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154-457: In 1890, a small part of the natural tombolo was cut to create an artificial bridge for ships and boats. Its area consists mostly of a large plateau some 100 m (330 ft) above sea level, up to 300 m (980 ft) wide and 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) long. Founded in the sixth century, and thus one of the oldest continually-inhabited fortified towns in Europe, the town is the site of

308-598: A column topped by a bronze statue of Justinian on horseback and dressed in a military costume was erected in the Augustaeum in Constantinople in 543. Rivalry with other, more established patrons from the Constantinopolitan and exiled Roman aristocracy might have enforced Justinian's building activities in the capital as a means of strengthening his dynasty's prestige. Justinian also strengthened

462-402: A spit or bar . Once attached, the island is then known as a tied island . Several islands tied together by bars which rise above the water level are called a tombolo cluster . Two or more tombolos may form an enclosure (called a lagoon ) that can eventually fill with sediment. The shoreline moves toward the island (or detached breakwater ) owing to the accretion of sand in the lee of

616-471: A spit , because the sand or shingle ridge is parallel rather than at right angles to the coast. Tombolos demonstrate the sensitivity of shorelines . A small piece of land, such as an island, or a beached shipwreck can change the way that waves move, leading to different deposition of sediments. Sea level rise may also contribute to accretion, as material is pushed up with rising sea levels. Tombolos are more prone to natural fluctuations of profile and area as

770-478: A 13th-century crusader state, unsuccessfully besieged Monemvasia in 1222. Then, in 1252, after a three-year siege, the Frankish prince of Achaia, William of Villehardouin , occupied Monemvasia. The inhabitants of Monemvasia who did not wish to remain under Latin occupation left for Bithynia , which acquired many of the same commercial privileges as Monemvasia. Monemvasia itself retained the privileges it had, with

924-682: A base for the Ottoman army. The first attempt was made in August 1653, in which the Venetians managed to capture a fort outside the lower town, but abandoned the attempt as attacks on the lower town failed. The second attempt was made in July 1655, with the Venetians proceeding to blockade Monemvasia, but as the Ottomans sent reinforcements, they eventually withdrew. Subsequently, the Ottomans strengthened

1078-524: A base in the Aegean. At the end of September 1564, he sent galleys but as the old unguarded path leading to the upper town could not be located, they withdrew. This path was sealed by the Ottomans sometime later with a wall. In 1583 there were 320 non-Muslim families and 191 residents without a family. During the Cretan War (1645–1669), attempts were made by Venice to capture Monemvasia, which served as

1232-416: A café. Since 1999, it has housed the archaeological collection of Monemvasia. The building is structurally simple, consisting of two halls, a square hall with a lowered dome and a rectangular space. The former mihrab and minaret no longer exist. The entrance is from the eastern façade, where there are two doors but only the northern one is used. Sealed openings can also be seen, such as a Venetian portico on

1386-626: A force of approximately 35,000 men (2,000 men were detached and sent to invade southern Visigothic Hispania) under the command of Narses. The army reached Ravenna in June 552 and defeated the Ostrogoths decisively within a month at the battle of Busta Gallorum in the Apennines , where Totila was slain. After a second battle at Mons Lactarius in October that year, the resistance of the Ostrogoths

1540-643: A genuine interest in matters of theology, authored a small number of theological treatises. As in his secular administration, despotism appeared also in the Emperor's ecclesiastical policy. He regulated everything, both in religion and in law. At the very beginning of his reign, he deemed it proper to promulgate by law the Church's belief in the Trinity and the Incarnation , and to threaten all heretics with

1694-655: A guardian of the western entrance to the Aegean . In 1147 ships of the Sicilian king Roger II tried to capture it without success and were forced to withdraw with heavy losses. The archon of Monemvasia during the attack Theodoros Mavrosomis then settled in the imperial court and after the Battle of Myriokephalos , he was put in charge of the left wing of the army and was then given the position of mediator. The Latin Empire ,

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1848-804: A measure of prosperity. The recovery of Africa cost the empire about 100,000 pounds of gold. As in Africa, dynastic struggles in Ostrogothic Italy provided an opportunity for intervention. The young king Athalaric had died on 2 October 534, and a usurper, Theodahad , had imprisoned queen Amalasuintha , Theodoric's daughter and mother of Athalaric, on the island of Martana in Lake Bolsena , where he had her assassinated in 535. Thereupon Belisarius, with 7,500 men, invaded Sicily (535) and advanced into Italy, sacking Naples and capturing Rome on 9 December 536. By that time Theodahad had been deposed by

2002-602: A number of barbarian troops. They landed at Caput Vada (modern Ras Kaboudia) in modern Tunisia . They defeated the Vandals, who were caught completely off guard, at Ad Decimum on 14 September 533 and Tricamarum in December; Belisarius took Carthage . King Gelimer fled to Mount Pappua in Numidia , but surrendered the next spring. He was taken to Constantinople, where he was paraded in a triumph . Sardinia and Corsica ,

2156-520: A once-powerful medieval fortress , and was at one point one of the most important commercial centres in the Eastern Mediterranean . The town's walls and many Byzantine churches remain as testaments to the town's history. Today, the seat of the municipality of Monemvasia is the town of Molaoi . The town's name derives from two Greek words, moni ( μόνη , 'single') and emvasis ( έμβασις , 'approach'), together meaning "city of

2310-570: A particularly dangerous invasion of Sklavinoi and Kutrigurs under their khan Zabergan threatened Constantinople, but they were repulsed by the aged general Belisarius. Justinian's ambition to restore the Roman Empire to its former glory was only partly realized, with the only noteworthy sustainable conquests in Africa . In the West, the brilliant early military successes of the 530s were followed by years of stagnation. The dragging war with

2464-401: A result of tidal and weather events than a normal beach is. Because of this susceptibility to weathering, tombolos are sometimes made more sturdy through the construction of roads or parking lots. The sediments that make up a tombolo are coarser towards the bottom and finer towards the surface. It is easy to see this pattern when the waves are destructive and wash away finer grained material at

2618-428: A school, which was housed in the church of Agios Nikolaos. Despite difficulties in financing it, it remained in operation in 1937. Ecclesiastically, Monemvasia remained the seat of the metropolis of Monemvasia, but after the death of Metropolitan Chrysantho Pagonis, the seat remained unoccupied and Gerasimos Pagonis was appointed as vicar. Monemvasia continued to be in a dire situation for many more years, but it remained

2772-532: A separate area, where the rainwater was collected. Cisterns and reservoirs were necessary as there are no natural water sources in Monemvasia. Above are utility rooms, such as the galley and, occasionally, the bath and fireplace. There was also in this area the mouth of the cistern, through which the water was collected. Access to the upper level was by a small wooden ladder fixed to a stone base. The family stayed in this space and it had many windows.  Although

2926-534: A source of tension in the relationship with the bishops of Rome. Justin reversed this trend and confirmed the Chalcedonian doctrine, openly condemning the Monophysites. Justinian, who continued this policy, tried to impose religious unity on his subjects by forcing them to accept doctrinal compromises that might appeal to all parties, a policy that proved unsuccessful as he satisfied none of them. Near

3080-578: A stopover in Monemvasia. Monemvasia is also mentioned by Theophanes the Confessor , who describes the arrival of the plague in Byzantium in 746-747. Monemvasia's key position on the sea route to the eastern Mediterranean made it the target of pirate raids in the following centuries, along with raids by Western rulers. Arab raids began in the 9th century and after their settlement in Crete , after which

3234-637: A total of 3,108 pyres that the metropolitans contributed to the Constantinople Patriarchate , 800 came from the Monemvasia metropolis, more than any other. In 1347 or 1348, John VI Kantakouzenos promoted the metropolis of Monemvasia to the hierarchy of the Patriarchate of Jerusalem . The peaceful life of Monemvasia during the 14th and the first half of the 15th century was disturbed by pirate raids and internal conflicts, though they did not, however, affect its historical course under

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3388-574: A woman was widowed, her dowry should be returned; and a husband could not take on a major debt without his wife giving her consent twice. Family legislation also revealed a greater concern for the interests of children. This was particularly so with respect to children born out of wedlock. The law under Justinian also reveals a striking interest in child neglect issues. Justinian protected the rights of children whose parents remarried and produced more offspring, or who simply separated and abandoned their offspring, forcing them to beg. Justinian discontinued

3542-544: A workaholic who worked tirelessly to expand the Byzantine Empire. One of the most enduring aspects of his legacy was the uniform rewriting of Roman law, the Corpus Juris Civilis , which was first applied throughout Continental Europe and is still the basis of civil law in many modern states. His reign also marked a blossoming of Byzantine culture , and his building program yielded works such as

3696-400: Is walled to the west, south and east. To the west is the main gate of the town, which leads to the bridge and the harbor. During Byzantine times it must have been incorporated into a tower and protected by additional towers, one of which survives to this day, incorporated in later alterations. A straight wall ( cortina ) connected tower to tower at the base of the cliff, and another reached to

3850-603: The Codex Justinianeus , a codification of imperial constitutions from the 2nd century onward, was issued on 7 April 529. (The final version appeared in 534.) It was followed by the Digesta (or Pandectae ), a compilation of older legal texts, in 533, and by the Institutiones , a textbook explaining the principles of law. The Novellae , a collection of new laws issued during Justinian's reign, supplements

4004-602: The Tzani , a people on the east coast of the Black Sea that had never been under Roman rule before. He engaged the Sasanian Empire in the east during Kavad I 's reign, and later again during Khosrow I 's reign; this second conflict was partially initiated due to his ambitions in the west. Justinian is regarded as one of the most prominent and influential Roman emperors, and historians have often characterized him as

4158-466: The Balearic Islands , and the stronghold Septem Fratres near Mons Calpe (later named Gibraltar ) were recovered in the same campaign. In this war, the contemporary Procopius remarks that Africa was so entirely depopulated that a person might travel several days without meeting a human being, and he adds, "it is no exaggeration to say, that in the course of the war 5,000,000 perished by

4312-640: The Corpus . As opposed to the rest of the corpus, the Novellae appeared in Greek , the common language of the Eastern Empire. The Corpus forms the basis of Latin jurisprudence (including ecclesiastical Canon Law ) and, for historians, provides a valuable insight into the concerns and activities of the later Roman Empire. As a collection it gathers together the many sources in which the leges (laws) and

4466-802: The Council of Chalcedon , which had condemned monophysitism , which had strongholds in Egypt and Syria, and by tolerating the appointment of Monophysites to church offices. The Popes reacted by severing ties with the Patriarch of Constantinople who supported these policies. Emperors Justin I (and later Justinian himself) rescinded these policies and reestablished the union between Constantinople and Rome. After this, Justinian also felt entitled to settle disputes in papal elections, as he did when he favored Vigilius and had his rival Silverius deported. This new-found unity between East and West did not, however, solve

4620-600: The Dark Ages —Monemvasia developed into a commercial and cultural centre due to its location on important sea routes, such as the one that connected it to Sicily. A bronze coin minted in Sicily of Philippikos Bardanes was found in the lower town. The oldest known mention of Monemvasia dates from the third decade of the 8th century, and is made by the pilgrim Vilibaldos, who traveled from the Sicilian Holy Land with

4774-610: The Despotate of the Morea . In 1354, control over the Despotate of Morea was usurped by Manuel Kantakouzinos , who remained in power until 1380. The administration of Monemvasia was given to Ioannis Kantakouzinos, who rebelled after learning that after Manuel's death, Theodore Palaiologos would be appointed. Theodore tried to approach Monemvasia but was driven away and fled to Venetian -occupied Koroni to ask for help in exchange for

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4928-576: The Hagia Sophia . Justinian was born in Tauresium , Dardania , probably in 482. A native speaker of Latin (possibly the last Roman emperor to be one), he came from a peasant family thought to have been of either of Illyro-Roman or Thraco-Roman origin. The name Iustinianus , which he took later, is indicative of adoption by his uncle Justin . During his reign, he founded Justiniana Prima not far from his birthplace. His mother

5082-491: The Kallikratis Programme . It was formed through the merger of the following 5 former municipalities, which thereby became municipal units: The municipality has an area of 949.3 square kilometres (366.5 sq mi), the municipal unit an area of 209.0 square kilometres (80.7 sq mi). Monemvasia's trade in wine was so extensive throughout its history, especially under Venetian administration, that

5236-533: The Nika riots , and a conspiracy against the emperor's life by dissatisfied entrepreneurs was discovered as late as 562. Justinian was struck by the plague in the early 540s but recovered. Theodora died in 548 at a relatively young age, possibly of cancer; Justinian outlived her by nearly twenty years. Justinian, who had always had a keen interest in theological matters and actively participated in debates on Christian doctrine, became even more devoted to religion during

5390-656: The Ostrogothic Kingdom , restoring Dalmatia , Sicily , Italy , and Rome to the empire after more than half a century of rule by the Ostrogoths . The praetorian prefect Liberius reclaimed the south of the Iberian Peninsula , establishing the province of Spania . These campaigns re-established Roman control over the western Mediterranean, increasing the Empire's annual revenue by over a million solidi . During his reign, Justinian also subdued

5544-619: The Roman Empire to its ancient boundaries. Although he never personally took part in military campaigns, he boasted of his successes in the prefaces to his laws and had them commemorated in art. The re-conquests were in large part carried out by his general Belisarius. From his uncle, Justinian inherited ongoing hostilities with the Sassanid Empire . In 530 the Persian forces suffered a double defeat at Dara and Satala , but

5698-625: The San Vitale in Ravenna, which features two famous mosaics representing Justinian and Theodora, was completed under the sponsorship of Julius Argentarius. Most notably, he had the Hagia Sophia , originally a basilica -style church that had been burnt down during the Nika riots , splendidly rebuilt according to a completely different ground plan, under the architectural supervision of Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles . On 26 December 537, according to Pseudo-Codinus, Justinian stated at

5852-611: The Second Ottoman-Venetian War (1499–1503). Hayreddin Barbarossa began in 1537 attempts to capture Nafplio and Monemvasia, the two remaining Venetian possessions in the Peloponnese. In the peace treaty, Sultan Suleiman II requested as compensation for the damages suffered by the fleet the concession of islands he has conquered along with Nafplio and Monemvasia, and despite the Venetians' reactions,

6006-435: The chariot racing factions in Constantinople, normally rivals, united against Justinian in a revolt that has become known as the Nika riots . They forced him to dismiss Tribonian and two of his other ministers, and then attempted to overthrow Justinian himself and replace him with the senator Hypatius , who was a nephew of the late emperor Anastasius . While the crowd was rioting in the streets, Justinian considered fleeing

6160-667: The "Eternal Peace" and invaded Roman territory in the spring of 540. He first sacked Beroea and then Antioch (allowing the garrison of 6,000 men to leave the city), besieged Daras , and then went on to attack the Byzantine base in the small but strategically significant satellite kingdom of Lazica near the Black Sea as requested by its discontented king Gubazes , exacting tribute from the towns he passed along his way. He forced Justinian I to pay him 5,000 pounds of gold, plus 500 pounds of gold more each year. Belisarius arrived in

6314-441: The 10th century, the ecclesiastical seat of Monemvasia was transferred from the jurisdiction of the church of Rome to the patriarchate of Constantinople , where it was demoted to the diocese of Corinth. Despite this, Monemvasia continued to develop, while at the same time maintaining privileges, among which was self-government. During the 11th and 12th centuries, Monemvasia experienced significant economic growth. During that period,

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6468-552: The 1951 census, of the community's 522 residents, 261 lived in Gefyra, 178 in the old town, and 83 in Agia Kyriaki. The population of the old town continued to decline, and in 1971 only 32 residents lived in it. Monemvasia continued to rely on cisterns for its water supply until 1964 and electricity arrived in 1972. Trade was carried out by coastal shipping, where products were transported to the nearest major port, Piraeus . From

6622-400: The 1970s, Monemvasia began to flourish again, this time as a tourist destination. The people of Monemvasia sold their houses to people visiting Monemvasia, who restored them. Alexandros and Harris Kalliga played a key role in the restorations. At the same time, Gefyra also experienced strong growth (in the 2011 census it has 1,299 inhabitants). In 1971, Monemvasia became linked with the rest of

6776-712: The 30,000-strong Byzantine force was defeated by a small force at Anglon . The next year, Khosrau unsuccessfully besieged the major city of Edessa . Both parties made little headway, and in 545 a truce was agreed upon for the southern part of the Roman-Persian frontier. After that, the Lazic War in the North continued for several years: the Lazic king switched to the Byzantine side, and in 549 Justinian sent Dagisthaeus to recapture Petra , but he faced heavy resistance and

6930-454: The 6th century AD, despite earthquakes, Goth raids in 395 under Alaric I and Vandals in 468 under Gaiseric , and the plague epidemic of 541-543. According to the later Chronicle of Monemvasia , the city was abandoned after a Slav raid in 587-588, during the reign of Maurice . The Chronicle reports that its inhabitants left Sparta in panic and fortified themselves under the leadership of their bishop in Monemvasia while others settled in

7084-558: The Byzantines the castles of Monemvasia, Mystras , Grand Magne , and Geraki . Monemvasia was designated the seat of a Byzantine general and the seat of an Orthodox metropolitan, while at the same time important privileges were granted to the inhabitants, which were renewed and expanded by Andronikos II Palaiologos (1282-1328), such as exemption from inheritance tax and exemption from commerce ( duties ). Andronikos III Paleologos then exempted Monemvasia from 28 taxes. The prosperity of

7238-801: The Chalcedonian faith. Such an approach was supported by the Empress Theodora, who favoured the Miaphysites unreservedly. In the condemnation of the Three Chapters , three theologians that had opposed Monophysitism before and after the Council of Chalcedon, Justinian tried to win over the opposition. At the Fifth Ecumenical Council , most of the Eastern church yielded to the Emperor's demands, and Pope Vigilius , who

7392-522: The Church contrary to the emperor's will and command, while, on his side, the emperor, in the case of the Patriarch Anthimus , reinforced the ban of the Church with temporal proscription. Justinian protected the purity of the church by suppressing heretics. He neglected no opportunity to secure the rights of the Church and clergy, and to protect and extend monasticism . He granted the monks the right to inherit property from private citizens and

7546-515: The East in 541, but after some success, was again recalled to Constantinople in 542. The reasons for his withdrawal are not known, but it may have been instigated by rumours of his disloyalty reaching the court. The outbreak of the plague coupled with a rebellion in Persia brought Khosrow I's offensives to a halt. Exploiting this, Justinian ordered all the forces in the East to invade Persian Armenia, but

7700-508: The Empire. Then, having been recalled by Justinian, Belisarius returned to Constantinople, taking the captured Vitigis and his wife Matasuntha with him. Belisarius had been recalled in the face of renewed hostilities by the Persians . Following a revolt against the Empire in Armenia in the late 530s and possibly motivated by the pleas of Ostrogothic ambassadors, King Khosrau I broke

7854-509: The Goths was a disaster for Italy, even though its long-lasting effects may have been less severe than is sometimes thought. The heavy taxes that the administration imposed upon Italian population were deeply resented. The final victory in Italy and the conquest of Africa and the coast of southern Hispania significantly enlarged the area of Byzantine influence and eliminated all naval threats to

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8008-433: The Great , was the Roman emperor from 527 to 565. His reign was marked by the ambitious but only partly realized renovatio imperii , or "restoration of the Empire". This ambition was expressed by the partial recovery of the territories of the defunct Western Roman Empire . His general, Belisarius , swiftly conquered the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa. Subsequently, Belisarius, Narses , and other generals conquered

8162-451: The Holy Apostles , which had been in a very poor state near the end of the 5th century, was likewise rebuilt. The Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus, later renamed Little Hagia Sophia , was also built between 532 and 536 by the imperial couple. Works of embellishment were not confined to churches alone: excavations at the site of the Great Palace of Constantinople have yielded several high-quality mosaics dating from Justinian's reign, and

8316-448: The Jews to use the Greek Septuagint in their synagogues in Constantinople. The Emperor faced significant opposition from the Samaritans , who resisted conversion to Christianity and were repeatedly in insurrection. He persecuted them with rigorous edicts, for example, in 529, he banned them from having wills, an intentional act of humiliation. However, he could not prevent reprisals towards Christians from taking place in Samaria toward

8470-426: The Lesvios, armed a body of Monemvasians and blocked the Ottomans in the fortress, but when the besiegers were attacked by the Albanians, they dispersed and many were captured or killed and the city was looted. After the revolt, the area was abandoned by a large part of its population. During the Siege of Monemvasia  [ el ] beginning on March 15, 1821, at the beginning of the Greek War of Independence ,

8624-430: The Ostrogothic army, who had elected Vitigis as their new king. He gathered a large army and besieged Rome from February 537 to March 538 without being able to retake the city. Justinian sent another general, Narses , to Italy, but tensions between Narses and Belisarius hampered the progress of the campaign. Milan was taken, but was soon recaptured and razed by the Ostrogoths. Justinian recalled Narses in 539. By then

8778-410: The Ottoman conquest of this critical region for Byzantium was complete. By the end of 1463, Monemvasia had fallen to the Venetians. After the end of the First Ottoman-Venetian War (1463–1479), part of the lands in the territory of Monemvasia came under the possession of the Ottomans, affecting the island's agricultural production and trade. Venice's possessions around Monemvasia became more limited after

8932-425: The Patrician , the diplomat and long-time head of the palace bureaucracy; Justinian's finance ministers John the Cappadocian and Peter Barsymes , who managed to collect taxes more efficiently than any before, thereby funding Justinian's wars; and finally, his prodigiously talented generals, Belisarius and Narses . Justinian's rule was not universally popular; early in his reign he nearly lost his throne during

9086-404: The Peloponnese from the Venetians also resulted in the resettlement of residents in Monemvasia, which was designated as the capital of the department of Laconia. The city had suffered significant damage and began a program of reconstruction. Its population in 1700 had reached 1,622 inhabitants, almost double the count of ten years prior. In 1715, the Ottoman Empire army attacked the Peloponnese, in

9240-460: The Roman dictator Sulla in 86 BC. Several centuries later, in 410 AD, a Neoplatonic Academy was established that had no institutional continuity with Plato's Academy, and which served as a center for Neoplatonism and mysticism. It persisted until 529 AD when it was finally closed by Justinian I. Other schools in Constantinople, Antioch, and Alexandria, which were the centers of Justinian's empire, continued. In Asia Minor alone, John of Ephesus

9394-399: The Romans. While military efforts were directed to the East, the situation in Italy took a turn for the worse. Under their respective kings Ildibad and Eraric (both murdered in 541) and especially Totila , the Ostrogoths made quick gains. After a victory at Faenza in 542, they reconquered the major cities of Southern Italy and soon held almost the entire Italian Peninsula. Belisarius

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9548-497: The West, where Germanic kingdoms had been established in the territories of the former Western Roman Empire . The first of the western kingdoms Justinian attacked was that of the Vandals in North Africa . King Hilderic , who had maintained good relations with Justinian and the North African Catholic clergy, had been overthrown by his cousin Gelimer in 530 AD. Imprisoned, the deposed king appealed to Justinian. Justinian protested Gelimer's actions, demanding that Gelimer return

9702-466: The administration of ecclesiastical property; election and rights of bishops, priests and abbots; monastic life, residential obligations of the clergy, conduct of divine service, episcopal jurisdiction, etc. Justinian also rebuilt the Church of Hagia Sophia (which cost 20,000 pounds of gold), the original site having been destroyed during the Nika riots. The new Hagia Sophia, with its numerous chapels and shrines, gilded octagonal dome, and mosaics , became

9856-411: The aforementioned reasons, the city authorities proceeded not only to move the population of Sparta , establishing Monemvasia, but also to reorganize the settlements of southeastern Laconia . The reorganization included settlement in the mountain passes of Parnon and the migration from Gytheion . The Chronicle of Monemvasia states that part of the population relocated as far away as Sicily . Because

10010-439: The appropriate penalties, whereas he subsequently declared that he intended to deprive all disturbers of orthodoxy of the opportunity for such offense by due process of law. He made the Nicaeno-Constantinopolitan creed the sole symbol of the Church and accorded legal force to the canons of the four ecumenical councils. The bishops in attendance at the Council of Constantinople (536) recognized that nothing could be done in

10164-467: The beginning of the 20th century, it was the seat of a court of justice, customs office, telegraph office, police, and school authority. According to the censuses, there was a population decline until the 1970s. The community's population trend according to the censuses is as follows: 1920: 483, 1928: 638, 1940: 638, 1951: 522, 1961: 487, 1971: 445. Generally, the inhabitants of Monemvasia either immigrated to Athens or moved to Gefyra, opposite Monemvasia. In

10318-406: The borders of the Empire from Africa to the East through the construction of fortifications and ensured Constantinople of its water supply through construction of underground cisterns (see Basilica Cistern ). To prevent floods from damaging the strategically important border town Dara , an advanced arch dam was built. During his reign the large Sangarius Bridge was built in Bithynia , securing

10472-467: The capital by sea, but eventually decided to stay, apparently on the prompting of his wife Theodora, who refused to leave. In the next two days, he ordered the brutal suppression of the riots by his generals Belisarius and Mundus . Procopius relates that 30,000 unarmed civilians were killed in the Hippodrome. On Theodora's insistence, and apparently against his own judgment, Justinian had Anastasius' nephews executed. The destruction that took place during

10626-452: The centre and most visible monument of Eastern Orthodoxy in Constantinople. From the middle of the 5th century onward, increasingly arduous tasks confronted the emperors of the East in ecclesiastical matters. Justinian entered the arena of ecclesiastical statecraft shortly after his uncle's accession in 518, and put an end to the Acacian schism . Previous Emperors had tried to alleviate theological conflicts by declarations that deemphasized

10780-416: The cities experienced significant decline. Justinian proceeded with residential remodeling, moving entire cities' populations to new locations and often changing the city's name. Such changes are mentioned by Procopius in On Buildings , though specific references to the Peloponnese are rare. The 15th century text Report to the Patriarch , written by Isidoros, the metropolitan of Monemvasia, mentions that

10934-411: The city there was a promontory which he referred to as the "extremity of Minos", which has been identified as Monemvasia. Strabo —a century earlier—mentions it as "Minoan fortress". The toponym "Minoa" indicates the existence of a port in antiquity, traces of which have been discovered underwater. However, it is not known if there was a significant settlement on the island. It is possible that a settlement

11088-656: The city to Pope Pius II on September 12, 1460, who accepted. In 1460 Sultan Mehmed II arrived in Corinth , proceeded to Laconia, capturing the fortresses of Achaia and Ilia, and in July 1461, Salmenikos , the last castle of the Greek despot, was surrendered. Thus, apart from the Venetian possessions of the Peloponnese and Monemvasia, which had been granted with the consent of the Despot of Morea Thomas Palaiologos to Pope Pius II,

11242-502: The city was rapid: in addition to the increase in population, whose main achievement was trade and shipping, conditions were created for spiritual and ecclesiastical development, to the extent that the period up to 1460 is considered to have been the city's "golden age". This prosperity attracted Roger of Lauria , who sacked the lower town in 1292. In 1302, the town welcomed the Catalan Company on its way eastward. In 1324, out of

11396-402: The city. The inhabitants collected the sarcophagi that contained them and built a church on the steep hill. Later, after the landing, it is reported that during the reign of Emperors Leo VI and Alexander , the chapel was located and the remains were transferred to the chapel of Agia Irini, next to the church of Agia Anastasia (which today is dedicated to Christ Elkomenos). At the beginning of

11550-470: The close of his reign. The consistency of Justinian's policy meant that the Manicheans too suffered persecution, experiencing both exile and threat of capital punishment. In Constantinople, c.450, a number of Manicheans, after strict inquisition, were executed by burning. Justinian was a prolific builder; the historian Procopius bears witness to his activities in this area. Under Justinian's reign,

11704-519: The complete revision of all Roman law , something that had not previously been attempted. The total of Justinian's legislation is known today as the Corpus juris civilis . It consists of the Codex Justinianeus , the Digesta or Pandectae , the Institutiones , and the Novellae . Early in his reign, Justinian had appointed the quaestor Tribonian to oversee this task. The first draft of

11858-507: The completion of this edifice: "Solomon, I have outdone thee" (in reference to the first Jewish temple). The church had a second inauguration on 24 December 562, after several reworks made by Isidore the Younger . This new cathedral, with its magnificent dome filled with mosaics, remained the centre of eastern Christianity for centuries. Another prominent church in the capital, the Church of

12012-491: The context of the Seventh Ottoman–Venetian War (1714–1718). The Ottoman fleet arrived at Monemvasia on 3 August 1715, demanding the city's surrender. The city's council of war asked for a 20-day extension to learn the intentions of the Venetian fleet, which was granted. The fleet did not approach Monemvasia and the city finally surrendered on September 7, 1715. Some of the inhabitants were sold as slaves as part of

12166-684: The conviction that the unity of the Empire presupposed unity of faith, and it appeared to him obvious that this faith could only be the orthodoxy (Chalcedonian) . Those of a different belief were subjected to persecution, which imperial legislation had effected from the time of Constantius II and which would now vigorously continue. The Codex contained two statutes that decreed the total destruction of paganism , even in private life; these provisions were zealously enforced. Contemporary sources (John Malalas, Theophanes , and John of Ephesus ) tell of severe persecutions, including men in high positions. The original Academy of Plato had been destroyed by

12320-586: The defense of the island, and granted its inhabitants the possibility to build a church with a dome, as a reward for not ceding the city to the Venetians. In 1684, the Sixth Ottoman–Venetian War began, during which Francesco Morosini occupied the entire Peloponnese, with the exception of Monemvasia, which resisted. Morosini besieged it again in 1687, bombarding it, but the Turkish defenders refused to surrender and he withdrew. Many Turks who fled from

12474-399: The emperor's personal bodyguard. The chronicler John Malalas , who lived during the reign of Justinian, describes his appearance as short, fair-skinned, curly-haired, round-faced, and handsome. Another contemporary historian, Procopius , compares Justinian's appearance to that of tyrannical Emperor Domitian , although this is probably slander. When Emperor Anastasius died in 518, Justin

12628-566: The empire, which in 555 reached its territorial zenith. Despite losing much of Italy soon after Justinian's death, the empire retained several important cities, including Rome, Naples, and Ravenna, leaving the Lombards as a regional threat. The newly founded province of Spania kept the Visigoths as a threat to Hispania alone and not to the western Mediterranean and Africa. Events of the later years of his reign showed that Constantinople itself

12782-480: The end of his life, Justinian became ever more inclined towards the Monophysite doctrine, especially in the form of Aphthartodocetism , but he died before being able to issue any legislation. The empress Theodora sympathized with the Monophysites and is said to have been a constant source of pro-Monophysite intrigues at the court in Constantinople in the earlier years. In the course of his reign, Justinian, who had

12936-474: The exhibits are architectural sculptures from the early Christian, Byzantine and post-Byzantine periods and ceramic objects of daily use, while there are also a small number of coins, lamps and glass objects. Among the sculptures stand out those from the church of Hagia Sophia and the restored marble iconostasis of a small church from the Middle Byzantine period that was excavated on a private plot near

13090-628: The first cataract of the Nile . The Presbyter Julian and the Bishop Longinus conducted a mission among the Nabataeans , and Justinian attempted to strengthen Christianity in Yemen by dispatching a bishop from Egypt . The civil rights of Jews were restricted and their religious privileges threatened. Justinian also interfered in the internal affairs of the synagogue and encouraged

13244-428: The first Venetian rule. The rest of the upper town is protected by a fortified enclosure on the north and south sides of the hill, while the other sides were not fortified as they were steep and thus naturally fortified. A road with parapets in places, which had battlements and lookouts, was built around the cliff to avoid the risk of falling. The fortification of the upper town is known as Goulas ( Γουλάς ) and

13398-459: The flow of material is along the coast in a movement which is not determined by wave diffraction around the now tied island , such as the Isle of Portland , which it has reached. In this and similar cases like Cádiz , while the strip of beach material connected to the island may be technically called a tombolo because it links the island to the land, it is better thought of in terms of its formation as

13552-464: The former Ottoman mosque, located in Elkomenos square. The collection includes finds from the excavations and restorations that took place in Monemvasia. The exhibits are exhibited in the vaulted hall on the ground floor of the building, measuring 60 m (650 sq ft), which is separated from the entrance by a wall. The original floor has been covered with ceramic tiles to protect it. Most of

13706-513: The fortress after the destruction of Psara , but the siege of the fortress continued. In January 1827, Dimitris Plapoutas arrived at the fortress with 200 soldiers and the inhabitants and the governors of Monemvasia agreed to hand over the administration of the castle to him so that the fortress could be liberated, as was done by the decision of the National Assembly on 1 March 1827. However, Mavromichalis continued to try to conquer

13860-453: The fortress of Monemvasia was besieged by land and sea. After a four-month siege, it was surrendered to the Greeks on July 23, 1821. Disputes over the distribution of spoils and administration ensued, leading to anarchy. In March 1822, it was decided by the temporary administration of Greece to repair the fortress and send a guard, but to no avail, the result of which was that the situation in

14014-590: The fortress worsened. Later, the fortress and the province of Monemvasia fell victim to the civil war. The Maniots led by Konstantinos Mavromichalis began to besiege the fortress in September 1823. By March 1824, half the villages of the province had passed into the possession of the Maniots, and while they continued to besiege the fortress, the central administration decided to transfer three to four cannons from Monemvasia to Spetses . Cretans and Psarans arrived at

14168-399: The fortress, as a result of which Plapoutas withdrew, not accepting this behavior, and eventually Mavromichalis was placed in charge of the castle. These constant quarrels prevented Monemvasia from being able to play an important role in the later developments regarding the establishment of the Greek state. According to the 1828 Census, Monemvasia was home to just 659 inhabitants, with most of

14322-409: The houses having been destroyed in the war. Konstantinos Kanaris was appointed as the new guardian of Monemvasia. Among the issues he faced were guarding the fortress and repairing the buildings, as they were not in sufficient shape to house necessary public services. For this reason the engineers Fotis Kesoglou and Theodoros Vallianos arrived in the town. At the same time, an effort was made to operate

14476-479: The houses may vary typologically, the three-level layout is common to all. Tombolo A tombolo is a sandy or shingle isthmus . A tombolo, from the Italian tombolo , meaning 'pillow' or 'cushion', and sometimes translated incorrectly as ayre (an ayre is a shingle beach of any kind), is a deposition landform by which an island becomes attached to the mainland by a narrow piece of land such as

14630-419: The island, where wave energy and longshore drift are reduced and therefore deposition of sand occurs. True tombolos are formed by wave refraction and diffraction . As waves near an island, they are slowed by the shallow water surrounding it. These waves then bend around the island to the opposite side as they approach. The wave pattern created by this water movement causes a convergence of longshore drift on

14784-471: The kingdom to Hilderic. Gelimer replied, in effect, that Justinian had no authority to make these demands. Angered at this response, Justinian quickly concluded his ongoing war with the Sassanian Empire and prepared an expedition against the Vandals in 533. In 533, Belisarius sailed to Africa with a fleet of 92 dromons , escorting 500 transports carrying an army of about 15,000 men, as well as

14938-404: The largest village in the region and during the administrative reorganization of 1833. Monemvasia continued to be the seat of the province, which was renamed from the province of Monemvasia to the province of Epidaurus Limiras. Monemvasia remained the seat of the province until 1864, when the seat was transferred to Molaoi , but it remained the seat of a municipality, until its abolition in 1913. At

15092-731: The later years of his life. He died on 14 November 565, childless. He was succeeded by Justin II , who was the son of his sister Vigilantia and married to Sophia, the niece of Theodora. Justinian's body was entombed in a specially built mausoleum in the Church of the Holy Apostles until it was desecrated and robbed during the pillage of the city in 1204 by the Latin States of the Fourth Crusade . Justinian achieved lasting fame through his judicial reforms, particularly through

15246-408: The middle of the wall was a gate. In the 17th century it was strengthened, as a sloping wall and a small bastion were built. The eastern wall resembles the western, with straight sections between towers. It has a gate in the middle that leads out of the town. To strengthen the western wall, the Ottomans also built a fortress outside the walls with many cannons. The Mosque of Monemvasia was erected in

15400-709: The military situation had turned in favour of the Romans, and in 540 Belisarius reached the Ostrogothic capital Ravenna . There he was offered the title of Western Roman Emperor by the Ostrogoths at the same time that envoys of Justinian were arriving to negotiate a peace that would leave the region north of the Po River in Gothic hands. Belisarius feigned acceptance of the offer, entered the city in May 540, and reclaimed it for

15554-495: The movement of the population took place under Justinian . Another city that moved in the same period was Aipeia in Messenia , which moved to the current site of Koroni . Similarly, the location of Sparta was deemed insufficiently fortified and prone to long-term blockades due to its long distance from the port, while with the move of the capital to Constantinople, ships from Gytheion now had to sail around Cape Maleas. Due to

15708-565: The name of the place became familiar throughout Europe in connotation with the variety of wine called Malvasia , 'Malmsey' in English. Though the wine was associated with Monemvasia through trade, it was not grown locally, rather coming for the most part from the Peloponnese region and islands in the Cyclades , especially Tinos . The variety of grape is believed by most ampelographers , however, to originate from Crete . Monemvasia consists of

15862-572: The new province of Spania before being checked by their former ally Athanagild, who had by now become king. This campaign marked the apogee of Byzantine expansion. During Justinian's reign, the Balkans suffered from several incursions by the Turkic and Slavic peoples who lived north of the Danube . Here, Justinian resorted mainly to a combination of diplomacy and a system of defensive works. In 559

16016-638: The next year saw the defeat of Roman forces under Belisarius near Callinicum . Justinian then tried to make alliance with the Axumites of Ethiopia and the Himyarites of Yemen against the Persians, but this failed. When king Kavadh I of Persia died (September 531), Justinian concluded an " Eternal Peace " (which cost him 11,000 pounds of gold) with his successor Khosrau I (532). Having thus secured his eastern frontier, Justinian turned his attention to

16170-409: The north façade. The walls are made of rough stone construction and hewn ashlar stones are used in the openings and some architectural details. South of the church of Elkomenos, the old episcopal palace (bishop's residence) is preserved. Above its entrance, a lion relief survives, which is the symbol of Venice. The archaeological collection of Monemvasia was inaugurated in July 1999 and is housed in

16324-414: The north wall there was also a fort, which was rebuilt in 1540 by Kasım Pasha , but was destroyed when his gunpowder magazine exploded after being bombarded by the Venetians. The castle also had a gate on the north wall, but this was sealed during the 1st Ottoman Empire with a wall which the Venetians called Mura Rossa ('Red Wall'). The Venetians strengthened it and placed cannons in it. The lower town

16478-401: The ongoing disputes in the east. Justinian's policies switched between attempts to force Monophysites and Miaphysites (who were mistaken to be adherers of Monophysitism) to accept the Chalcedonian creed by persecuting their bishops and monks – thereby embittering their sympathizers in Egypt and other provinces – and attempts at a compromise that would win over the Monophysites without surrendering

16632-551: The only obligation being maintenance of the ships, and became the seat of a Latin bishop. Its loss was a serious blow to the emperor of Nicaea , Michael VIII Palaiologos , as it overturned his plans for the recovery of the lands that had fallen to the Franks. When William was captured by the Byzantines at the Battle of Pelagonia in 1259 and refused to cede his possessions in the Peloponnese in exchange for his release, Michael held him prisoner until 1262, when he agreed to surrender to

16786-495: The opposite side of the island. The beach sediments that are moving by lateral transport on the lee side of the island will accumulate there, conforming to the shape of the wave pattern. In other words, the waves sweep sediment together from both sides. Eventually, when enough sediment has built up, the beach shoreline, known as a spit, will connect with an island and form a tombolo. In the case of longshore drift due to an oblique wave direction, like at Chesil Beach or Spurn Head ,

16940-456: The orthodoxy of his empire threatened by diverging religious currents, especially monophysitism , which had many adherents in the eastern provinces of Syria and Egypt. Monophysite doctrine, which maintains that Jesus Christ had one divine nature rather than a synthesis of divine and human nature, had been condemned as a heresy by the Council of Chalcedon in 451, and the tolerant policies towards Monophysitism of Zeno and Anastasius I had been

17094-472: The other conquests, the Empire established a presence in Visigothic Hispania , when the usurper Athanagild requested assistance in his rebellion against King Agila I . In 552, Justinian dispatched a force of 2,000 men; according to the historian Jordanes , this army was led by the octogenarian Liberius . The Byzantines took Cartagena and other cities on the southeastern coast and founded

17248-580: The other rules were expressed or published: proper laws, senatorial consults ( senatusconsulta ), imperial decrees, case law , and jurists' opinions and interpretations ( responsa prudentium ). Tribonian's code ensured the survival of Roman law. It formed the basis of later Byzantine law, as expressed in the Basilika of Basil I and Leo VI the Wise . The only western province where the Justinianic code

17402-426: The outside world through a bridge on the western side that connects to GR-86 . In more recent history, the town has seen a resurgence in importance with increasing numbers of tourists visiting the site and the region. The medieval buildings have been restored, and many of them converted to hotels. For the past few years, on July 23, an independence day celebration has been held in the main port. Speeches are made and

17556-485: The passes of the region, while mentioning that many other cities of the Peloponnese were also abandoned in this way. However, archaeological findings do not generally concur with this view, and place the foundation of Monemvasia a few decades earlier, during the reign of Justinian . The first level of the basilica church of Christ Elkomenos in the center of the lower town dates from that time. During Justinian's reign, due to various disasters, either natural factors or raids,

17710-425: The place of the southwestern tower, a rectangular powder magazine was built during the second Venetian period. Remains of buildings are preserved inside the fort. One of the buildings near the center had a cistern. There are indications that on the eastern side of the fort there was a large hall, on the southern wall of which the monogram of Theodore Palaiologos was found. The fortress seems to have been abandoned during

17864-537: The raids multiplied. One such raid is mentioned in the so-called Psychophile Narratives of bishop Pavlos Monemvasias, which were written in the 10th century and survive only in an Arabic translation. In one of them, it is mentioned that the Arabs attacked the fortress of Vukolo , which has been identified as Monemvasia. Earlier in the same text it is mentioned that the relics of the saints of Barcelona—of Bishop Valerius, Eulalia and Vincentius among others—had washed up in

18018-416: The rebuilding, moving, and settling of the population at the new location must have been completed several years later, it is likely that the two cities coexisted for some time. Along with the inhabitants, the seat of the diocese of Lacedaemonia was also moved, although it kept its old name. Unlike other settlements in the Peloponnese region that saw their decline from the 7th century onwards—a period known as

18172-533: The regular appointment of Consuls in 541. In Constantinople, under Justinian, hospitals were built and free medical care provided to the many poor residents of the city. In addition, public baths were free for all residents and 20 state bakeries provided free bread to those who needed it. According to one study, “The empire’s social welfare programs ensured that no one went hungry.” Justinian's habit of choosing efficient but unpopular advisers nearly cost him his throne early in his reign. In January 532, partisans of

18326-445: The rest of Moria took refuge in the city. In 1688 he proposed to build a fortress opposite Monemvasia. Finally in July 1689 the construction of two forts began and the siege began again, but it was again unsuccessful and at the end of September it was withdrawn. At the end of the following spring the siege was resumed, led by Girolamo Corner and despite setbacks, the city surrendered and Corner entered on 12 August 1690. The recovery of

18480-535: The revolt provided Justinian with an opportunity to tie his name to a series of splendid new buildings, most notably the architectural innovation of the domed Hagia Sophia . One of the most spectacular features of Justinian's reign was the recovery of large stretches of land around the Western Mediterranean basin that had slipped out of Imperial control in the 5th century. As a Christian Roman emperor, Justinian considered it his divine duty to restore

18634-506: The right to receive solemnia , or annual gifts, from the Imperial treasury or from the taxes of certain provinces and he prohibited lay confiscation of monastic estates. Although the despotic character of his measures is contrary to modern sensibilities, he was a "nursing father" of the Church. Both the Codex and the Novellae contain many enactments regarding donations, foundations, and

18788-489: The road that descends from the upper town and leads to the gate in the sea walls known as the "portello" ( πορτέλλο ). At the point where these two roads cross is Elekmenos Christos square, where the metropolitan church, the former mosque, and the episcopal palace—official residence of the bishop—are located. In the 19th century, two more squares were created, the Megali ( Μεγάλη ) and Mikri Tapia ( Μικρή Τάπια ). The rest of

18942-411: The sea walls.  Other exhibits include Venetian-era coats of arms and cisterns. The lower city of Monemvasia is, like other Byzantine castle-cities, densely built. Most houses have a narrow façade and are arranged perpendicular to the slopes of the land. These houses generally have three levels. The lower level has an independent entrance and was intended for the stable of animals and had a cistern in

19096-414: The sea, where there was a corner tower. The south-west corner of the wall was strengthened in the 17th century with a cannon tower, while the gate was rebuilt and a bastion built over it. Another bastion was built near the rock. After the recapture by Venice, a strong tower was built in the southwest corner. The sea wall consists of straight sections which connected five towers beyond the two corner towers. In

19250-487: The settlement spread around the island (not only on its main side), and important monuments were rebuilt, such as the church of Hagia Sophia (originally dedicated to Panagia Hodegetria ) in the upper town and the church of Elkomenos Christos, which was reconstructed during that period, possibly due to the placement of the image of Christ Elkomenos in the temple. At the time of the Komnenians , Monemvasia had evolved into

19404-455: The siege was relieved by Sasanian reinforcements. Justinian replaced him with Bessas , who was under a cloud after the loss of Rome in 546, but he managed to capture and dismantle Petra in 551. The war continued for several years until a second truce in 557, followed by a fifty years' peace in 562. Under its terms, the Persians agreed to abandon Lazica in exchange for an annual tribute of 400 or 500 pounds of gold (30,000 solidi ) to be paid by

19558-459: The single approach, or entrance". Its Italian form, Malvasia , gave its name to the eponymous wine . Monemvasia has been nicknamed "the Gibraltar of the East" ( Γιβραλτάρ της ανατολής ). While uninhabited in antiquity, the island upon which the town of Monemvasia is situated may have been the site of a Minoan trading post. Pausanias , the renowned Greek traveler and geographer, referred to

19712-480: The site as Akra Minoa , which translates to "Minoan Promontory". The ancient settlement of Epidaurus Limera was located a little north of Monemvasia in ancient times. The region surrounding the two settlements has been inhabited since prehistoric times. During Roman times it flourished as the most important city on the eastern coast of the Malea peninsula . Pausanias visited Epidaurus Limera and said that opposite

19866-502: The southern wall of the upper town. It is walled on three sides: east, south, and west. Entry is through the west gate, which is connected by a road to the bridge over the causeway. The street continues inside the city and forms the main street of the lower town, which was known as the Middle Street ( Μέση Οδός ) in the Byzantine period. The area surrounding it was known as the "Agora" and along it are shops. This road intersects with

20020-537: The square of Elkomenos during the first Ottoman occupation. After the recovery of Monemvasia by the Venetians in 1690, the building changed its use and was probably used by the Capuchins as a monastery. In 1715, when the Ottomans recaptured Monemvasia, the building became a mosque again. After the Revolution of 1821, the building was turned into a prison and later, in the middle of the 20th century, it functioned as

20174-404: The story of Tzannetakis Grigorakis, and his men, is recounted in both Greek and English. Inhabitants and visitors can gather to watch as a ship, built every year, is filled with pyrotechnics and set on fire. The 1986 horror movie The Wind was filmed here. The municipality of Monemvasia was formed from the former province of Epidavros Limira during the 2011 administrative reform as a part of

20328-418: The streets of the lower town are narrow cobblestones, sometimes covered with vaulted structures known as dromi , over which sections of houses were built. At the highest point of the rock of Monemvasia was the acropolis. This fortress consisted of an enclosure with four towers at each corner. Entrance was made through a gate in the eastern wall. The walls were made of 'mudstone' with a fortified mortar . In

20482-514: The surrender treaty. Others fled to other Venetian-occupied areas. After the Ottoman recovery, Monemvasia remained under the jurisdiction of Kapudan Pasha . The area experienced a relative commercial and economic boom and a Greek school was established. Some Venetians returned to the city, as did former Turkish residents. During the Orlov revolt (1770), the Metropolitan of Monemvasia, Anthimos

20636-631: The sword, and famine, and pestilence." An African prefecture , centred in Carthage, was established in April 534, but it would teeter on the brink of collapse during the next 15 years, amidst warfare with the Moors and military mutinies. By the mid-540s, under a succession of Byzantine generals, the region was disrupted under civil war, plague and military campaigning. The area was not completely pacified until 548, but remained peaceful thereafter and enjoyed

20790-468: The territory of Monemvasia, but the Monemvasians repudiated the rebels. In 1394, Theodore was captured by Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I and, in order to free himself, asked for the surrender of Monemvasia. Theodore managed to escape and with the help of Venice recaptured Monemvasia from the Ottomans in July 1394. The result of all these events was that the city's population decreased and commercial traffic

20944-576: The top, revealing coarser sands and cobbles as the base. Some of these may be simple isthmuses, and not have the deposition creation that defines a true tombolo. Justinian I Justinian I ( / dʒ ʌ ˈ s t ɪ n i ə n / just- IN -ee-ən ; Latin : Iūstīniānus , Classical Latin pronunciation: [juːstiːniˈaːnʊs] ; ‹See Tfd› Greek : Ἰουστινιανός , translit.   Ioustinianós , Byzantine Greek pronunciation: [i.ustini.aˈnos] ; 482 – 14 November 565), also known as Justinian

21098-549: The treaty was signed on October 2, 1540, and the two cities surrendered to the Turks. Most of its inhabitants then abandoned it and took refuge in the nearest Venetian-occupied islands, mainly in Corfu and Crete . During the Ottoman times, the upper town was abandoned. Monemvasia itself became known as Menexe ( Μενεξέ ), Menefse ( Μενεφσέ ), or Benefse ( Μπενεφσέ ) in Greek and Menekşe in Turkish (all meaning 'violet'). It

21252-402: The upper town, which is located on the plateau of the hill, and the lower town, which is built on the southern coast of the peninsula. The upper town is no longer inhabited, as it was abandoned after the second Venetian occupation. The entrance to the upper town today is through a fortified gate to which a winding path ascends from the lower town. A second entrance used to be on the north side, but

21406-483: Was Vigilantia, the sister of Justin. Justin, who was commander of one of the imperial guard units (the Excubitors ) before he became emperor, adopted Justinian, brought him to Constantinople , and ensured the boy's education. As a result, Justinian was well educated in jurisprudence , theology , and Roman history. Justinian served as a candidatus , one of 40 men selected from the scholae palatinae to serve as

21560-581: Was administratively included in the Eyalet of the Morea . In the census of 1573-1574, it was mentioned that the town had a garrison of 104 men and paid 28,665 akçes in taxes, 6,000 of which came from the commercial traffic in its port. Due to information that there was a small garrison in Monemvasia, Jean Parisot de La Valette , the Grand Master of the Order of Malta decided to capture it in order to obtain

21714-555: Was appointed consul and commander of the army of the east. Justinian remained Justin's close confidant, and in 525 was granted the titles of nobilissimus and caesar (heir-apparent). He was crowned co-emperor on 1 April 527, and became sole ruler after Justin's death on 1 August 527. As a ruler, Justinian showed great energy. He was known as "the emperor who never sleeps" for his work habits. Nevertheless, he seems to have been amiable and easy to approach. Around 525, he married his mistress, Theodora , in Constantinople. She

21868-413: Was built during the Byzantine period, although now the greater part of the walls date from the Venetian and Ottoman times. The walls are more reinforced in the section where the south gate is located, in the section above the west gate of the lower town and at the eastern end. To the gate of the upper town leads from the lower town a winding cobblestone with two intermediate gates. The gate in Byzantine times

22022-426: Was by profession an actress and some twenty years his junior. In earlier times, Justinian could not have married her owing to her class, but his uncle, Emperor Justin I, had passed a law lifting restrictions on marriages with ex-actresses. Though the marriage caused a scandal, Theodora would become very influential in the politics of the Empire. Other talented individuals included Tribonian , his legal adviser; Peter

22176-410: Was effectively brought to a halt. After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, unrest prevailed in the Despotate, which at the time had two despots, Thomas Palaiologos and Demetrios Palaiologos , who disagreed about the future of the despotate. Dimitrios surrendered Monemvasia in May 1460 to Mehmed II , but he withdrew without besieging it. Then, following the advice of Thomas, the inhabitants offered

22330-467: Was established there in the 4th century, around the time when the capital of the Roman Empire moved from Rome to Constantinople , which resulted in changes in maritime trade routes. Epidaurus Limera itself was abandoned in the 4th century. Monemvasia was founded in the 6th century, from the relocation of the inhabitants of Ancient Sparta , which was then known as Lacedaemon . Sparta, unlike other cities that were abandoned, continued to be inhabited until

22484-417: Was finally broken. In 554, a large-scale Frankish invasion was defeated at Casilinum , and Italy was secured for the Empire, though it would take Narses several years to reduce the remaining Gothic strongholds. At the end of the war, Italy was garrisoned with an army of 16,000 men. The recovery of Italy cost the empire about 300,000 pounds of gold. Procopius estimated 15,000,000 Goths died. In addition to

22638-447: Was forcibly brought to Constantinople and besieged at a chapel, finally also gave his assent. However, the condemnation was received unfavourably in the west, where it led to new (albeit temporal) schism, and failed to reach its goal in the east, as the Monophysites remained unsatisfied – all the more bitter for him because during his last years he took an even greater interest in theological matters. Justinian's religious policy reflected

22792-886: Was introduced was Italy (after the conquest by the so-called Pragmatic Sanction of 554 ), from where it was to pass to Western Europe in the 12th century and become the basis of much Continental European law code, which was eventually spread by European empires to the Americas and beyond in the Age of Discovery . It eventually passed to Eastern Europe where it appeared in Slavic editions, and it also passed on to Russia . It remains influential to this day. He passed laws to protect prostitutes from exploitation and women from being forced into prostitution . Rapists were treated severely. Further, by his policies: women charged with major crimes should be guarded by other women to prevent sexual abuse; if

22946-422: Was not safe from barbarian incursions from the north, and even the relatively benevolent historian Menander Protector felt the need to attribute the Emperor's failure to protect the capital to the weakness of his body in his old age. In his efforts to renew the Roman Empire, Justinian dangerously stretched its resources while failing to take into account the changed realities of 6th-century Europe. Justinian saw

23100-471: Was proclaimed the new emperor with significant help from Justinian. Justinian showed a lot of ambition, and several sources claim that he was functioning as virtual regent long before Justin made him associate emperor, although there is no conclusive evidence of this. As Justin became senile near the end of his reign, Justinian became the de facto ruler. Following the general Vitalian 's assassination in 520 (orchestrated by Justinian and Justin), Justinian

23254-763: Was reported to have converted 70,000 pagans, which was probably an exaggerated number. Other peoples also accepted Christianity: the Heruli , the Huns dwelling near the Don , the Abasgi , and the Tzanni in Caucasia . The worship of Amun at the oasis of Awjila in the Libyan desert was abolished, and so were the remnants of the worship of Isis on the island of Philae , at

23408-477: Was sealed during the first occupation by the Ottoman Empire. In the upper town was the acropolis of Monemvasia, a rectangular fortress with four towers, which was built in the 6th century, houses and public buildings, such as churches, cisterns and administrative buildings. The church of Hagia Sophia stands out among them. The layout of the settlement is no longer distinct. The lower town is located under

23562-569: Was sent back to Italy late in 544 but lacked sufficient troops and supplies. Making no headway, he was relieved of his command in 548. Belisarius succeeded in defeating a Gothic fleet of 200 ships. During this period the city of Rome changed hands three more times, first taken and depopulated by the Ostrogoths in December 546, then reconquered by the Byzantines in 547, and then again by the Goths in January 550. Totila also plundered Sicily and attacked Greek coastlines. Finally, Justinian dispatched

23716-406: Was vaulted and had a square tower above it. During Ottoman times, vaulted rooms were built near the gate, one of which was a mosque. To the west there is a small bastion. The western wall of the upper town oversaw the main gate of the lower town. It had two towers. This wall was strengthened by the Ottomans so that it could face the artillery with a double bastion to the east. On the eastern edge of

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