Moral Re-Armament ( MRA ) was an international moral and spiritual movement that, in 1938, developed from American minister Frank Buchman 's Oxford Group . Buchman headed MRA for 23 years until his death in 1961. In 2001, the movement was renamed Initiatives of Change .
95-816: In 1922, Frank Buchman left his teaching position at the Hartford Seminary Foundation to pursue a ministry focused on individual spiritual transformation and global evangelism. His tenets focused on the ' Four Absolutes ' which were absolute honesty, absolute purity, absolute unselfishness, and absolute love. This approach emphasized divine guidance, adherence to moral principles, and personal interaction as catalysts for change. Buchman relocated his activities to Princeton University , where student discussions he organized included public confessions of sexual activities. The discussions generated controversy, resulting in university president John Hibben banning Buchman from campus. He subsequently gained support at
190-590: A "chancellor democracy". In a speech on 20 September 1949, Adenauer denounced the entire denazification process pursued by the Allied military governments, announcing in the same speech that he was planning to bring in an amnesty law for the Nazi war criminals and he planned to apply to "the High Commissioners for a corresponding amnesty for punishments imposed by the Allied military courts". Adenauer argued
285-598: A "competent Federal Government effectively from a standing start was one of the greatest of Adenauer's formidable achievements". Contemporary critics accused Adenauer of cementing the division of Germany, sacrificing reunification and the recovery of territories lost in the westward shift of Poland and the Soviet Union with his determination to secure the Federal Republic to the West. Adenauer's German policy
380-567: A "ineffective cult" with absolutes that were naïve, impossible to fulfill, and overly dependent on personal revelations. Actress Glenn Close , whose parents were part of the movement, publicly called the organization a cult. The group is also mentioned in Raymond Chandler 's book Farewell, My Lovely . A cop says to Philip Marlowe: "I think we gotta make this little world all over again. Now take Moral Rearmament. There you've got something. M. R. A. There you've got something, baby." In
475-460: A Buddhist abbot, a Canadian industrialist, and many others who found a new approach through MRA. The English edition, published by Longman, was titled Fresh Hope for the World . MRA began holding conferences on Mackinac Island , Michigan, in 1942, first at The Island House, rehabilitating it and much of the nearby grounds. They then purchased the abandoned Mission House hotel and adjacent property on
570-523: A Catholic Rhinelander who had long chafed under Prussian rule, Adenauer believed that Prussianism was the root cause of National Socialism, and that only by driving out Prussianism could Germany become a democracy. In a December 1946 letter, Adenauer wrote that the Prussian state in the early 19th century had become an "almost God-like entity" that valued state power over the rights of individuals. Adenauer's dislike of Prussia even led him to oppose Berlin as
665-475: A God-controlled democracy, or perhaps I should say a theocracy, and they could be solved through a God-controlled Fascist dictatorship." When the war concluded, the MRA continued their mission on anti-communism and fighting the moral evils in conjunction with their theological beliefs. In 1946, 50 Swiss families active in the work of MRA bought and restored a large, derelict hotel at Caux, Switzerland . This became
760-563: A Karl Marx in every Jew." He continued, "But think what it would mean to the world if Hitler surrendered to God. Or Mussolini. Or any dictator. Through such a man God could control a nation overnight and solve every last, bewildering problem." The quote caused the MRA to have problems recruiting members. Buchman also supported a theocratic fascist state to defeat communism , "Spain has taught us what godless Communism will bring. Human problems aren’t economic. They’re moral, and they can’t be solved by immoral measures. They could be solved within
855-413: A cash settlement for his house, which had been taken over by the city of Cologne; his unpaid mortgage, penalties and taxes were waived. With reasonable financial security he managed to live in seclusion for some years. After the failed assassination attempt on Hitler of July 1944, he was imprisoned for a second time as an opponent of the regime. He fell ill and credited Eugen Zander [ de ] ,
950-729: A centre of European reconciliation, attended by thousands in the following years, including German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer and French Foreign Minister Robert Schuman . Buchman was awarded the Croix de Chevalier of the Légion d'honneur by the French Government, and also the German Grand Cross of the Order of Merit . The historians Douglas Johnston and Cynthia Sampson described the work as an "important contribution to one of
1045-416: A city that was the setting for The Student Prince , at the time a popular American operetta based on the drinking culture of German student fraternities . As chancellor, Adenauer tended to make most major decisions himself, treating his ministers as mere extensions of his authority. While this tendency decreased under his successors, it established the image of West Germany (and later reunified Germany) as
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#17327909046511140-723: A fall in the unemployment rate from 8% in 1950 to 0.4% in 1965. in addition, an advanced welfare state was established. In the spring of 1954, opposition to the Pleven plan grew within the French National Assembly ., and in August 1954, it died when an alliance of conservatives and Communists in the National Assembly joined forces to reject the EDC treaty under the grounds that West German rearmament in any form
1235-725: A former municipal worker in Cologne and a communist, with saving his life. Zander, then a section Kapo of a labor camp near Bonn, discovered Adenauer's name on a deportation list to the East and managed to get him admitted to a hospital. Adenauer was subsequently rearrested (as was his wife), but was released from prison at Brauweiler in November 1944. Shortly after the war ended, the American occupation forces once again installed him as Mayor of Cologne, which had been heavily bombed . After
1330-650: A future capital. Adenauer viewed the most important battle in the postwar world as between the forces of Christianity and Marxism , especially Communism. Marxism meant both the Communists and the Social Democrats as the latter were officially a Marxist party until the Bad Godesberg conference of 1959. The same anti-Marxist viewpoints led Adenauer to denounce the Social Democrats as the heirs to Prussianism and National Socialism. Adenauer's ideology
1425-429: A host of plays and musicals. The theatre was successfully, but the plays were bias to the MRA's societal beliefs which struggled to stay relevant through the decades. In France, the well-known existentialist Catholic philosopher Gabriel Marcel edited a book, Un Changement d'Espérance à la Rencontre du Réarmament Moral , which brings together the stories of a French socialist leader, a Brazilian docker, an African chief,
1520-546: A main reason for the assassination attempt by Zionists against Adenauer. On 27 March 1952, a package addressed to Chancellor Adenauer exploded in the Munich Police Headquarters, killing one Bavarian police officer, Karl Reichert. Investigations revealed the mastermind behind the assassination attempt to be Menachem Begin , who would later become the Prime Minister of Israel . Begin had been
1615-493: A million copies. In 1940, the novelist Daphne du Maurier published Come Wind, Come Weather , stories of ordinary Britons who had found hope and new life through MRA. She dedicated it to "Frank Buchman, whose initial vision made possible the world of the living characters in these stories." The book sold 650,000 copies in Britain alone. When World War II started, many of those active in the campaign for Moral Re-Armament joined
1710-554: A policy of alliance with the occupying Allies in the 1950s without facing charges of being a "sell-out". After being dismissed, Adenauer devoted himself to building a new political party, the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), which he hoped would embrace both Protestants and Catholics in a single party. According to Adenauer, a Catholic-only party would lead to German politics being dominated by anti-democratic parties yet again. In January 1946, Adenauer initiated
1805-564: A political meeting of the future CDU in the British zone in his role as doyen (the oldest man in attendance, Alterspräsident ) and was informally confirmed as its leader. During the Weimar Republic, Adenauer had often been considered a future Chancellor and after 1945, his claims for leadership were even stronger. The other surviving Zentrum leaders were considered unsuitable for the tasks that lay ahead. Reflecting his background as
1900-724: A statement which declared the great majority of the Wehrmacht had acted honorably. On 2 January 1951, Adenauer met with the American High Commissioner, John J. McCloy , to argue that executing the Landsberg prisoners would ruin forever any effort at having the Federal Republic play its role in the Cold War. At the time, American occupation authorities had 28 Nazi war criminals left on death row in their custody. In response to Adenauer's demands and pressure from
1995-652: A strong anti-communist , Adenauer was deeply committed to an Atlanticist foreign policy and restoring the position of West Germany on the world stage. Adenauer was a driving force in re-establishing national military forces (the Bundeswehr ) and intelligence services (the Bundesnachrichtendienst ) in West Germany in 1955 and 1956. Adenauer refused the diplomatic recognition of the rival German Democratic Republic as an East-German state and
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#17327909046512090-531: A united, socialist and neutral Germany. As such, Adenauer was in favor of joining NATO, something that Schumacher strongly opposed. The Free Democrat Theodor Heuss was elected the first President of the Republic , and Adenauer was elected Chancellor (head of government) on 15 September 1949 with the support of his own CDU, the Christian Social Union , the liberal Free Democratic Party , and
2185-711: Is centered on two academic units: the Hartford Institute for Religion Research and the Duncan Black Macdonald Center for the Study of Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations, the country’s oldest center for such study, having opened in 1973. The seminary offers certificate programs and graduate degrees up to the doctoral level, including the only accredited Islamic chaplaincy program. Hartford International University has been home to The Muslim World since 1938, an academic journal dedicated to
2280-467: Is closely linked to the implementation of an enhanced pension system, which ensured unparalleled prosperity for retired people. Along with his Minister for Economic Affairs and successor Ludwig Erhard , the West German model of a " social market economy " (a mixed economy with capitalism moderated by elements of social welfare and Catholic social teaching ) allowed for the boom period known as
2375-414: Is for you Christians and for all nations." In 1960, Archbishop Makarios and Dr Kucuk , President and vice-president of Cyprus , jointly sent the first flag of independent Cyprus to Frank Buchman at Caux in recognition of MRA's help. In 2001, the MRA movement changed its name to Initiatives of Change (IofC). Buchman and the MRA faced criticism for his views on Hitler, Naziism, and fascism. In 1951,
2470-495: Is fundamentally a moral one," he said. "The nations must re-arm morally. Moral recovery is essentially the forerunner of economic recovery. Moral recovery creates not crisis but confidence and unity in every phase of life." The phrase caught the mood of the time, and many public figures in Britain spoke and wrote in support. British tennis star H. W. Austin edited the book Moral Rearmament (The Battle for Peace) , which sold half
2565-490: The Wirtschaftswunder ('economic miracle') that produced broad prosperity, but Adenauer acted more leniently towards the trade unions and employers' associations than Erhard. The Adenauer era witnessed a dramatic rise in the standard of living of average Germans, with real wages doubling between 1950 and 1963. This rising affluence was accompanied by a 20% fall in working hours during that same period, together with
2660-493: The Catholic Church ordered its members not to join the MRA because it supported the heresy of illuminism. The organization was criticized by Radio Moscow Overseas Service for its anticommunist ideals, in November 1952 saying, "Moral Re-Armament supplants the inevitable class war by the 'permanent struggle between good and evil'," and "has the power to attract radical revolutionary minds." The MRA has been described as
2755-529: The German People's Party insisted that one of the conditions for entering into a coalition under Adenauer's leadership was that Gustav Stresemann stay on as Foreign Minister. Adenauer, who disliked Stresemann as "too Prussian," rejected that condition. When the Nazi Party won several municipal, state and national elections in between 1930 and 1932, Adenauer, a strong opponent of Adolf Hitler and
2850-698: The International Authority for the Ruhr led to heavy criticism. In the following debate in parliament Adenauer stated: The Allies have told me that dismantling would be stopped only if I satisfy the Allied desire for security, does the Socialist Party want dismantling to go on to the bitter end? The opposition leader Kurt Schumacher responded by labeling Adenauer "Chancellor of the Allies", accusing Adenauer of putting good relations with
2945-531: The Oder–Neisse line as Germany's eastern frontier. This refusal was in large part motivated by his desire to win the votes of expellees and right-wing nationalists to the CDU, which is why he supported Heimatrecht , i.e. the right of expellees to return to their former homes. It was also intended to be a deal-breaker if negotiations ever began to reunite Germany on terms that Adenauer considered unfavorable such as
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3040-766: The Oder–Neisse line as a post-war frontier to Poland . Under Adenauer, West Germany joined NATO . As a proponent of European unity , he signed the Treaty of Rome in 1957. Adenauer is claimed as one of the " Founding fathers of the European Union ". Konrad Adenauer was born as the third of five children of Johann Konrad Adenauer (1833–1906) and his wife Helene (née Scharfenberg; 1849–1919) in Cologne , Rhenish Prussia , on 5 January 1876. His siblings were August (1872–1952), Johannes (1873–1937), Lilli (1879–1950) and Elisabeth, who died shortly after birth c. 1880. One of
3135-721: The Pastoral Union of Connecticut was formed to train Congregational ministers. The next year the Theological Institute of Connecticut was founded at East Windsor Hill, Connecticut . The institution moved to Hartford in 1865 and officially took the name Hartford Theological Seminary in 1885. The Bible Normal College affiliated with the seminary in 1902 and changed its name to Hartford School of Religious Pedagogy. The Kennedy School of Missions became another affiliated activity, originally organized by
3230-872: The Prussian State Council . In the early years of the Federal Republic, he switched focus from denazification to recovery, and led his country to close relations with France, the United Kingdom, and the United States. During his years in power, he worked to restore the West German economy from the destruction of World War II to a central position in Europe with a market -based liberal democracy , stability, international respect and economic prosperity. Adenauer belied his age by his intense work habits and his uncanny political instinct. As
3325-511: The Treaty of Versailles were presented to Germany in June 1919, Adenauer again suggested to Berlin his plan for an autonomous Rhineland state and again his plans were rejected by the Reich government. He established a good working relationship with the postwar British military authorities, using them to neutralize the workers' and soldiers' council that had become an alternative base of power for
3420-574: The University of Oxford in England, where the movement became known as the Oxford Group. The Oxford Group held increasingly popular conferences across multiple countries, attracting thousands of participants. These gatherings served as platforms to disseminate the group's philosophy. The Oxford Groupers or Buchmanites were rebranded in 1938 when Buchman launched Moral Re-Armament. "The crisis
3515-588: The "Pleven plan", but was forced to support it when it became clear that this plan was the only way the French would agree to German rearmament. In 1950, a major controversy broke out when it emerged that Adenauer's State Secretary Hans Globke had played a major role in drafting anti-semitic Nuremberg Race Laws in Nazi Germany. Adenauer kept Globke on as State Secretary as part of his strategy of integration. Starting in August 1950, Adenauer began to pressure
3610-727: The "Spandau Seven" finally bore fruit with the release of Konstantin von Neurath . Adenauer congratulated Neurath on his release, sparking controversy all over the world. At the same time, Adenauer's efforts to win freedom for Admiral Karl Dönitz ran into staunch opposition from the British Permanent Secretary at the Foreign Office, Ivone Kirkpatrick , who argued Dönitz would be an active danger to German democracy. Adenauer then traded with Kirkpatrick no early release for Admiral Dönitz with an early release for Admiral Erich Raeder on medical grounds. Adenauer
3705-562: The African and Asian countries, which were then moving towards independence from colonial rule. Leaders of these independence struggles have paid tribute to MRA for helping to bring about unity between groups in conflict, and for helping to ease the transition to independence. In 1956, King Mohammed V of Morocco sent a message to Buchman: "I thank you for all you have done for Morocco in the course of these last testing years. Moral Re-Armament must become for us Muslims as much an incentive as it
3800-501: The Allied forces. MRA did try unsuccessfully to obtain exemptions from military service for its members. When MRA was established in the United States in 1941, it was considered by some to be an effective way to combat communism. Senator (later President) Harry Truman , Chair of the Senate's Truman Committee investigating war contracts, told a Washington press conference in 1943: "Suspicions, rivalries, apathy, greed lie behind most of
3895-828: The British proposal met with considerable approval. In the ensuing London conference , Eden assisted Adenauer by promising the French that Britain would always maintain at least four divisions in the British Army of the Rhine as long as there was a Soviet threat, with the strengthened British forces also aimed implicitly against any German revanchism. Adenauer then promised that Germany would never seek to have nuclear, chemical and biological weapons as well as capital ships, strategic bombers, long-range artillery, and guided missiles, although these promises were non-binding. The French had been assuaged that West German rearmament would be no threat to France. Additionally, Adenauer promised that
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3990-633: The East German leader Walter Ulbricht , who proclaimed the reunification of Germany under communist rule to be imminent. To soothe French fears of German rearmament, the French Premier René Pleven suggested the so-called Pleven plan in October 1950 under which the Federal Republic would have its military forces function as part of the armed wing of the multinational European Defense Community (EDC). Adenauer deeply disliked
4085-574: The Federal Republic of Germany from 1949 to 1963. From 1946 to 1966, he was the first leader of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), a newly founded Christian-democratic party, which became the dominant force in the country under his leadership. As a devout Roman Catholic , Adenauer was a leading politician of the Catholic Centre Party in the Weimar Republic , serving as Mayor of Cologne (1917–1933) and as president of
4180-516: The German public, McCloy and Thomas T. Handy on 31 January 1951 reduced the death sentences of all but the 7 worst offenders. By 1951 laws were passed by the Bundestag ending denazification. Denazification was viewed by the United States as counterproductive and ineffective, and its demise was not opposed. Adenauer's intention was to switch government policy to reparations and compensation for
4275-702: The Hartford Seminary joined the Boston Theological Interreligious Consortium (BTI), which is the largest theological consortium in the world. In October 2021, Hartford Seminary officially changed its name to the Hartford International University for Religion and Peace. The change was intended to better reflect its focus on interfaith dialogue. The university's logo was also updated. When the seminary moved to Hartford in 1865, it
4370-669: The Hurricane , and Decision at Midnight . In 1966, MRA deeded much of the property on the island to Mackinac College . The property later became Mission Point Resort , a summer resort hotel. In the 1950s and 1960s, MRA's work expanded across the globe. Buchman was a pioneer in multi-faith initiatives. As he said, "MRA is the good road of an ideology inspired by God upon which all can unite. Catholic , Jew and Protestant , Hindu , Muslim , Buddhist and Confucianist – all find they can change, where needed, and they can travel along this good road together." These ideas appealed to many in
4465-519: The Nazis should join the Reich government in a leading role. At the end of 1932, Adenauer had indeed demanded a joint government by his Zentrum party and the Nazis for Prussia. During the next two years, Adenauer changed residences often for fear of reprisals against him, while living on the benevolence of friends. With the help of lawyers in August 1937 he was successful in claiming a pension. He received
4560-426: The Nazis to power on 30 January 1933. By early February, Adenauer finally realized the futility of all discussions and any attempts at compromise with the Nazis. Cologne's city council and the Prussian parliament had been dissolved; on 4 April 1933, he was officially dismissed as mayor and his bank accounts were frozen. "He had no money, no home and no job." After arranging for the safety of his family, he appealed to
4655-469: The Nazis, still believed that improvements in the national economy would make his strategy work: ignore the Nazis and concentrate on the Communist threat. He thought that based on election returns, the Nazis should become part of the Prussian and Reich governments, even when he was already the target of intense personal attacks. Political maneuverings around the ageing President Hindenburg then brought
4750-567: The Rhineland and that the new currency Rentenmark , which had replaced the now worthless Mark would not circulate in the Rhineland. To save the Rhineland economy, Adenauer opened talks with the French High Commissioner Paul Tirard in late October 1923 for a Rhenish republic in a sort of economic union with France which would achieve Franco-German reconciliation, which Adenauer called a "grand design". At
4845-510: The SPD. The German Restitution Laws ( Bundesentschädigungsgesetz ) were passed in 1953 that allowed some victims of Nazi prosecution to claim restitution. Under the 1953 restitution law, those who had suffered for "racial, religious or political reasons" could collect compensation, which were defined in such a way as to sharply limit the number of people entitled to collect compensation. In November 1954, Adenauer's lobbying efforts on behalf of
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#17327909046514940-810: The Seminary as a separate organization in 1911. In 1913, these three endeavors were combined. In 1961, the entities were legally merged and adopted the new name Hartford Seminary Foundation , which was used until 1981, when the simpler name "Hartford Seminary" came into use. The Hartford Seminary Foundation published the Hartford Quarterly (originally named Bulletin – Hartford Seminary Foundation ) from 1960 to 1968. Hartford Seminary began to offer niche concentrations in Christian-Muslim dialogue in 1972, and in 1990 Hartford Seminary officially claimed non-denominational status. On Jan. 1, 2018,
5035-404: The Social Democrats. In a speech on 1 February 1919 Adenauer called for the dissolution of Prussia, and for the Prussian Rhineland to become a new autonomous Land (state) in the Reich . Adenauer claimed this was the only way to prevent France from annexing the Rhineland. Both the Reich and Prussian governments were completely against Adenauer's plans for breaking up Prussia. When the terms of
5130-525: The Stalin overture; they shared the Western Allies' suspicion about the genuineness of that offer and supported the Allies in their cautious replies. Adenauer's flat rejection was, however, still out of step with public opinion; he then realized his mistake and he started to ask questions. Critics denounced him for having missed an opportunity for German reunification . The Soviets sent a second note, courteous in tone. Adenauer by then understood that "all opportunity for initiative had passed out of his hands," and
5225-408: The U.S. and Commonwealth. From the beginning of his Chancellorship, Adenauer had been pressing for German rearmament . After the outbreak of the Korean War on 25 June 1950, the U.S. and Britain agreed that West Germany had to be rearmed to strengthen the defenses of Western Europe against a possible Soviet invasion. Further contributing to the crisis atmosphere of 1950 was the bellicose rhetoric of
5320-413: The West for the sake of the Cold War ahead of German national interests. After a year of negotiations, the Treaty of Paris was signed on 18 April 1951 establishing the European Coal and Steel Community . The treaty was unpopular in Germany where it was seen as a French attempt to take over German industry. The treaty conditions were favorable to the French, but for Adenauer, the only thing that mattered
5415-405: The Western Allies to draft a constitution for the three western zones of Germany. He was the chairman of this constitutional convention and vaulted from this position to being chosen as the first head of government once the new " Basic Law " had been promulgated in May 1949. The first election to the Bundestag of West Germany was held on 15 August 1949 , with the Christian Democrats emerging as
5510-479: The Western Allies to free all of the war criminals in their custody, especially those from the Wehrmacht , whose continued imprisonment he claimed made West German rearmament impossible. Adenauer had been opposed to the Nuremberg Trials in 1945–46, and after becoming Chancellor, he demanded the release of the so-called "Spandau Seven", as the seven war criminals convicted at Nuremberg and imprisoned at Spandau Prison were known. In October 1950, Adenauer received
5605-476: The Western Front. He paid special attention to the civilian food supply, enabling the residents to avoid the worst of the severe shortages that beset most German cities during 1918–1919. In 1918, he invented a soy-based sausage called the Cologne sausage to help feed the city. In the face of the collapse of the old regime and the threat of revolution and widespread disorder in late 1918, Adenauer maintained control in Cologne using his good working relationship with
5700-474: The abbot of the Benedictine monastery at Maria Laach for a stay of several months. According to Albert Speer in his book Spandau: The Secret Diaries , Hitler expressed admiration for Adenauer, noting his civic projects, the building of a road circling the city as a bypass, and a "green belt" of parks. However, both Hitler and Speer concluded that Adenauer's political views and principles made it impossible for him to play any role in Nazi Germany . Adenauer
5795-430: The area to an autonomous region wholly under German sovereignty; the Americans were not prepared to grant the same for Frankfurt. He also resisted the claims of Heidelberg , which had better communications and had survived the war in better condition; partly because the Nazis had been popular there before they came to power and partly, as he said, because the world would not take them seriously if they set up their state in
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#17327909046515890-438: The back garden as a child, which was not welcomed by his father who told him "One should not try to meddle with the Lord's hand", then in 1904 he invented a reaction steam engine which was supposed to filter out dust produced by cars. However, as his hobby of inventing grew ever more costly, Adenauer's activities in this area slowly diminished. After final school examination ( Abitur ) in 1894, Adenauer studied law and politics at
5985-418: The bottlenecks. This is where the Moral Re-Armament group comes in. Where others have stood back and criticized, they have rolled up their sleeves and gone to work." Truman supported the work of the MRA throughout the war, with his longtime aid, John R. Steelman, stating the MRA "as the greatest single force in the nation for reconciliation." Truman supported the MRA produced play "The Forgotten Factor" saying it
6080-520: The campus of the University of Connecticut School of Law . The present main seminary building, designed by architect Richard Meier , was completed in 1981, replacing several buildings demolished from the initial building phase. The seminary also continues to occupy several adjacent buildings that have historically been part of its campus. These, as well as the law school, were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982, primarily for their architecture. Hartford International University
6175-416: The city was transferred into the British zone of occupation , however, the Director of its military government, General Gerald Templer , dismissed Adenauer for incompetence in December 1945. Adenauer considered the Germans the political equals of the occupying Allies, a view that angered Templer. Adenauer's dismissal by the British contributed much to his subsequent political success and allowed him to pursue
6270-401: The city's left wing. During the Weimar Republic , he was president of the Prussian State Council from 1921 to 1933, which was the representation of the provinces of Prussia in its legislature. A major debate had occurred within his Centre Party since 1906 regarding the question of whether it should "leave the tower" (i.e. allow Protestants to join, becoming a multi-faith party) or "stay in
6365-425: The commander of Irgun and at that time headed Herut and was a member of the Knesset . His goal was to put pressure on the German government and prevent the signing of the Reparations Agreement between Israel and West Germany , which he vehemently opposed. The West German government kept all proof under seal in order to prevent antisemitic responses from the German public. When the East German uprising of 1953
6460-671: The continuation of denazification would "foster a growing and extreme nationalism" as the millions who supported the Nazi regime would find themselves excluded from German life forever. He also demanded an "end to this sniffing out of Nazis." By 31 January 1951, the amnesty legislation had benefited 792,176 people. They included 3,000 functionaries of the SA, the SS, and the Nazi Party who participated in dragging victims to jails and camps; 20,000 Nazis sentenced for "deeds against life" (presumably murder); 30,000 sentenced for causing bodily injury, and about 5,200 charged with "crimes and misdemeanors in office. The Adenauer government refused to accept
6555-419: The court in Cologne for four years. As a devout Catholic, he joined the Centre Party ( German : Deutsche Zentrumspartei or just Zentrum ) in 1906 and was elected to Cologne's city government in the same year. In 1909, he became Vice-Mayor of Cologne, an industrial metropolis with a population of 635,000 in 1914. Avoiding the extreme political movements that attracted so many of his generation, Adenauer
6650-437: The face of severe opposition both from the public and from his own cabinet, Adenauer was only able to get the reparations agreement ratified by the Bundestag with the support of the SPD. Israeli public opinion was divided over accepting the money, but ultimately the fledgling state under David Ben-Gurion agreed to take it, opposed by political parties such as Herut , who were against such treaties. Those treaties were cited as
6745-452: The formative influences of Adenauer's youth was the so-called Kulturkampf , the struggle of the Prussian state with the Catholic church, an experience that as related to him by his parents left him with a lifelong dislike for " Prussianism ", and led him like many other Catholic Rhinelanders of the 19th century to deeply resent the Rhineland 's inclusion in Prussia. Having a passion for inventing, Adenauer started experimenting with plants in
6840-528: The greatest achievements in the entire record of modern statecraft: the astonishingly rapid Franco-German reconciliation after 1945." In Britain, hundreds donated money for the purchase of the Westminster Theatre in London, as a living memorial to the men and women of Moral Re-Armament who had died in war service. Many servicemen gave their gratuities. For the next 50 years, the theatre presented
6935-483: The island's east end. The lease was temproarily blocked by the Michigan Attorney General office causing greater scrutiny on the organization before the deal was eventually passed. Between 1954 and 1960, they constructed an extensive training center there, including a theatre and a soundstage. The soundstage was used for the production of motion pictures, including The Crowning Experience , Voice of
7030-530: The matter was put to rest by the Allies. Given the realities of the Cold War , German reunification and recovery of lost territories in the east were not realistic goals as both of Stalin's notes specified the retention of the existing "Potsdam"-decreed boundaries of Germany. Adenauer recognized the obligation of the West German government to compensate Israel for The Holocaust . West Germany started negotiations with Israel for restitution of lost property and
7125-517: The music video for Smile Empty Soul's 2003 single "Bottom of The Bottle," lead singer Sean Danielsen is seen wearing a T-shirt with the slogan "And God said unto thee, MRA." Hartford International University for Religion and Peace The Hartford International University for Religion and Peace (formerly Hartford Seminary ) is a private theological university in Hartford, Connecticut . Hartford Seminary's origins date back to 1833 when
7220-588: The neutralization of Germany as Adenauer knew well that the Soviets would never revise the Oder–Neisse line. Privately, Adenauer considered Germany's eastern provinces to be lost forever. At the Petersberg Agreement in November 1949 he achieved some of the first concessions granted by the Allies, such as a decrease in the number of factories to be dismantled, but in particular his agreement to join
7315-705: The payment of damages to victims of Nazi persecution. In the Luxemburger Abkommen , West Germany agreed to pay compensation to Israel. Jewish claims were bundled in the Jewish Claims Conference , which represented the Jewish victims of Nazi Germany. West Germany then initially paid about 3 billion Mark to Israel and about 450 million to the Claims Conference, although payments continued after that, as new claims were made. In
7410-409: The promotion and dissemination of scholarly research on Islam and Muslim societies and on historical and current aspects of Christian-Muslim relations. The journal was founded in 1911, and is edited and published quarterly. Konrad Adenauer Defunct Defunct Konrad Hermann Joseph Adenauer (5 January 1876 – 19 April 1967) was a German statesman who served as the first chancellor of
7505-403: The right-wing German Party . It was said that Adenauer was elected Chancellor by the new German parliament by "a majority of one vote – his own". At age 73, it was thought that Adenauer would only be a caretaker Chancellor. However, he would go on to hold this post for 14 years, a period spanning most of the preliminary phase of the Cold War . During this period, the post-war division of Germany
7600-545: The same time, Adenauer clung to the hope that the Rentenmark might still circulate in the Rhineland. Adenauer's plans came to naught when Stresemann, who was resolutely opposed to Adenauer's "grand design", which he viewed as borderline treason, was able to negotiate an end to the crisis on his own. In 1926, the Zentrum suggested Adenauer becoming Chancellor, an offer that he was interested in but ultimately rejected when
7695-709: The so-called " Himmerod memorandum " drafted by four former Wehrmacht generals at the Himmerod Abbey that linked freedom for German war criminals as the price of German rearmament, along with public statements from the Allies that the Wehrmacht committed no war crimes in World War II. The Allies were willing to do whatever necessary to get the much-needed German rearmament underway, and in January 1951, General Dwight Eisenhower , commander of NATO forces, issued
7790-515: The strongest party. There were two clashing visions of a future Germany held by Adenauer and his main rival, the Social Democrat Kurt Schumacher . Adenauer favored integrating the Federal Republic with other Western states, especially France and the United States in order to fight the Cold War , even if the price of this was the continued division of Germany. Schumacher by contrast, though an anti-communist, wanted to see
7885-573: The tower" (i.e. continue to be a Catholic-only party). Adenauer was one of the leading advocates of "leaving the tower", which led to a dramatic clash at the 1922 Katholikentag , the annual meeting of German Catholics under the presidency of Adenauer. Cardinal Michael von Faulhaber publicly admonished Adenauer for wanting to take the Zentrum "out of the tower". In mid-October 1923, the Chancellor Gustav Stresemann announced that Berlin would cease all financial payments to
7980-455: The universities of Freiburg , Munich and Bonn , demonstrating competent but not exceptional academic ability. In 1896, he was mustered for the Prussian army , but did not pass the physical exam due to chronic respiratory problems he had experienced since childhood. He was a member of several Roman Catholic students' associations. He graduated in 1900, and afterwards worked as a lawyer at
8075-417: The victims of Nazi rule ( Wiedergutmachung ). Officials were allowed to retake jobs in civil service, with the exception of people assigned to Group I (Major Offenders) and II (Offenders) during the denazification review process. Adenauer pressured his rehabilitated ex-Nazis by threatening that stepping out of line could trigger the reopening of individual de-Nazification prosecutions. The construction of
8170-456: Was "the most important play produced by the war." Buchman and the MRA faced criticism for Buchman's pro- Nazism and Anti-semitic statement, "I thank heaven for a man like Adolf Hitler, who built a front-line of defense against the anti-Christ of Communism. My barber in London told me Hitler saved all Europe from Communism. That’s how he felt. Of course, I don’t condone everything the Nazis do. Anti-Semitism? Bad, naturally. I suppose Hitler sees
8265-522: Was European integration. Adenauer was keen to see Britain join the European Coal and Steel Community as he believed the more free-market British would counterbalance the influence of the more dirigiste French, and to achieve that purpose he visited London in November 1951 to meet with Prime Minister Winston Churchill . Churchill said Britain would not join the European Coal and Steel Community because doing so would mean sacrificing relations with
8360-458: Was an unacceptable danger to France. The British Prime Minister Winston Churchill told Adenauer that Britain would ensure that West German rearmament would happen, regardless if the National Assembly ratified the EDC treaty or not, and Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden used the failure of the EDC to argue for independent West German rearmament and West German NATO membership. Thanks in part to Adenauer's success in rebuilding West Germany's image,
8455-501: Was at first located in the area now occupied by buildings of the Wadsworth Atheneum . In the 1910s, it planned a dedicated new campus on Hartford's west side, south of Elizabeth Street. Construction was delayed by World War I , and a handsome campus of Collegiate Gothic Revival buildings was constructed in the 1920s. Surviving elements of this construction phase were used by the seminary until 1981, and currently constitute
8550-498: Was at odds with parts of the CDU, who wished to unite socialism and Christianity . Adenauer worked diligently at building up contacts and support in the CDU over the following years, and he sought with varying success to impose his particular ideology on the party. Adenauer's leading role in the CDU of the British zone won him a position at the Parliamentary Council of 1948 , which had been called into existence by
8645-638: Was based upon Politik der Stärke (Policy of Strength), and upon the so-called "magnet theory", in which a prosperous, democratic West Germany integrated with the West would act as a "magnet" that would eventually bring down the East German regime. In 1952, the Stalin Note , as it became known, "caught everybody in the West by surprise". It offered to unify the two German entities into a single, neutral state with its own, non-aligned national army to effect superpower disengagement from Central Europe . Adenauer and his cabinet were unanimous in their rejection of
8740-416: Was committed to bourgeois decency, diligence, order, Christian morals and values, and was dedicated to rooting out disorder, inefficiency, irrationality and political immorality. In 1917, he was unanimously elected as Mayor of Cologne for a 12-year period, and re-elected in 1929. During World War I , he worked closely with the army to maximize the city's role as a rear base of supply and transportation for
8835-549: Was consolidated with the establishment of two separate German states, the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany). In the controversial selection for a "provisional capital" of the Federal Republic of Germany , Adenauer championed Bonn over Frankfurt am Main . The British had agreed to detach Bonn from their zone of occupation and convert
8930-516: Was harshly suppressed by the Red Army in June 1953, Adenauer took political advantage of the situation and was handily re-elected to a second term as Chancellor. The CDU/CSU came up one seat short of an outright majority. Adenauer could thus have governed in a coalition with only one other party, but retained/gained the support of nearly all of the parties in the Bundestag that were to the right of
9025-528: Was imprisoned for two days after the Night of the Long Knives on 30 June 1934; however, on 10 August 1934, maneuvering for his pension, he wrote a ten-page letter to Hermann Göring , the Prussian interior minister. He stated that as Mayor he had violated Prussian laws in order to allow Nazi events in public buildings and Nazi flags to be flown from city flagpoles, and that in 1932 he had declared publicly that
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