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93-575: Plans for establishing moonbases, with surface or sub-surface research stations , have been proposed and are actively pursued nationally and increasingly internationally. As of 2024, the two most advanced projects to set up moonbases have been pursued multilaterally as part of the US -led Artemis program , with its planned Artemis Base Camp and as the China -led International Lunar Research Station . A broader, international infrastructure has been envisioned with

186-635: A low Earth orbit which means that relatively closer to the Earth's surface. This can be anywhere from 1000 km to just 160 km above the surface of the Earth. The ISS is a collaborative effort by multiple space agencies around the world. The countries involved in the funding of the stations includes Europe , Japan , Canada , Russia and the United States . The respective space agencies of these countries are ESA , JAXA , CSA , Roscosmos , NASA . The modularity and size of components of

279-417: A UNESCO report titled "World Heritage and Tourism in a Changing Climate". The Australian government's actions, involving considerable expense for lobbying and visits for diplomats , were in response to their concern about the negative impact that an "at risk" label could have on tourism revenue at a previously designated UNESCO World Heritage Site. In 2021, international scientists recommended UNESCO to put

372-512: A cargo lander with a 4,500 kg (9,900 lb) capacity of usable payload. Astronaut Buzz Aldrin has long urged his fellow Americans to cooperate with international partners to reach the Moon. The State Space Agency of Ukraine has agreed to uphold MVA principles and cooperate with the MVA to develop "sustainable habitation" of the Moon. While Wörner is the most famous advocate for Moon Village, it

465-524: A crewed moonbase as successor to the N1-L3 crewed lunar expedition program . The project was ordered by the Soviet space chief Korolyov to Barmin 's Spetcmash bureau. The project was named DLB Lunar Base in technical specifications and Zvezda in government documents. Unofficially, the project was called Barmingrad (Barmin's city) by its designers. The realization of the project depended on key parts of

558-552: A group of human researchers and crew to inhabit over a span of anywhere from months and even a year. Space stations are intended to be permanently operating in space unlike other kinds of space craft such as satellites . However, it may not be permanently inhabited by human researchers who may come and go as they cycle through different explorations. Space stations are typically controlled by their own respective space agency and country. The design for space stations evolved over multiple decades. The engineering and design aspects of

651-525: A lunar base of inflatable modules covered in lunar dust for insulation. A spaceship assembled in low Earth orbit would launch to the Moon, and astronauts would set up the igloo -like modules and an inflatable radio mast. Subsequent steps would include the establishment of a larger, permanent dome; an algae -based air purifier ; a nuclear reactor for the provision of power; and electromagnetic cannons to launch cargo and fuel to interplanetary vessels in space. In 1959, John S. Rinehart suggested that

744-813: A lunar recycling facility. In 2020, China proposed the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS), a somewhat similar proposal to the Moon Village, with Roscosmos and ESA showing interest. The first steps toward establishing the ILRS will be taken through Phase IV of the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program , consisting of Chang'e 6 , 7 , and 8 , as well as the Russian missions, Luna 25 , 26 , and 27 . Long-term robotic and short-term crew missions at

837-522: A memorandum of understanding for the joint construction of the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS). The United States has run several attempts to design and in some cases develop lunar outposts and the needed missions, the first being from 1959, with the upcoming Artemis missions being the most advanced. Zvezda moonbase ( Russian : звезда , "star" ) was a Soviet plan and project from 1962 to 1974 to construct

930-488: A minor boundary change, one that does not have a significant impact on the extent of the property or affect its "outstanding universal value", is also evaluated by the advisory bodies before being sent to the committee. Such proposals can be rejected by either the advisory bodies or the Committee if they judge it to be a significant change instead of a minor one. Proposals to change a site's official name are sent directly to

1023-756: A remarkable accomplishment of humankind and serve as evidence of our intellectual history on the planet, or it might be a place of great natural beauty. As of July 2024, a total of 1,223 World Heritage Sites (952 cultural, 231 natural and 40 mixed cultural and natural properties) exist across 168 countries . With 60 selected areas, Italy is the country with the most sites, followed by China with 59, and Germany with 54. The sites are intended for practical conservation for posterity, which otherwise would be subject to risk from human or animal trespassing, unmonitored, uncontrolled or unrestricted access, or threat from local administrative negligence. Sites are demarcated by UNESCO as protected zones. The World Heritage Sites list

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1116-475: A self-sufficient extraterrestrial homeland". On March 9, 2021, Russia and China signed a memorandum of understanding for the joint construction of the International Lunar Research Station (ILRS) around 2035. The Russian Federal Space Agency ( Roscosmos ) has planned a fully robotic lunar base called Lunny Poligon . The project was planned for 2020, with an expected completion date of 2037. On March 9, 2021, Russia turned to cooperate with China and signed

1209-442: A sense of gravity for the crew members. The theme of gravity being artificially produced through the rotation of the space station was first detailed by Wernher Von Braun in the 1950s which maintained a similar concept of a rotating wheel. The International Space Station (ISS) is one of the biggest space stations in the world and it is permanently inhabited. The first parts of the stations were launched in 1998. It operates in

1302-1000: A single text was eventually agreed upon by all parties, and the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage was adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO on 16 November 1972. The convention came into force on 17 December 1975. As of November 2024, it has been ratified by 196 states: 192 UN member states , two UN observer states (the Holy See and the State of Palestine ), and two states in free association with New Zealand (the Cook Islands and Niue ). Only one UN member state, Liechtenstein , has not ratified

1395-437: A space station was first introduced by Herman Potocnik in 1928. His "Wohnrad" also known as "Living Wheel" consisted of a rotating wheel-shaped space station consisting of three parts: a habitat rotation wheel, an observatory , and a machine room. The Wohnrad's habitat wheel consisted of habitation units, laboratories and observatories which would measure 30 meters in diameter and whose centrifugal force would generate

1488-466: A sub-surface base located at the Sea of Tranquility . This base would house a crew of 21, in modules placed four meters below the surface, which was believed to provide radiation shielding on par with Earth's atmosphere. DeNike and Zahn favored nuclear reactors for energy production, because they were more efficient than solar panels , and would also overcome the problems with the long lunar nights. For

1581-802: Is governed by around 30 countries facilitated through the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) . Since 1959 when this treaty was enacted, 42 countries have become signatories to it and have established research stations in Antarctica . Research stations in Antarctica operate on a seasonal basis in accordance with its Summer and Winter. This is as temperatures have a large variation between the two seasons with temperature exceeding +10 °C in Summer and dropping to under −40 °C in Winter in

1674-631: Is intended to be self-sufficient with respect to food and other material required for life support. Prize money was provided primarily by the Boston Society of Architects , Google Lunar X Prize and The New England Council of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics . Besides temporary infrastructure of lunar missions, some of the permanently placed artificial objects on the Moon have already fulfilled long-term purposes. Since 1969, retroreflectors have been installed on

1767-585: Is maintained by the international World Heritage Program administered by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee , composed of 21 "states parties" that are elected by the United Nations General Assembly , and advised by reviews of international panels of experts in natural or cultural history, and education. The Program catalogues, names, and conserves sites of outstanding cultural or natural importance to

1860-689: Is not an ESA program. Instead, the concept is being organized, loosely, by a nonprofit organization established in November 2017 called the Moon Village Association . It is a non-profit organization, registered in Vienna, with the mission to create a global forum for the development of the Moon Village, and to potentially implement a permanent human settlement near the lunar south pole , taking advantage of near-continuous sunlight and nearby deposits of ice and other useful volatiles. In 2018,

1953-434: Is not one project or one program. It says, "Let's do it together." The open nature of the concept would encompass any kind of lunar activities, whether robotic or astronauts, 3D printed habitats, refueling stations, relay orbiters, astronomy, exploiting resources, or even tourism. The idea is to achieve at least some degree of coordination and exploitation of potential synergies and to create a permanent sustainable presence on

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2046-469: Is to be supported by the scheduled Lunar Gateway . Research station Research stations are facilities where scientific investigation, collection , analysis and experimentation occurs. A research station is a facility that is built for the purpose of conducting scientific research . There are also many types of research stations including: biological field stations, space stations etc. Research station sites might include remote areas of

2139-640: The Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration consisted of wooden huts and tents. It was not until post World War II when research stations began to be built on a wider and more commercial scale. These post war research stations were made with the aim to be quickly erected and it was often constructed by individuals with little construction experience and knowledge. Research stations during this time were made up of standard cool room panels and utilized expanded Bakelite insulation. This model later evolved to be elevated buildings held aloft by steel scaffolding . This

2232-560: The International Space Station but on a truly global, international-cooperation basis, and he proposes this approach as a replacement for the orbiting International Space Station , which is due to be decommissioned in 2024. China has expressed interest, and NASA has also expressed interest in the potential synergy it offers to the proposed Lunar Gateway space station. The private aerospace company Blue Origin has also expressed early interest and offered to develop

2325-623: The International Space Station (ISS) . Similarly, stations in Antarctica are built to ensure that they are well insulated against the sub-zero temperatures of the exterior landscape with many redevelopments being required over the years to overcome issues associated with snowdrifts , accessibility and rusting . Some research stations are located in the Arctic , such as the Northeast Science Station , McGill Arctic Research Station and Himadri Station . Some stations in

2418-571: The Organization of Biological Field Stations and the Organization for Tropical Studies . Space stations were also developed over a number of decades through scientific analysis and writing, with the first design aspects of early space stations being introduced by Herman Potocnik in 1928. Since then, the construction and launch of space stations have been both national and international, collaborative efforts which have allowed different design philosophies to form key space stations such as

2511-637: The Savannas of North-eastern Côte d'Ivoire or the Gombe Research Station in Tanzania , where famous chimpanzee research was conducted by Jane Goodall . Biological field stations or ecological research stations are facilities where research can be conducted into different aspects of the environmental and biological life. It covers a wide range of field stations including: marine research stations, tropical research stations etc. During

2604-796: The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm. Under the World Heritage Committee, signatory countries are required to produce and submit periodic data reporting providing the committee with an overview of each participating nation's implementation of the World Heritage Convention and a "snapshot" of current conditions at World Heritage properties. Based on the draft convention that UNESCO had initiated,

2697-486: The Vienna University of Technology got sponsorship from ESA for a design workshop on the topic of the Moon Village. 35 master students have developed hypothetical scenarios for a future Moon village. Interestingly the cooperative concept of the workshop led to a number of new themes, such as multipurpose mobile infrastructure, an astro-scientist training campus on the Moon, an experimental research food lab up to

2790-402: The 18th and early 19th century, field stations were not yet formally established, and European naturalists and biologists would conduct their research through imperial scientific explorations. This time period occurred within the time of imperialism and colonial expansion which began from the mid-18th century, which was where European countries, which undergoing industrialization , were in

2883-680: The Arctic are staffed drifting ice stations , built on the ice of the high latitudes of the Arctic Ocean . Many nations also have research stations located in Antarctica ; Showa Station , Halley and Troll are examples. There are also various research stations doing field ecological research such as the Tiputini Biodiversity Station in the Ecuadorian Amazon , Comoé National Park Research Station in

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2976-652: The Artemis Accords in 2020, there has been a discussion if they can be harmonized. In this light an Implementation Agreement for the Moon Treaty has been advocated for, as a way to compensate for the shortcomings of the Moon Treaty and to harmonize it with other laws and agreements such as the Artemis Accords, allowing it to be more widely accepted. In the face of such increasing commercial and national interest, particularly prospecting territories, U.S. lawmakers have introduced in late 2020 specific regulation for

3069-729: The China-led International Lunar Research Station . For broader international cooperation and coordination the International Lunar Exploration Working Group (ILEWG), the Moon Village Association (MVA) and more generally the International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG) has been established. Since 2020, countries have joined the U.S. in their Artemis Accords , which are challenging

3162-707: The Great Barrier Reef on the endangered list, as global climate change had caused a further negative state of the corals and water quality. Again, the Australian government campaigned against this, and in July 2021, the World Heritage Committee , made up of diplomatic representatives of 21 countries, ignored UNESCO's assessment, based on studies of scientists, "that the reef was clearly in danger from climate change and so should be placed on

3255-615: The ILRS are expected to begin in the early 2030s. Roscosmos signed a memorandum of understanding on cooperation in the creation of the ILRS with CNSA on March 9, 2021. There is a projected timeline stretching from the 2030s to 2045. The China National Space Administration ( CNSA ) has commenced the Chang'e program for exploring the Moon to investigate the prospect of lunar mining , specifically for mining isotope helium-3 for use as an energy source on Earth. CNSA director Luan Enjie has stated that humans must learn to leave Earth and "set up

3348-1038: The List of World Heritage in Danger and the World Heritage List. Only three sites have ever been delisted : the Arabian Oryx Sanctuary in Oman, the Dresden Elbe Valley in Germany, and the Liverpool Maritime Mercantile City in the United Kingdom. The Arabian Oryx Sanctuary was directly delisted in 2007, instead of first being put on the danger list, after the Omani government decided to reduce

3441-403: The Moon and in cislunar space for a variety of purposes. It is neither an ESA project nor a program, but being organized, loosely, by a nonprofit organization seeking to give a platform for an open international architecture and collaboration. In other words, Moon Village seeks to create a vision where both international cooperation and the commercialization of space can thrive. The Moon Village

3534-492: The Moon, starting with Tranquility Base (1969). Later robotic missions set up simple robotic temporary bases, leaving their landers behind, starting with Luna 16 (1970). The 1967 Outer Space Treaty defines the Moon and all outer space as the " province of all mankind ". It restricts the use of the Moon to peaceful purposes, explicitly banning military installations and weapons of mass destruction . A majority of countries are parties of this treaty. The 1979 Moon Agreement

3627-502: The N1-L3 program – the N-1 superheavy launcher, all 4 launches of which failed between 1969 and 1972. Zvezda moonbase was canceled with the rest of the Soviet human lunar programs. All crewed Soviet lunar programs, including a Zvezda moonbase, had been classified as top secret and were only published in the glasnost epoch since 1990. In 1954, science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke proposed

3720-609: The World Heritage Committee for new designations. The Committee meets once a year to determine which nominated properties to add to the World Heritage List; sometimes it defers its decision or requests more information from the country that nominated the site. There are ten selection criteria – a site must meet at least one to be included on the list. Until 2004, there were six sets of criteria for cultural heritage and four for natural heritage. In 2005, UNESCO modified these and now has one set of ten criteria. Nominated sites must be of "outstanding universal value" and must meet at least one of

3813-998: The World Heritage Fund to facilitate its conservation under certain conditions. UNESCO reckons the restorations of the following four sites among its success stories: Angkor in Cambodia, the Old City of Dubrovnik in Croatia, the Wieliczka Salt Mine near Kraków in Poland, and the Ngorongoro Conservation Area in Tanzania. Additionally, the local population around a site may benefit from significantly increased tourism revenue. When there are significant interactions between people and

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3906-593: The abundant fauna of Sagami Bay that is it was situated across from. The increased interest in building biological field stations grew with the era known as the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration which was a period beginning in the late 19th century where European explorers were in competition to explore and establish scientific presence on the Antarctic continent. However, the formation of biological field stations became stagnant during international disruptions of World War I and World War II . After World War II,

3999-434: The accumulation of snowdrift . Another discovery that engineers made was that the structural foundations of research stations can be made directly into the rock bed of station sites at sites which were sediment and rock dominant over ice. After this period of trial and error, in the early 2000s, there began a movement to create more consistent, commercialized structures which emphasized durability. A notable example of this

4092-501: The awards, because World Heritage listing can significantly increase tourism returns. Site listing bids are often lengthy and costly, putting poorer countries at a disadvantage. Eritrea 's efforts to promote Asmara are one example. In 2016, the Australian government was reported to have successfully lobbied for the World Heritage Site Great Barrier Reef conservation efforts to be removed from

4185-400: The challenge of accumulating snowdrift, frost or maintaining effective insulation. While there were significant challenges to building research stations during this time, there were also some building innovations that developed from this period of architectural experimentation in the region. Engineers found that buildings could be constructed to be parallel to the direction of the wind to prevent

4278-404: The coastal parts of the continent. Most operations are carried out in the Summer where temperatures are higher. The majority of research stations in Antarctica are located in these coastal regions with a large number being clustered alongside the peninsula of the continent. These research stations are built to accommodate for the sub-zero climatic conditions of the region as well as considering

4371-504: The commitment of countries and local population to World Heritage conservation in various ways, providing emergency assistance for sites in danger, offering technical assistance and professional training, and supporting States Parties' public awareness-building activities. Being listed as a World Heritage Site can positively affect the site, its environment, and interactions between them. A listed site gains international recognition and legal protection, and can obtain funds from, among others,

4464-454: The committee. A site may be added to the List of World Heritage in Danger if conditions threaten the characteristics for which the landmark or area was inscribed on the World Heritage List. Such problems may involve armed conflict and war, natural disasters, pollution, poaching, or uncontrolled urbanisation or human development. This danger list is intended to increase international awareness of

4557-417: The common culture and heritage of humankind. The programme began with the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage , which was adopted by the General Conference of UNESCO on 16 November 1972. Since then, 196 states have ratified the convention, making it one of the most widely recognised international agreements and the world's most popular cultural programme. In 1954,

4650-522: The conservation of historic landing sites and interest groups have argued for making such sites World Heritage Sites and zones of scientific value protected zones, all of which add to the legal availability and territorialization of the Moon. The Moon Village concept was presented in 2015. "Village" in this context refers to international public and private investors, scientists, engineers, universities, and businessmen coming together to discuss interests and capabilities to build and share infrastructure on

4743-489: The construction of interior hardware racks which were built to be replaceable. It also took into account the preferences of the crew members who largely indicated that the interior design of the station would be constructed with distinct floors, ceiling and walls. The ISS is set to be retired around the end of the 2020s. The only other occupied space station in low Earth orbit is the Chinese space station, Tiangong . Tiangong

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4836-412: The convention. By assigning places as World Heritage Sites, UNESCO wants to help preserve them for future generations. Its motivation is that "heritage is our legacy from the past, what we live with today" and that both cultural and natural heritage are "irreplaceable sources of life and inspiration". UNESCO's mission with respect to World Heritage consists of eight sub targets. These include encouraging

4929-450: The educational scope of tropical natural resources and 3) helping to shape policies that will impact these regions. It provides both undergraduate and graduate programs to students in the fields of field biology , ecology , global health, and conservation and allows students to perform hands-on work in both African and South American continents. There are also numerous other organizations and institutes, both public and private, around

5022-650: The endangered monuments and sites. In 1960, the Director-General of UNESCO launched the International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia . This resulted in the excavation and recording of hundreds of sites, the recovery of thousands of objects, as well as the salvage and relocation to higher ground of several important temples. The most famous of these are the temple complexes of Abu Simbel and Philae . The campaign ended in 1980 and

5115-443: The event of a civilization-stopping asteroid impact with Earth. A Lunar Noah's Ark was proposed. Subsequent planning may be taken up by the International Lunar Exploration Working Group (ILEWG). In 2010, The Moon Capital Competition offered a prize for a design of a lunar habitat intended to be an underground international commercial center capable of supporting a residential staff of 60 people and their families. The Moon Capital

5208-538: The government of Egypt decided to build the new Aswan High Dam , whose resulting future reservoir would eventually inundate a large stretch of the Nile valley containing cultural treasures of ancient Egypt and ancient Nubia . In 1959, the governments of Egypt and Sudan requested the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to assist them to protect and rescue

5301-938: The importance of this redesign on shifting the approach to the construction of Antarctic research stations, "when the U.K. built Halley VI , many nations realized the importance of doing something special, and not just doing something." Similarly, the Australian Antarctic Building System (AANBUS) has claimed to set the standard for design in the Antarctic by utilizing braced steel framed structures, insulated panels and vapour barriers to overcome previous design and practicality issues. World Heritage Site World Heritage Sites are landmarks and areas with legal protection under an international treaty administered by UNESCO for having cultural, historical, or scientific significance. The sites are judged to contain "cultural and natural heritage around

5394-992: The last two decades. These activities endanger Natural World Heritage Sites and could compromise their unique values. Of the Natural World Heritage Sites that contain forest, 91% experienced some loss since 2000. Many of them are more threatened than previously thought and require immediate conservation action. The destruction of cultural assets and identity-establishing sites is one of the primary goals of modern asymmetrical warfare. Terrorists, rebels, and mercenary armies deliberately smash archaeological sites, sacred and secular monuments and loot libraries, archives and museums. The UN, United Nations peacekeeping and UNESCO in cooperation with Blue Shield International are active in preventing such acts. "No strike lists" are also created to protect cultural assets from air strikes. The founding president of Blue Shield International Karl von Habsburg summed it up with

5487-636: The life support system, an algae-based gas exchanger was proposed. As of 2006, the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) planned a human lunar landing around 2020 that would lead to a crewed lunar base by 2030; however, there was no budget yet for this project. In 2007, Jim Burke, of the International Space University in France, said people should plan to preserve humanity's culture in

5580-517: The list." According to environmental protection groups, this "decision was a victory for cynical lobbying and [...] Australia, as custodians of the world's biggest coral reef, was now on probation." Several listed locations, such as Casco Viejo in Panama and Hội An in Vietnam , have struggled to strike a balance between the economic benefits of catering to greatly increased visitor numbers after

5673-722: The local level which can result in the site being damaged. Rock art under world heritage protection at the Tadrart Acacus in Libya have occasionally been intentionally destroyed. Chalcraft links this destruction to Libyan national authorities prioritizing World Heritage status over local sensibilities by limiting access to the sites without consulting with the local population. UNESCO has also been criticized for alleged geographic bias, racism , and colourism in world heritage inscription. A major chunk of all world heritage inscriptions are located in regions whose populations generally have lighter skin, including Europe, East Asia, and North America. The World Heritage Committee has divided

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5766-518: The natural environment, these can be recognised as "cultural landscapes". A country must first identify its significant cultural and natural sites in a document known as the Tentative List. Next, it can place sites selected from that list into a Nomination File, which is evaluated by the International Council on Monuments and Sites and the World Conservation Union . A country may not nominate sites that have not been first included on its Tentative List. The two international bodies make recommendations to

5859-429: The number of biological research stations around the world increased significantly with 92 stations being established in the 1950s alone. It was during the post-war period that multiple multinational and regional organizations surrounding biological field stations were formed. The most prominent is the non-profit organization known as the Organization of Biological Field Stations was founded in 1963. This organization

5952-592: The panel from the inside. Another issue with this design was that limited the function and dimensions of the building. This made the buildings hard to access. From this period onwards (roughly the late 1960s onwards), multiple designs were trialed to resolve the issues of guy wires which obstructed mobility and to improve the quality of safety and services, as well as reducing cost. Some examples of design elements during this period included fiberglass paneled stations, aluminum window frames and timber panels. However, these designs were not very effective at overcoming

6045-495: The placement and construction of it building itself. Antarctic research stations need to be built in a manner to minimize issues such as insulation, freezing of concrete during the building process and the potential for the accumulation of drifting snow . The process of the construction of research stations on the continent evolved over time to address these issues. Early research bases in Antarctica used by prominent explorers such as Ernest Shackleton and Roald Amundsen during

6138-428: The planned Lunar Gateway of the Artemis program. The development of moonbases into permanent extraterrestrial settlements has been put forward. Broader lunar colonization or space colonization in general, particularly as laying territorial claims, which is prohibited by international space law , has been criticized for perpetuating colonialism . The Apollo Program established the first six temporary bases on

6231-495: The process of seeking to invade and conqueror territories around the world. Naturalists were often enlisted on imperial campaigns to "undiscovered" territories to assist in the cataloging and mapping of foreign specimens. For example, in 1813, Charles Darwin was appointed the naturalist on the Royal Navy ship, HMS Beagle , and his diary journals from that voyage contributed significantly to his later scientific theories on evolution and natural selection . Similarly, Joseph Banks

6324-416: The protected area's size by 90%. The Dresden Elbe Valley was first placed on the danger list in 2006 when the World Heritage Committee decided that plans to construct the Waldschlösschen Bridge would significantly alter the valley's landscape. In response, the Dresden City Council attempted to stop the bridge's construction. However, after several court decisions allowed the building of the bridge to proceed,

6417-467: The recognition and preserving the original culture and local communities. Another criticism is that there is a homogeneity to these sites, which contain similar styles, visitor centres , etc., meaning that a lot of the individuality of these sites has been removed to become more attractive to tourists. Anthropologist Jasper Chalcraft said that World Heritage recognition often ignores contemporary local usage of certain sites. This leads to conflicts on

6510-626: The research station were dictated by the use of the space shuttle as the primary launch vehicle. The components also needed to be durable and maintainable. In the earlier years the development of the ISS in the 1990s, different countries brought different philosophies and approaches to the construction, design and transportation of research stations. Russian engineers emphasized automated use and remote control in their designs. The United States, Japanese and European nations were guided by four, consistent main principles: accessibility , maintainability , modularity and reconfigurability . This affected

6603-410: The safest design would be a structure that could "[float] in a stationary ocean of dust ", since there were, at the time this concept was outlined, theories that there could be mile-deep dust oceans on the Moon. The proposed design consisted of a half-cylinder with half-domes at both ends, with a micrometeoroid shield placed above the base. In 1962, John DeNike and Stanley Zahn published their idea of

6696-657: The so-called Moon Village concept , and a general international regulatory regime for lunar activity has been called for by the 1979 signed Moon Treaty , and advocated for with an implementation agreement since 2020. The surface infrastructure of a base may consist of pre-integrated basic landers , as supporting stations for robotic rovers , or habitation modules for crewed presence, or of surface assembled or in-situ derived and constructed surface stations for sustained lunar habitation . Lunar bases may work with lunar space stations , which in contrast provide infrastructures in lunar orbit supporting activity from there, as with

6789-634: The surface of the Moon and are actively used for lunar laser ranging . In the 2010s, the International Lunar Network consisting of robotic instruments placed around the moon was also proposed. Lunar orbital spacecraft have been supporting lunar bases since the use of the Apollo command and service module in lunar orbit. Today an increasing number of lunar satellites provide different services to surface missions and possibly to lunar bases. The current lunar landing Artemis program

6882-500: The surface of the Moon, whether robotic or crewed. Jan Wörner , ESA Director General until 2021, described in 2017 the Village simply as "an understanding, not a single facility". This initiative is meant as the first step in coming together as a species and developing the partnerships and "know how" before attempting to do the same on Mars. The Director General of ESA, Jan Wörner, states that this vision of synergy can be as inspiring as

6975-545: The ten criteria. A country may request to extend or reduce the boundaries, modify the official name, or change the selection criteria of one of its already listed sites. Any proposal for a significant boundary change or to modify the site's selection criteria must be submitted as if it were a new nomination, including first placing it on the Tentative List and then onto the Nomination File. A request for

7068-405: The threats and to encourage counteractive measures. Threats to a site can be either proven imminent threats or potential dangers that could have adverse effects on a site. The state of conservation for each site on the danger list is reviewed yearly; after this, the Committee may request additional measures, delete the property from the list if the threats have ceased or consider deletion from both

7161-584: The treaty. The U.S. has furthermore emphasized in a presidential executive order ("Encouraging International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources.") that "the United States does not view outer space as a 'global commons ' " and calls the Moon Agreement "a failed attempt at constraining free enterprise." With Australia signing and ratifying both the Moon Treaty in 1986 as well as

7254-622: The valley was removed from the World Heritage List in 2009. Liverpool 's World Heritage status was revoked in July 2021, following developments ( Liverpool Waters and Bramley-Moore Dock Stadium ) on the northern docks of the World Heritage site leading to the "irreversible loss of attributes" on the site. The first global assessment to quantitatively measure threats to Natural World Heritage Sites found that 63% of sites have been damaged by increasing human pressures including encroaching roads, agriculture infrastructure and settlements over

7347-436: The words: "Without the local community and without the local participants, that would be completely impossible". The UNESCO-administered project has attracted criticism. This was caused by perceived under-representation of heritage sites outside Europe, disputed decisions on site selection and adverse impact of mass tourism on sites unable to manage rapid growth in visitor numbers. A large lobbying industry has grown around

7440-526: The work of the World Heritage Committee was developed over a seven-year period (1965–1972). The United States initiated the idea of safeguarding places of high cultural or natural importance. A White House conference in 1965 called for a "World Heritage Trust" to preserve "the world's superb natural and scenic areas and historic sites for the present and the future of the entire world citizenry". The International Union for Conservation of Nature developed similar proposals in 1968, which were presented in 1972 at

7533-652: The world considered to be of outstanding value to humanity". To be selected, a World Heritage Site is nominated by its host country and determined by the UNESCO's World Heritage Committee to be a unique landmark which is geographically and historically identifiable, having a special cultural or physical significance, and to be under a sufficient system of legal protection. For example, World Heritage Sites might be ancient ruins or historical structures, buildings, cities, deserts, forests, islands, lakes, monuments, mountains or wilderness areas. A World Heritage Site may signify

7626-744: The world into five geographic regions: Africa, Arab states, Asia and the Pacific, Europe and North America, and Latin America and the Caribbean. Russia and the Caucasus states are classified as European, while Mexico and the Caribbean are classified as belonging to the Latin America and the Caribbean region. The UNESCO geographic regions also give greater emphasis on administrative, rather than geographic associations. Hence, Gough Island , located in

7719-514: The world that support the funding, approval and maintenance of biological research stations. Tropical and subtropical research stations have a high conservation return on investment with for instance in Africa deforestation being 22% less near field stations compared to matched sites at a distance Space stations are not stationary buildings unlike normal research stations on Earth, they are specially created mobile spacecraft that are built to allow

7812-400: The world, oceans , as well as outer space , such as the International Space Station . Biological research stations developed during a time of European colonization and imperialism where naturalists were employed to conduct observations on fauna and flora . Today, the discipline is represented by a number of organizations which span across multiple continents. Some examples include:

7905-700: Was also an English naturalist who was appointed the botanist of imperial collaboration between the Royal Navy Society scientific expedition in 1768 on HMS Endeavour to the South Pacific which was heralded as the discovery of Australia or Terra Nullius as it was known at the time. In the mid – late 19th century, biological stations were formalized and began to be built around the world. In Europe, some early field stations (which are still in operation today) included Concarneau Marine Biological Station (Station de biologie marine de Concarneau) which

7998-765: Was collected from 50 countries. The project's success led to other safeguarding campaigns, such as saving Venice and its lagoon in Italy, the ruins of Mohenjo-daro in Pakistan, and the Borobodur Temple Compounds in Indonesia. Together with the International Council on Monuments and Sites , UNESCO then initiated a draft convention to protect cultural heritage. The convention (the signed document of international agreement ) guiding

8091-973: Was considered a success. To thank countries which especially contributed to the campaign's success, Egypt donated four temples; the Temple of Dendur was moved to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City , the Temple of Debod to the Parque del Oeste in Madrid , the Temple of Taffeh to the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden in Leiden , and the Temple of Ellesyia to Museo Egizio in Turin . The project cost US$ 80 million (equivalent to $ 295.83 million in 2023), about $ 40 million of which

8184-609: Was created to elaborate on the Outer Space Treaty, restricting the exploitation of the Moon's resources , particularly by any single nation, leaving it to a yet unspecified international regulatory regime. As of January 2020, the Moon Agreement has been signed and ratified by 18 nations, none of which have human spaceflight capabilities. Current lunar programs are multilateral , with the US-led Artemis program and

8277-561: Was done in an attempt to address the issue of accumulation of drifting snow so that stations would not be "snowed in". This did occur in 1968, when the Halley Research Station I operated by the British Antarctic Survey (BAS) had to be shut down as it was covered in snow. However, this design did not take into consideration of water vapour moving through the panel insulation which led to rusting of

8370-423: Was formed with the goal of representing and unifying the work of research centers from North America , Central America and Canada . It currently has 180 member stations. Another biological non-profit is the Organization for Tropical Studies which was founded in 1963 and consists of approximately 50 institutions worldwide. Its three goals consist of 1) furthering scientific discovery and knowledge, 2) expanding

8463-596: Was founded in 1859 in Concarneau , France . Concarneau Marine Biological Station is a marine biology station which was founded by Victor Coste for the purposes of conducting research into coastal fishing by the request of Napoleon III . In Asia, an example of an early field station includes the Misaki Marine Biological Station was founded in Japan in 1886 with the purpose of investigating

8556-474: Was launched in 2021 and follows its predecessors Tiangong-1 and Tiangong-2 which were first launched in 2011 and 2016 respectively. This space station was the largest spacecraft built by China , weighing 22.5 tons or 49604.01 pounds. Antarctica has around 50 research stations and from around 1000 to 5000 people who reside in those stations around the year. The continent itself is a polar desert which consists of uninhabitable ice-filled environment. It

8649-505: Was the formation of the design of Halley VI in 2005, which involved a design competition to create the most effective and long-lasting research station suitable for its location on a floating ice shelf. The resulting design consists of an elevated station set on hydraulic stilts which allowed operators to physically move or relocate it out of snow drifts. Bert Buecking, an architect working on designs for India's National Center for Antarctic and Ocean Research's new research station emphasized

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