. As was typical in states with established religions, the top religious institutions, the monasteries, wielded significant temporal power in addition to spiritual power. The last Khagan of Mongols

11088-490: The funerals. So many people came to mourn over the great Khagans. They were famous Khagans. In the chaos of the late 12th century, a chieftain named Temüjin finally succeeded in uniting the Mongol tribes between Manchuria and the Altai Mountains . In 1206, he took the title Genghis Khan , and waged a series of military campaigns – renowned for their brutality and ferocity – sweeping through much of Asia, and forming

11214-415: The introduction of a multi-party system and a market economy. At the same time, the transformation of the former Marxist-Leninist Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party to the current social democratic Mongolian People's Party reshaped the country's political landscape. A new constitution was introduced in 1992, and the term "People's Republic" was dropped from the country's name. The transition to

11340-574: The khanates, the "Great Khaanate", consisting of the Mongol homeland and most of modern-day China, became known as the Yuan dynasty under Kublai Khan , the grandson of Genghis Khan. He set up his capital in present-day Beijing. After more than a century of power, the Yuan dynasty was overthrown by the Ming dynasty in 1368, and the Yuan court fled to the north, thus becoming the Northern Yuan dynasty . As

11466-627: The later Okunev culture (2nd millennium BC), Andronovo culture (2300–1000 BC) and Karasuk culture (1500–300 BC), culminating with the Iron Age Xiongnu Empire in 209 BC. Monuments of the pre-Xiongnu Bronze Age include deer stones , keregsur kurgans , square slab tombs , and rock paintings. Although cultivation of crops has continued since the Neolithic, agriculture has always remained small in scale compared to pastoral nomadism. Agriculture may have first been introduced from

11592-623: The latter, which mostly occurred in the case of the Scythians ( Śaka , Sarmatians , Skolotoi, Iazyges , etc.). In India , the Śaka , although known earlier as Śakya or Kambojas , formed now the Kushan Empire but were confused with the Xionites invading them and were called Mleccha . The Turkic invaders exploited the subdued sedentary Indo-Europeans in agriculture, industry, and warfare ( Mamluk , Janissaries ). In some rare cases,

11718-576: The leadership of Bumin Khan and his sons they established the First Turkic Khaganate around 546, taking the place of the earlier Xiongnu as the main power in the region. They were the first Turkic tribe to use the name Türk as a political name. The empire was split into a western and an eastern part around 600, and both divisions were eventually conquered by the Tang dynasty . In 680,

11844-473: The lowest of 41.735 mm (1.643 in) occurred in the Gobi Desert (period 1961–1990). The sparsely populated far north of Bulgan Province averages 600 mm (24 in) in annual precipitation which means it receives more precipitation than Beijing (571.8 mm or 22.51 in) or Berlin (571 mm or 22.5 in). The name "Gobi" is a Mongol term for a desert steppe, which usually refers to

11970-656: The middle of the 4th century, they conquered all of eastern Europe, ending up at the border of the Roman Empire in the south, and advancing far into modern day Germany in the north. Their appearance in Europe brought with it great ethnic and political upheaval and may have stimulated the Great Migration . The empire reached its largest size under Attila between 447 and 453. The Bulgars (also Bulghars, Bulgari, Bolgars, Bolghars, Bolgari, Proto-Bulgarians ) were Turkic semi-nomadic warrior tribes that flourished in

12096-474: The nickname "the Lascaux of Mongolia". The Venus figurines of Mal'ta (21,000 years ago) testify to the level of Upper Paleolithic art in northern Mongolia; Mal'ta is now part of Russia. Neolithic agricultural settlements (c. 5500–3500 BC), such as those at Norovlin, Tamsagbulag, Bayanzag, and Rashaan Khad, predated the introduction of horse-riding nomadism, a pivotal event in the history of Mongolia which became

12222-563: The power, and various steppe peoples were also called "Huns" by Western and Byzantine sources from the fourth century onward. The first clear mention and evidence of the Bulgars was in 480, when they served as the allies of the Byzantine Emperor Zeno (474–491) against the Ostrogoths . Anachronistic references about them can also be found in the 7th-century geography work Ashkharatsuyts by Anania Shirakatsi , where

12348-533: The prehistoric times, Mongolia has been inhabited by nomads who, from time to time, formed great confederations that rose to power and prominence. Common institutions were the office of the Khan , the Kurultai (Supreme Council), left and right wings, imperial army ( Keshig ) and the decimal military system. The first of these empires, the Xiongnu of undetermined ethnicity, were brought together by Modu Shanyu to form

12474-488: The region has shrunk by 30%. The region also suffers from a high rate of desertification . 45°N 110°E  /  45°N 110°E  / 45; 110 Mongolia Mongolia is a landlocked country in East Asia , bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers an area of 1,564,116 square kilometres (603,909 square miles), with a population of 3.5 million, making it

12600-671: The responsibilities towards their subjects. The behavior of Mongolia's nobility, together with usurious practices by Chinese traders and the collection of imperial taxes in silver instead of animals, resulted in widespread poverty among the nomads. By 1911 there were 700 large and small monasteries in Outer Mongolia; their 115,000 monks made up 21% of the population. Apart from the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, there were 13 other reincarnating high lamas, called 'seal-holding saints' ( tamgatai khutuktu ), in Outer Mongolia. With

12726-546: The rest are Russian, Chinese, Korean and American nationalities. Mongolia's official and national language is Mongolian . A member of the Mongolic language family, the standard dialect is Khalkha Mongol . It coexists with various other, largely mutually intelligible varieties of Mongolic such as Oirat , Buryat , and Khamnigan . Several dialects have been morphing to become more like the central Khalkha dialect in recent years. Most speakers of these dialects are located in

12852-461: The south in addition to being more stable. The Khangai Mountains play a certain role in forming this microclimate. In Tsetserleg, the warmest town in this microclimate, nighttime January temperatures rarely go under −30 °C (−22 °F) while daytime January temperatures often reach 0 °C (32 °F) to 5 °C (41 °F). The country is subject to occasional harsh climatic conditions known as zud . It results in large proportions of

12978-583: The south of the Yellow River , he built the Great Wall to prevent the Xiongnu from returning. The Kushan Empire was a syncretic empire, formed by the Yuezhi who originally hailed from the modern-day Chinese province of Gansu under the pressure of the Xiongnu , in the Bactrian territories in the early 1st century. It spread to encompass much of modern-day Afghanistan , and then the northern parts of

13104-561: The southernmost part is on roughly the same latitude as Rome (Italy) and Chicago (USA). The westernmost part of Mongolia is on roughly the same longitude as Kolkata in India, while the easternmost part is on the same longitude as Qinhuangdao and Hangzhou in China, as well as the western edge of Taiwan. Although Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, its westernmost point is only 36.76 kilometres (22.84 mi) from Kazakhstan, nearly making

13230-401: The summer and extremely cold in the winter, with January averages dropping as low as −30 °C (−22 °F). A vast front of cold, heavy, shallow air comes in from Siberia in winter and collects in river valleys and low basins causing very cold temperatures while slopes of mountains are much warmer due to the effects of temperature inversion (temperature increases with altitude). In winter

13356-693: The territories of Central Plain regimes. Nomads were generally unable to hold onto conquered territories for long without reducing the size of their cavalry forces because of the limitations of pasture in a settled lifestyle. Therefore, settled civilizations usually became reliant on nomadic ones to provide the supply of horses as needed—because they did not have resources to maintain these numbers of horses themselves. Camel-oriented Bedouin societies in Arabia have functioned as desert-based analogues of Central-Asian horse-oriented nomadic empires. The Cimmerians were an ancient Indo-European people living north of

13482-543: The third grade. As of the 2014–2015 academic year, the most popular foreign language in specialized language courses were (ordered by popularity), English, Chinese , Russian, Japanese , and Korean . Korean in particular has gained popularity as tens of thousands of Mongolians work in South Korea , forming the largest group of Mongolians abroad . Nomadic empire Nomadic empires , sometimes also called steppe empires , Central or Inner Asian empires , were

13608-614: The time of the collapse of the Tang dynasty and was the first state to control all of Manchuria . After the Liao dynasty fell to the Jin dynasty in the 12th century, remnants of the Liao imperial clan led by Yelü Dashi (Emperor Dezong of Western Liao) fled west and established the Western Liao dynasty . The founder of the Seljuk dynasty was an Oghuz Turkic chieftain Seljuk that had served under Khazar army. Ancestors of Seljuk remained unclarified except for his father, Dukak. Dukak

13734-495: The traditional Mongolian script in official documents by 2025. Since 1990, English has quickly supplanted Russian as the most popular foreign language in Mongolia. In the communist era , Russian was a vital language for mobility and professional communication, with a large number of students studying in the Soviet Union as well as a large number of Soviet professionals and soldiers located within Mongolia. Since then, however, Mongolia's education system has reoriented away from

13860-494: The use of lake water for mining and agriculture) have contributed to a significant loss of lake surface area across the Plateau. Qagaan Nurr and XinKai Lake have shrunk by two-thirds of their surface area during that time, while others (including Huangqihai Lake and Naiman Xihu ) have dried up entirely. Some exceptions, such as East Juyan Lake and Had Paozi , have grown, but overall the average total surface area of lakes in

13986-526: The warmest January temperatures in Omnogovi Province ( Dalanzadgad , Khanbogd ) and the region of the Altai mountains bordering China. A unique microclimate is the fertile grassland-forest region of central and eastern Arkhangai Province ( Tsetserleg ) and northern Ovorkhangai Province ( Arvaikheer ) where January temperatures are on average the same and often higher than the warmest desert regions to

14112-518: The west or arose independently in the region. The population during the Copper Age has been described as mongoloid in the east of what is now Mongolia, and as europoid in the west. Tocharians ( Yuezhi ) and Scythians inhabited western Mongolia during the Bronze Age. The mummy of a Scythian warrior, which is believed to be about 2,500 years old, was a 30- to 40-year-old man with blond hair; it

14238-594: The western part of the country, namely Bayan-Ölgii , Uvs , and Khovd . Kazakh , a Turkic language , is the majority language in Bayan-Ölgii, while Tuvan is another Turkic language spoken in Khövsgöl . Mongolian Sign Language is the principal language of the deaf community. Today, Mongolian is mainly written using the Cyrillic alphabet , introduced during the 1940s. Since the 1990 revolution there has been

14364-623: The western regions. Mongolia is a member of the United Nations , Asia Cooperation Dialogue , G77 , Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank , Non-Aligned Movement and a NATO global partner . Mongolia joined the World Trade Organization in 1997 and seeks to expand its participation in regional economic and trade groups. The name Mongolia means the "Land of the Mongols" in Latin. The Mongolian word "Mongol" ( монгол )

14490-580: The whole of Central Asia , Iran and modern Afghanistan , as well as large parts of Mesopotamia and the Caucasus . Later Mongol-led khanates such as the Northern Yuan dynasty and the Dzungar Khanate were also nomadic empires. After the fall of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, the Ming dynasty rebuilt the Great Wall , which had been begun many hundreds of years earlier to keep the northern nomads out of

14616-535: The whole of Mongolia comes under the influence of the Siberian Anticyclone . The localities most severely affected by this cold weather are Uvs province ( Ulaangom ), western Khovsgol ( Rinchinlhumbe ), eastern Zavkhan ( Tosontsengel ), northern Bulgan (Hutag) and eastern Dornod province (Khalkhiin Gol). Ulaanbaatar is strongly, but less severely, affected. The cold gets less severe as one goes south, reaching

14742-461: The world's most sparsely populated sovereign state . Mongolia is the world's largest landlocked country that does not border a closed sea , and much of its area is covered by grassy steppe , with mountains to the north and west and the Gobi Desert to the south. Ulaanbaatar , the capital and largest city , is home to roughly half of the country's population. The territory of modern-day Mongolia has been ruled by various nomadic empires , including

14868-552: Was Ligden Khan in the early 17th century. He came into conflicts with the Manchus over the looting of Chinese cities, and also alienated most Mongol tribes. He died in 1634. By 1636, most of the Inner Mongolian tribes had submitted to the Manchus, who founded the Qing dynasty . The Khalkha eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia under Manchu rule. After several Dzungar–Qing Wars ,

14994-699: Was a competent man in Oghuz Yabgu State, and like him Seljuk also gained a seat the court of the Oghuz Yabgu. Afterwards Seljuk fell into disfavor in the court, and he decided to move into Jend with his clan in 961. Rumor has it that he converted to İslam in order to gain the power from İslamic countries. The Oghuz Turks sought a proper homeland that includes vast pastures for their herdes, and consistently fought against Kara-Khanid Khanate , Ghaznavids and Eastern Roman Empire . They followed changeable policies among contiguous states due to tending to keep

15120-537: Was absorbed by the Khazar Empire in 668 CE. In c. 679, Khan Asparukh conquered Scythia Minor , opening access to Moesia , and established the First Bulgarian Empire , where the Bulgars became a political and military elite. They merged subsequently with established Byzantine populations , as well as with previously settled Slavic tribes , and were eventually Slavicized , thus forming

15246-407: Was carried out in 1918 and recorded a population of 647,500. Since the end of socialism, Mongolia has experienced a decline of total fertility rate (children per woman) that is steeper than in any other country in the world, according to recent UN estimations: in 1970–1975, fertility was estimated to be 7.33 children per woman, dropping to about 2.1 in 2000–2005. The decline ended and in 2005–2010,

15372-588: Was found in the Altai , Mongolia. As equine nomadism was introduced into Mongolia, the political center of the Eurasian Steppe also shifted to Mongolia, where it remained until the 18th century CE. The intrusions of northern pastoralists (e.g. the Guifang, Shanrong, and Donghu ) into China during the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BC) and Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) presaged the age of nomadic empires . Since

15498-471: Was ruled by its own monarch, although the emperors of the Yuan dynasty had nominal title of Khagan. After the disintegration of the western khanates and the fall of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, the empire finally broke up. The Timurids , self-designated Gurkānī, were a Turko-Mongol dynasty, established by the warlord Timur in 1370 and lasting until 1506. At its zenith, the Timurid Empire included

15624-531: Was the largest contiguous land empire in history at its peak, with an estimated population of over 100 million people. The Mongol Empire was founded by Genghis Khan in 1206, and at its height, it encompassed the majority of the territories from East Asia to Eastern Europe . After unifying the Turco-Mongol tribes, the Empire expanded through conquests throughout continental Eurasia . During its existence,

15750-479: Was very cold. These Jurchens who lived in the north-east's harsh cold climate sometimes half sunk their houses in the ground which they constructed of brick or timber and surrounded their fortified villages with stone foundations on which they built wattle and mud walls to defend against attack. Village clusters were ruled by beile, hereditary leaders. They fought each other and dispensed weapons, wives, slaves, and lands to their followers in them. The Jurchens who founded

15876-507: Was very different from the pastoral nomadism of the Mongols and the Khitan on the steppes. "At the most", the Jurchen could only be described as "semi-nomadic" while the majority of them were sedentary. The Manchu way of life (economy) was described as agricultural, with farming crops and raising animals on farms. Manchus practiced slash-and-burn agriculture in the areas north of Shenyang . The Haixi Jurchens were "semi-agricultural,

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