The Morrill Tariff was an increased import tariff in the United States that was adopted on March 2, 1861, during the administration of US President James Buchanan , a Democrat. It was the twelfth of the seventeen planks in the platform of the incoming Republican Party , which had not yet been inaugurated, and the tariff appealed to industrialists and factory workers as a way to foster rapid industrial growth.
126-623: It was named for its sponsor, Representative Justin Smith Morrill of Vermont , who drafted it with the advice of the economist Henry Charles Carey . The eventual passage of the tariff in the US Senate was assisted by multiple opponent senators from the South resigning from Congress after their states declared their secession from the Union. The tariff rates were raised to both make up for
252-476: A Know Nothing but was now largely identified with the Republicans. The southern Know Nothings supported first Humphrey Marshall of Kentucky, and then Henry M. Fuller of Pennsylvania. The voting went on for almost two months with no candidate able to secure a majority, until it was finally agreed to elect the speaker by plurality vote, and Banks was elected. The House found itself in a similar dilemma when
378-539: A Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty-five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States ". The Oath or Affirmation Clause provides that "The ... Representatives before mentioned... and all executive and judicial Officers ... of the United States ... shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution". Pursuant to Article VI, the 1st United States Congress passed
504-455: A Union Republican. He was reelected as a Republican in 1872, 1878, 1884, 1890, and 1896, and served from March 4, 1867, until his death, almost thirty-one years. He served as chairman of the Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds ( Forty-first through Forty-fourth Congresses ) where he played a vital role in obtaining the current Library of Congress main building through his work on
630-627: A bewildering variety of labels, including Whig, Republican , American ( Know Nothing ), and simply " Opposition ". By the time Congress actually met in December 1855, most of the northerners were concentrated together as Republicans, while most of the southerners and a few northerners used the American or Know Nothing label. Opponents of the Democrats held a majority in House, with the party makeup of
756-468: A clearly partisan cast, very different from the speakership of most Westminster-style legislatures, such as the speaker of the United Kingdom's House of Commons , which is meant to be scrupulously non-partisan. The speaker in the United States, by tradition , is the head of the majority party in the House of Representatives, outranking the majority leader. However, despite having the right to vote,
882-503: A compromise candidate since the other Republicans in the leadership were more controversial. Hastert, who had been serving in the House since 1986, became the longest serving Republican speaker (1999-2007). Hastert led the campaign to elect Tom DeLay , with whom he developed a close and effective partnership, as House Majority Whip. The Republicans came out of the 2000 elections with a further reduced majority but made small gains in 2002 and 2004. The periods of 2001–2002 and 2003–2007 were
1008-400: A federal deficit that had led to increased government debt in recent years and to encourage domestic industry and foster high wages for industrial workers. The Morrill Tariff replaced a lower Tariff of 1857 which, according to historian Kenneth Stampp , had been developed in response to a federal budget surplus in the mid-1850s. Two additional tariffs sponsored by Morrill, each higher than
1134-494: A former Whig of unclear partisan loyalties, who was finally elected speaker on February 1, 1860. In December 1923, at the start of the 68th Congress , Republican Frederick H. Gillett needed nine ballots to win reelection. Progressive Republicans had refused to support Gillett in the first eight ballots. Only after winning concessions from Republican conference leaders (a seat on the House Rules Committee and
1260-476: A free trade system prevailed, and that Representative Morrill carried his protectionist tariff through Congress only in 1861, after the rebellion had already broken out. Secession, therefore, did not take place because the Morrill tariff had gone through Congress, but, at most, the Morrill tariff went through Congress because secession had taken place. Seven of the 11 Confederate states had already seceded before
1386-484: A merchant's clerk in Maine and Vermont, then embarked on a business career. In partnership with Jedediah H. Harris, Morrill owned and operated several stores in towns throughout Vermont. The success of his stores enabled Morrill to invest profitably in a farm, banks, railroads, and real estate. Morrill was active in politics as a Whig, and was elected to Congress in 1854. The party became defunct soon afterwards, and Morrill
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#17327656367381512-538: A modest role in financing the war and was far less important than other measures, such as $ 2.8 billion in bond sales and some printing of greenbacks . Customs revenue from tariffs totaled $ 345 million from 1861 to 1865, or 43% of all federal tax revenue, but military spending totaled $ 3,065 million. The Morrill Tariff was met with intense hostility in Britain, where free trade dominated public opinion. Southern diplomats and agents sought to use British ire towards
1638-645: A non-member Speaker would cause a significant breach of the constitutional separation of powers . Schaub, Ellis, and Dubinsky also argue that permitting a non-member to serve as Speaker would effectively exempt Speakers from the eligibility requirements of the House Qualifications Clause of Article I, Section II and from being bound by an oath of office under the Oath or Affirmation Clause of Article VI as opposed to House members. The House Qualifications Clause requires that "No person shall be
1764-429: A pledge that requested House rules changes would be considered) did they agree to support him. In 1997, several Republican congressional leaders tried to force Speaker Newt Gingrich to resign. However, Gingrich refused since that would have required a new election for speaker, which could have led to Democrats along with dissenting Republicans voting for Democrat Dick Gephardt (then minority leader) as speaker. After
1890-562: A protective tariff as essentially and intrinsically immoral, scarcely less so than larceny or murder. Indeed, the tariff was seriously regarded as comparable in offensiveness with slavery itself, and Englishmen were inclined to condemn the North for the one as much as the South for the other. "We do not like slavery," said Palmerston to Adams, "but we want cotton, and we dislike very much your Morrill tariff." Many prominent British writers condemned
2016-734: A requirement. As noted by the Congressional Research Service , non-members have, on multiple occasions since 1997, received votes in speaker elections . In 1787, while the proposed Constitution was being considered, Pennsylvania Congress of the Confederation Delegate Tench Coxe publicly wrote the following: The house of representatives is not, as the Senate, to have a president chosen for them from without their body, but are to elect their speaker from their own number . . . . Noting that
2142-402: A speaker is elected. Since 1839, the House has elected speakers by roll call vote . In practice, each party's caucus or conference selects a candidate for the speakership from among its senior leaders prior to the roll call. To be elected speaker, a candidate must receive a majority of votes from the members present and voting. If no candidate wins a majority, the roll call is repeated until
2268-469: A speaker is elected. Representatives are free to vote for someone other than the candidate nominated by their party but generally do not, as the outcome of the election effectively demonstrates which party has the majority and consequently will organize the House. Representatives who choose to vote for someone other than their party's nominee usually vote for someone else in their party or vote " present ", in which case their vote does not count in tallying
2394-409: A speakership election with the opposite party's delegation participating. Finally, it was agreed to exclude both delegations from the election and a speaker was finally chosen on December 17. Another, more prolonged fight occurred in 1855 in the 34th United States Congress . The old Whig Party had collapsed but no single party had emerged to replace it. Candidates opposing the Democrats had run under
2520-452: A specified period of time." The list of the members with this duty (usually political allies of the speaker, or members from districts close to Washington and thus better able to hold pro forma sessions) is made public. The first speaker of the House, Frederick Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania , was elected to office on April 1, 1789, the day the House organized itself at the start of the 1st Congress . He served two non-consecutive terms in
2646-505: Is between semi-independent communities [in which] every feeling and interest [in the South] calls for political partition, and every pocket interest [in the North] calls for union.... So the case stands, and under all the passion of the parties and the cries of battle lie the two chief moving causes of the struggle. Union means so many millions a year lost to the South; secession means the loss of
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#17327656367382772-437: Is the only speaker of the House who was later elected president of the United States. Toward the end of the 19th century, the office of speaker began to develop into a very powerful one. At the time, one of the most important sources of the speaker's power was his position as Chairman of the Committee on Rules , which, after the reorganization of the committee system in 1880, became one of the most powerful standing committees of
2898-605: The 35th Congress . When the 36th Congress met in 1859, action remained blocked by a dispute until 1860 over who would be elected the Speaker of the House . In 1860, the Republican William Pennington of New Jersey was elected as speaker. Pennington appointed a pro-tariff Republican majority to the Ways and Means Committee, with John Sherman of Ohio its chairman. The Morrill bill was passed out of
3024-598: The 36th Congress met in December 1859. Although the Republicans held a plurality, the Republican candidate, John Sherman , was unacceptable to southern oppositionists due to his anti-slavery views, and once again the House was unable to elect a speaker. After Democrats allied with southern oppositionists to nearly elect the North Carolina oppositionist William N. H. Smith , Sherman finally withdrew in favor of compromise candidate William Pennington of New Jersey,
3150-635: The American Civil War . Morrill is best known for sponsoring the Morrill Act, also known as the Land Grant College Act . This act was signed into law by Abraham Lincoln in 1862, and established federal funding for higher education in every state of the country. In his own words: This bill proposes to establish at least one college in every State upon a sure and perpetual foundation, accessible to all, but especially to
3276-851: The Oath Administration Act (that remains in effect) which provides that "...the oath or affirmation [required by the sixth article of the Constitution of the United States]… shall be administered ... to the Speaker". Like the U.S. Supreme Court 's ruling in NLRB v. Noel Canning (2014), Ellis and Dubinsky cite an 1819 letter written by James Madison to Virginia Supreme Court of Appeals Judge Spencer Roane where Madison stated that "difficulties and differences of opinion [arising] in expounding terms [and] phrases ... used [in
3402-771: The Sergeant at Arms and the Clerk ) do not perform. Schaub and the CRS also note that the text of the Presidential Succession Act of 1947 assumes that the Speaker is a House member in requiring the Speaker's resignation upon succession to the Presidency due to the Ineligibility Clause of Article I, Section VI . The Ineligibility Clause provides that "No ... Representative shall, during
3528-729: The Tariff of 1857 , which was highly favorable to the South. Meanwhile, the Whig Party collapsed, and tariffs were taken up by the new Republican Party , which ran its first national ticket in 1856. Some former Whigs from the border states and the Upper South remained in Congress as "Opposition," "Unionist," or "American," ( Know Nothing ) members and supported higher tariffs. The Panic of 1857 led to calls for protectionist tariff revision. The famous economist Henry C. Carey blamed
3654-500: The United States federal government shutdown of 1995 and 1996 , in which Clinton was largely seen to have prevailed. Gingrich's hold on the leadership was weakened significantly by that and several other controversies, and he faced a caucus revolt in 1997. After the Republicans lost House seats in 1998 (although retaining a majority) he did not stand for a third term as speaker. His successor, Dennis Hastert , had been chosen as
3780-650: The University of Vermont in 1880 and Columbian College Law School in 1882. He was a lawyer and farmer and served in a variety of offices including as a member of the Vermont House of Representatives . He wrote Self-Consciousness of Noted Persons , published in 1886. Morrill died in Washington, D.C. on December 28, 1898. He was buried at Strafford Cemetery. At the time of Morrill's death his 43 years and 299 days of continuous Congressional service
3906-661: The University of Vermont , University of Pennsylvania , Dartmouth College , and many other institutions. Justin Morrill College at Michigan State University was named for him. In 1962, the U.S. Postal Service issued a 4 cent postage stamp to celebrate the centennial of the Morrill Land-Grant College Act. In 1999, the Postal Service issued a 55 cent Great Americans series postage stamp of Morrill to honor his role in establishing
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4032-467: The Vesting Clause of Article I, Section I states that "All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives", political scientist Diana Schaub has argued, "Legislative powers cannot be lodged in the hands of a non-legislative person. To do so would violate the fundamental purpose of Article [I] of
4158-449: The War of 1812 , and various laws relating to Clay's " American System " economic plan. Furthermore, when no candidate received an Electoral College majority in the 1824 presidential election , causing the president to be elected by the House, Speaker Clay threw his support to John Quincy Adams instead of Andrew Jackson , thereby ensuring Adams' victory. Following Clay's retirement in 1825,
4284-479: The speaker of the House or House Speaker , is the presiding officer of the United States House of Representatives . The office was established in 1789 by Article I, Section II , of the U.S. Constitution . By custom and House rules, the speaker is the political and parliamentary leader of the House and is simultaneously its presiding officer, de facto leader of the body's majority party , and
4410-578: The 1998 midterm elections where the Republicans lost seats, Gingrich did not stand for re-election. The next two figures in the House Republican leadership hierarchy, Majority Leader Richard Armey and Majority Whip Tom DeLay chose not to run for the office. The chairman of the House Appropriations Committee , Bob Livingston , declared his bid for the speakership, which was unopposed, making him speaker-designate. It
4536-403: The 2000, 2002, and 2004 elections. The Democrats won a majority of seats in the 2006 midterm elections. On November 16, 2006, Nancy Pelosi , who was then minority leader, was selected as speaker-designate by House Democrats. When the 110th Congress convened on January 4, 2007, she was elected as the 52nd speaker by a vote of 233–202, becoming the first woman elected speaker of the House. Pelosi
4662-420: The 234 representatives being 83 Democrats, 108 Republicans, and 43 Know Nothings (primarily southern oppositionists). The Democratic minority nominated William Alexander Richardson of Illinois as speaker, but because of sectional distrust, the various oppositionists were unable to agree on a single candidate for speaker. The Republicans supported Nathaniel Prentice Banks of Massachusetts, who had been elected as
4788-810: The 36th Congress began in December 1860. At first, it appeared that Hunter would keep the Morrill bill tabled until the end of the term in March. However, in December 1860 and January 1861, seven southern states seceded, and their low-tariff senators withdrew. Republicans took control of the Senate in February, and Hunter lost his hold on the Finance Committee. Meanwhile, the Treasury was in financial crisis, with less than $ 500,000 on hand and millions in unpaid bills. The Union urgently needed new revenue. A recent historian concludes that "the impetus for revising
4914-685: The Anti-Bigamy Act's ban on plural marriage. While serving in the U.S. House, Morrill secured passage of legislation to establish the National Statuary Hall Collection inside the United States Capitol . Under the provisions of this 1864 law, each state is permitted to provide two statues of noteworthy citizens for display inside the Capitol. A second Land Grant College Act in 1890 targeted
5040-534: The Constitution." Both Schaub and the CRS note that the Standing Rules and Orders of the House created by the 1st United States Congress provided that the Speaker would vote "In all cases of ballot by the [H]ouse", while former House Intelligence Committee General Counsel Michael Ellis and attorney Greg Dubinsky have argued that the Speaker must be a House member because the Speaker performs various legislative functions that other House officers (such as
5166-777: The Constitution]... might require a regular course of practice to liquidate [and] settle the meaning of some of them." In holding in NLRB v. Noel Canning that the Recess Appointments Clause of Article II, Section II does not authorize the President to make appointments while the Senate is in pro forma sessions , the Supreme Court cited Marbury v. Madison (1803) and McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) in concluding that "The longstanding 'practice of
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5292-458: The House of Representatives, although every speaker thus far has been, and as a member the speaker also represents their district and retains the right to vote. The speaker is second in the United States presidential line of succession , after the vice president and ahead of the president pro tempore of the Senate . The 56th and current Speaker of the House is Mike Johnson , a Republican from Louisiana . The House elects its speaker at
5418-432: The House on January 7, 2023, after the longest multi-ballot speaker election since 1859. McCarthy was eventually removed as speaker on October 3, 2023, after a further split in the Republican caucus, with five House Freedom Caucus members voting against McCarthy, which when combined with votes of Democrats, resulted in the ouster of McCarthy. This was the first time in the history of the House of Representatives in which
5544-473: The House, becoming the first woman to hold the position. President Bush acknowledged Pelosi as the first woman in that position in the opening of his 2007 State of the Union Address . John Boehner was elected speaker when the 112th Congress convened on January 5, 2011, and was re-elected twice, at the start of the 113th and 114th Congresses. On both of those occasions his remaining in office
5670-569: The House. Furthermore, several speakers became leading figures in their political parties; examples include Democrats Samuel J. Randall , John Griffin Carlisle , and Charles F. Crisp , and Republicans James G. Blaine , Thomas Brackett Reed , and Joseph Gurney Cannon . The power of the speaker was greatly augmented during the tenure of the Republican Thomas Brackett Reed (1889–1891, 1895–1899). "Czar Reed", as he
5796-619: The Joint Select Committee on Additional Accommodations for the Library. He also served as chairman of the Committee on Finance ( Forty-fifth , Forty-seventh through Fifty-second , Fifty-fourth and Fifty-fifth Congresses ). In addition, Morrill was a regent of the Smithsonian Institution from 1883 to 1898 and a trustee of the University of Vermont from 1865 to 1898. The Morrill Tariff of 1861
5922-613: The Morrill Tariff in the strongest terms. The economist William Stanley Jevons denounced it as a "retrograde" law. The famous novelist Charles Dickens used his magazine, All the Year Round , to attack the new tariff. On December 28, 1861, Dickens published a lengthy article, believed to be written by Henry Morley , which blamed the American Civil War on the Morrill Tariff: If it be not slavery, where lies
6048-470: The Morrill Tariff to garner sympathy, with the aim of obtaining British recognition for the Confederacy. The new tariff schedule heavily penalized British iron, clothing, and manufactured exports by making them more costly and sparked public outcry from many British politicians. The expectation of high tax rates probably caused British shippers to hasten their deliveries before the new rates took effect in
6174-529: The Morrill Tariff: not unnaturally gave great displeasure to England. It greatly lessened the profits of the American markets to English manufacturers and merchants, to a degree which caused serious mercantile distress in that country. Moreover, the British nation was then in the first flush of enthusiasm over free trade, and, under the lead of extremists like Cobden and Gladstone, was inclined to regard
6300-550: The Morrill bill, he notes, helped him to secure support in the important state of Pennsylvania and neighboring New Jersey. Lincoln carried Pennsylvania handily in November, as part of his sweep of the North. On February 14, 1861, President-elect Lincoln told an audience in Pittsburgh that he would make a new tariff his priority in the next session if the bill did not pass by his inauguration, on March 4. The second session of
6426-484: The Peace. One of Judge Harris's daughters married Portus Baxter , who also served in Congress. Baxter and Morrill became close friends as a result of the connection to Judge Harris, with Morrill referring to Baxter as "one of nature's noblemen" and Baxter consciously patterning his business and political career on Morrill's. Morrill invested in several successful ventures, including banks, railroads, and real estate. By
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#17327656367386552-511: The Rules Committee, and determined which committee heard each bill. He vigorously used his powers to ensure that Republican proposals were passed by the House. In 1910, however, Democrats and several dissatisfied Republicans joined to strip Cannon of many of his powers, including the ability to name committee members and his chairmanship of the Rules Committee. Fifteen years later, Speaker Nicholas Longworth restored much, but not all, of
6678-432: The Senate was controlled by Democrats and so it was bottled up in the Finance Committee, chaired by Robert M. T. Hunter of Virginia . That ensured that the Senate vote would be put off until the second session in December 1860 and meant that the tariff would be a prominent issue in the 1860 election . The Republican Party included a strong pro-tariff plank in its 1860 platform and sent prominent tariff advocates touting
6804-516: The Southern secession) is stated by the high authority of Mr. H. C. Carey to be considerably more liberal than the reformed French tariff under Mr. Cobden's treaty; insomuch that he, a Protectionist, would be glad to exchange his own protective tariff for Louis Napoleon's free-trade one. But why discuss, on probable evidence, notorious facts? The world knows what the question between the North and South has been for many years, and still is. Slavery alone
6930-415: The Speaker of the House was successfully removed. Following a multi-day four-ballot election, Mike Johnson was elected speaker on October 25, 2023. [REDACTED] [REDACTED] Historically, there have been several controversial elections to the speakership, such as the contest of 1839. In that case, even though the 26th United States Congress convened on December 2, the House could not begin
7056-584: The Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States... and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of [the] House during his Continuance in Office." Along with political scientist Matthew J. Franck, Schaub, Ellis, and Dubinsky argue that permitting a Senator or an executive or judicial officer of the federal government to serve as
7182-473: The Treasury Salmon P. Chase , despite being a longtime free-trader, worked with Morrill to pass a second tariff bill in summer 1861, which raised rates another 10% to generate more revenue. The subsequent bills were primarily revenue driven to meet the war's needs but enjoyed the support of protectionists such as Carey, who again assisted Morrill in the bill's drafting. However, the tariff played only
7308-525: The United States' public colleges and universities following a movement led by Jonathan Baldwin Turner . He is also remembered for Morrill Tariff . Originally a Whig , after that party became defunct Morrill was one of the founders of the Republican Party . A native of Strafford, Vermont , Morrill was educated in the schools of Strafford, Thetford Academy and Randolph Academy. He worked as
7434-442: The Ways and Means Committee. Near the end of first session of the Congress (December 1859–June 1860), on May 10, 1860, the bill was brought up for a floor vote and passed 105–64. The vote was largely but not entirely sectional. Republicans, all from the northern states, voted 89–2 for the bill. They were joined by 7 northern Democrats from New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. Five of them were "anti-Lecompton Democrats," who opposed
7560-554: The agenda of the majority party, often at the expense of the minority opposition. This can be seen, most of all, in the speakership of Democratic-Republican Henry Clay , who personally ensured the presidential victory of fellow Democratic-Republican John Quincy Adams . Democrat Sam Rayburn was a key player in the passing of New Deal legislation under the presidency of fellow Democrat Franklin Delano Roosevelt . Republican Joseph Gurney Cannon (under Theodore Roosevelt )
7686-550: The appointment is approved by the House. Separately, a speaker pro tempore is designated in the event the office of the speaker is declared vacant. Under the current Rules of the House, at the start of their term, the speaker is required to create a secret ordered list of members to temporarily serve as speaker of the House if the speakership became vacant and to provide the Clerk of the United States House of Representatives this list "as soon as practicable after"
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#17327656367387812-512: The authority to appoint a majority of the members of the Rules Committee. Meanwhile, the power of committee chairmen was curtailed, further increasing the relative influence of the speaker. Albert's successor, Democrat Tip O'Neill , was a prominent speaker because of his public opposition to the policies of President Ronald Reagan . O'Neill is the longest continuously serving speaker, from 1977 through 1987. He challenged Reagan on domestic programs and on defense expenditures. Republicans made O'Neill
7938-415: The beginning of a new Congress, biennially , after a general election , or when a speaker dies, resigns, or is removed from the position during a congressional term. At the start of a new Congress, those voting to elect the speaker are representatives-elect, as a speaker must be selected before members are sworn in to office; the House of Representatives cannot organize or take other legislative actions until
8064-429: The bill, such as Morrill and Sherman, to campaign in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, where the tariff was popular. Both Democratic candidates, John C. Breckinridge and Stephen Douglas , opposed all high tariffs and protectionism in general. The historian Reinhard H. Luthin documents the importance of the Morrill Tariff to the Republicans in the 1860 presidential election. Lincoln's record as a protectionist and support for
8190-405: The body's presiding officer in the speaker's absence, is separate from the speaker's designation of multiple members as speakers pro tempore for the purpose of allowing them to sign enrolled bills and joint resolutions . The House Rules state: "With the approval of the House, the Speaker may appoint a Member to act as Speaker pro tempore only to sign enrolled bills and joint resolutions for
8316-432: The chamber's longest-serving member. Additionally, it is customary for the outgoing speaker, or the minority leader, to hand the speaker's gavel to the new speaker, as a mark of the peaceful transition of power . While every speaker of the House has been a sitting House member, Article I, Section II, Clause 5, of the U.S. Constitution , concerning the choosing of a speaker, does not explicitly state House membership as
8442-432: The common schools of Strafford, Thetford Academy and Randolph Academy. He then trained for a business career by working as a merchant's clerk in Strafford and Portland, Maine . He then was a merchant in Strafford, and the partnership in which he participated with Judge Jedediah H. Harris grew to own and operate four stores throughout the state. Morrill also served in local offices including Town Auditor and Justice of
8568-425: The comparable rates at 38% and 48%. Although higher than in the immediate antebellum period, the new rates were still significantly lower than between 1825 and 1830, when rates had sometimes been over 50%. The United States needed $ 3 billion to pay for the immense armies and fleets raised to fight the Civil War, over $ 400 million for 1862 alone. The chief source of revenue had been tariffs. Therefore, Secretary of
8694-433: The early summer of 1861. When complaints were heard from London, Congress counterattacked. The Senate Finance Committee chairman snapped, "What right has a foreign country to make any question about what we choose to do?" When the American Civil War broke out in 1861, British public opinion was sympathetic to the Confederacy, in part because of lingering agitation over the tariff. As one diplomatic historian has explained,
8820-420: The election "and whenever appropriate thereafter." The names are only revealed in the event of a vacancy (e.g., by the speaker's death, resignation, incapacitation, or removal from office). This "succession list" procedure was created in 2003, following the September 11 attacks , to promote continuity of government . Rule I, clause 8, of the House Rules states the member whose name appears first on
8946-452: The election of Representative Mike Johnson . This came after two weeks of negotiations between Republicans, including three failed votes for Speaker. In total, there have been 16 elections requiring multiple ballots to elect a speaker, with 13 before the American Civil War , one in 1923, and two in 2023. The Constitution does not spell out the political role of the speaker. As the office has developed historically, however, it has taken on
9072-651: The end of the Civil War. Tariff in United States history has often been made high to encourage the development of domestic industry, and had been advocated, especially by the Whig Party and its longtime leader, Henry Clay . Such a tariff was enacted in 1842, but in 1846 the Democratic Party enacted the Walker Tariff , which cut tariff rates substantially. The Democrats cut rates even further in
9198-601: The first ballot, necessitating an additional round of balloting for the first time since 1923. McCarthy ultimately prevailed when the remaining six anti-McCarthy holdouts voted " present " on the 15th ballot, ending the longest multiple-ballot speaker election since before the Civil War. He was removed from office less than ten months later, the first time in American History the House voted to remove its incumbent speaker. This led to multiple rounds of voting across multiple weeks to replace him, ultimately leading to
9324-555: The first times since 1953–1955 that there was single-party Republican leadership in Washington, interrupted from 2001 to 2003 as Senator Jim Jeffords of Vermont left the Republican Party to become independent and caucused with Senate Democrats to give them a 51–49 majority. In the 2006 midterm elections, the Democratic Party regained control of the House of Representatives. Nancy Pelosi was elected Speaker of
9450-463: The first woman to hold the office, Pelosi became the first speaker to return to power since Sam Rayburn in the 1950s. Following the 2022 midterm elections which saw the election of a narrow Republican Party majority in the House, Pelosi did not seek a Democratic leadership post in the next Congress. The Democratic Caucus named her "Speaker Emerita". Kevin McCarthy then became the new Speaker of
9576-566: The former Confederate states and led to the creation of several historically black colleges and universities . The Land Grant College Acts ultimately led to the founding of 106 colleges including many state universities, polytechnic colleges, and agricultural and mechanical colleges. In 1851, Morrill married Ruth Barrell Swan (1822–1898) of Easton, Massachusetts . They had two children. Justin Harris Morrill (1853–1855) died in childhood. James Swan Morrill (1857–1910) graduated from
9702-514: The government' ... can inform [the] determination of 'what the law is ' ". Under the Rules of the House, the speaker may designate a member to serve as speaker pro tempore , acting as the body's presiding officer in the speaker's absence. In most instances, the speaker pro tempore designation lasts for no more than three legislative days, although in the case of illness of the speaker, the speaker pro tempore may serve for ten legislative days if
9828-438: The institution's administrative head. Speakers also perform various other administrative and procedural functions. Given these several roles and responsibilities, the speaker usually does not personally preside over debates—that duty is instead delegated to members of the House from the majority party—nor regularly participate in floor debates. The Constitution does not explicitly require the speaker to be an incumbent member of
9954-406: The kind. They tell the world, and they told their own citizens when they wanted their votes, that the object of the fight was slavery. Many years ago, when General Jackson was President, South Carolina did nearly rebel (she never was near separating) about a tariff; but no other State abetted her, and a strong adverse demonstration from Virginia brought the matter to a close. Yet the tariff of that day
10080-529: The land grant colleges. In 1967 Ohio State University opened two residence halls on its campus. Named for Morrill and Abraham Lincoln, they are also known as The Towers . They are the tallest buildings on the OSU campus, and among the tallest in Columbus Ohio . Speaker of the United States House of Representatives The speaker of the United States House of Representatives , commonly known as
10206-649: The late 1840s he was financially secure enough to retire, and he became a gentleman farmer. In addition to farming, Morrill became active in the Whig Party , including serving as chairman of the Orange County Whig Committee, a member of the Vermont State Whig Committee, and a Delegate to the 1852 Whig National Convention . In 1854 Morrill was elected to the Thirty-fourth Congress as a Whig. He
10332-401: The leader of the Democratic Party in the House of Representatives and served as House minority leader for eight years before she led her party to victory in the 2018 elections. Following the 2018 midterm elections which saw the election of a Democratic Party majority in the House, Nancy Pelosi was again elected speaker when the 116th Congress convened on January 3, 2019. In addition to being
10458-526: The list "shall act as Speaker pro tempore until the election of a Speaker or a Speaker pro tempore ." The speaker pro tempore is not in the line of succession for the presidency . Following the removal of Kevin McCarthy as speaker in October 2023 on a motion to vacate (the first time in history that a speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives was successfully removed by the House), Patrick McHenry
10584-560: The lost influence of the position. One of the most influential speakers in history was Democrat Sam Rayburn . Rayburn had the most cumulative time as speaker in history, holding office from 1940 to 1947, 1949 to 1953, and 1955 to 1961. He helped shape many bills, working quietly in the background with House committees. He also helped ensure the passage of several domestic measures and foreign assistance programs advocated by Presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry Truman . Rayburn's successor, Democrat John W. McCormack (served 1962–1971),
10710-570: The low rates of the Tariff of 1857, with minor revisions to stimulate revenue. Ways and Means members Morrill and Henry Winter Davis , a Maryland "American," produced the Republican proposal to raise the tariffs. It replaced the existing ad valorem tariff schedule with specific duties and drastically increased tariff rates on goods that were produced by popular "protected" industries, such as iron, textiles, and other manufactured goods. The economic historian Frank Taussig argued that in many cases,
10836-500: The major cause of the war. Marx wrote extensively in the British press and served as a London correspondent for several North American newspapers including Horace Greeley 's New York Tribune . Marx reacted to those who blamed the war on the Morrill Tariff and argued instead that slavery had induced secession and that the tariff was just a pretext. In October 1861, he wrote: Naturally, in America everyone knew that from 1846 to 1861
10962-405: The majority members of each House standing committee, including the Rules committee (although it's worth to note their appointment to the said committees must be ratified by a resolution of the full House). While the speaker is the functioning head of the House majority party, the same is not true of the president pro tempore of the Senate, whose office is primarily ceremonial and honorary. When
11088-434: The minority party or rejecting bills by the Senate. One famous instance came in the form of Thomas Brackett Reed (under Grover Cleveland ), a speaker notorious for his successful attempt to force the Democrats to vote on measures where the Republicans had clear majorities, which ensured that Cleveland's Democrats were in no position to challenge the Republicans in the House. Joseph Cannon was particularly unique in that he led
11214-659: The most advanced standards of the world. He also authored the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act of 1862, which targeted the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints , based on the then-existing practice of plural marriage ( polygamy ). It imposed a five-hundred dollar fine and up to five years imprisonment for the crime of polygamy. On January 6, 1879, in Reynolds v. United States the Supreme Court , upheld
11340-420: The other hand, when the speaker and the president belong to opposite parties, the public role and influence of the speaker tend to increase. As the highest-ranking member of the opposition party (and de facto leader of the opposition ), the speaker is normally the chief public opponent of the president's agenda. In this scenario, the speaker is known for undercutting the president's agenda by blocking measures by
11466-456: The panic on the new tariff. His opinion was widely circulated in the protectionist media for higher tariffs. Efforts to raise the tariffs began in earnest in the 35th Congress of 1857–1859. Two proposals were submitted in the US House of Representatives . House Ways and Means Committee Chairman John S. Phelps , Democrat from Missouri , wrote the Democrats' plan, which retained most of
11592-496: The partition of the interests that has led at last to actual separation of the Southern from the Northern States?... Every year, for some years back, this or that Southern state had declared that it would submit to this extortion only while it had not the strength for resistance. With the election of Lincoln and an exclusive Northern party taking over the federal government, the time for withdrawal had arrived.... The conflict
11718-636: The power of the speakership once again began to decline, despite speakership elections becoming increasingly bitter. As the Civil War approached, several sectional factions nominated their own candidates, often making it difficult for any candidate to attain a majority. In 1855 and again in 1859, for example, the contest for speaker lasted for two months before the House achieved a result. Speakers tended to have very short tenures during this period. For example, from 1839 to 1863 there were eleven speakers, only one of whom served for more than one term. James K. Polk
11844-465: The previous one, were passed under President Abraham Lincoln to raise revenue that was urgently needed during the American Civil War . The tariff inaugurated a period of continuous protectionism in the United States , and that policy remained until the adoption of the Revenue Act of 1913 , or Underwood Tariff. The schedule of the Morrill Tariff and both of its successors were retained long after
11970-656: The pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution for Kansas . Also, 14 northern Democrats voted against the bill. In the Border States, four "Opposition" Representatives from Kentucky voted for it, as did its cosponsor, Winter of Maryland, a Maryland "Unionist," and a Democrat from Delaware. Eight Democrats from the Border States and a member of the American Party from Missouri voted against it. Thirty-five southern Democrats and three Oppositionists voted against it; one Oppositionist from Tennessee voted for it. Thus
12096-426: The purposes of determining a quorum. Through these and other rulings, Reed ensured that the Democrats could not block the Republican agenda. The speakership reached its apogee during the term of Republican Joseph Gurney Cannon (1903–1911). Cannon exercised extraordinary control over the legislative process. He determined the agenda of the House, appointed the members of all committees, chose committee chairmen, headed
12222-691: The revenue needs of the Civil War and was quickly raised by the Second Morrill Tariff, or Revenue Act of 1861, later that Fall. In its first year of operation, the Morrill Tariff increased the effective rate collected on dutiable imports by approximately 70%. In 1860, American tariff rates were among the lowest in the world and also at historical lows by 19th-century standards, the average rate for 1857 to 1860 being around 17% overall ( ad valorem ), 21% on dutiable items only. The Morrill Tariff immediately raised those averages to about 26% overall, or 36% on dutiable items. Further increases by 1865 left
12348-477: The same millions to the North. The love of money is the root of this, as of many other evils.... [T]he quarrel between the North and South is, as it stands, solely a fiscal quarrel. Others, such as John Stuart Mill , denied tariffs had anything to do with the conflict: ...what are the Southern chiefs fighting about? Their apologists in England say that it is about tariffs, and similar trumpery. They say nothing of
12474-470: The sectional breakdown was 96–15 in the North, 7–9 in the Border States, and 1–39 in the South. There were 55 abstentions, including 13 Republicans, 12 northern Democrats, 13 southern Democrats, and 8 southern "Oppositionists" and "Americans." (The remaining Representatives were mostly "paired" with opposing Representatives who could not be present. The Morrill bill was sent on to the US Senate . However,
12600-587: The signing of the Morrill Tariff, making it all the more dubious that tariffs caused the Civil War. Justin Smith Morrill Justin Smith Morrill (April 14, 1810 – December 28, 1898) was an American politician and entrepreneur who represented Vermont in the United States House of Representatives (1855–1867) and United States Senate (1867–1898). He is most widely remembered for Morrill Land-Grant Acts that provided federal funding for establishing many of
12726-498: The sons of toil, where all of needful science for the practical avocations of life shall be taught, where neither the higher graces of classical studies nor that military drill our country now so greatly appreciates will be entirely ignored, and where agriculture, the foundation of all present and future prosperity, may look for troops of earnest friends, studying its familiar and recondite economies, and at last elevating it to that higher level where it may fearlessly invoke comparison with
12852-433: The speaker and the president belong to the same party, the speaker tends to play the role in a more ceremonial light, as seen when Dennis Hastert played a very restrained role during the presidency of fellow Republican George W. Bush . Nevertheless, when the speaker and the president belong to the same party, there are also times that the speaker plays a much larger role, and the speaker is tasked, e.g., with pushing through
12978-474: The speaker usually does not participate in debate and only votes on the most significant bills. The speaker is responsible for ensuring that the House passes legislation supported by the majority party. In pursuing this goal, the speaker may use their influence over the Rules committee , which is in charge of the business of the House . The speaker chairs the majority party's House steering committee, which selects
13104-410: The speaker's chair, 1789–1791 (1st Congress) and 1793–1795 ( 3rd Congress ). As the Constitution does not state the duties of the speaker, the speaker's role has largely been shaped by rules and customs that evolved over time. Scholars are divided as to whether early speakers played largely ceremonial and impartial roles or whether they were more active partisan actors. From early in its existence,
13230-402: The speaker's primary function had been to keep order and enforce rules. The speakership was transformed into a position with power over the legislative process under Henry Clay (1811–1814, 1815–1820, and 1823–1825). In contrast to many of his predecessors, Clay participated in several debates and used his influence to procure the passage of measures he supported—for instance, the declaration of
13356-602: The speakership election until December 14 because of an election dispute in New Jersey known as the " Broad Seal War ". Two rival delegations, one Whig and the other Democrat, had been certified as elected by different branches of the New Jersey government. The problem was compounded by the fact that the result of the dispute would determine whether the Whigs or the Democrats held the majority. Neither party agreed to permit
13482-401: The substitution of specific duties was used to disguise the extent of the rate increases. Supporters of the specific rates argued that they were necessary because European exporters routinely provided US customers with fake invoices showing lower prices for goods than were actually paid. Specific rates made such subterfuge pointless. However, the House took no action on either tariff bill during
13608-446: The target of their election campaigns in 1980 and 1982 but Democrats managed to retain their majorities in both years. The roles of the parties reversed in 1994 when, after spending forty years in the minority, the Republicans regained control of the House with the " Contract with America ", an idea spearheaded by Minority Whip Newt Gingrich . Speaker Gingrich would regularly clash with Democratic President Bill Clinton , leading to
13734-703: The tariff arose as an attempt to augment revenue, stave off 'ruin,' and address the accumulating debt." The Morrill bill was brought to the Senate floor for a vote on February 20 and passed 25 to 14. The vote was split almost completely down party lines. It was supported by 24 Republicans and the Democrat William Bigler of Pennsylvania. It was opposed by 10 Southern Democrats, 2 Northern Democrats, and 2 Far West Democrats. Twelve Senators abstained, including 3 Northern Democrats, 1 California Democrat, 5 Southern Democrats, 2 Republicans, and 1 Unionist from Maryland. There were some minor amendments related to
13860-411: The tariffs on tea and coffee, which required a conference committee with the House, but they were resolved, and the final bill was approved by unanimous consent on March 2. Though a Democrat himself, President James Buchanan favored the bill because of the interests of his home state, Pennsylvania. He signed the bill into law as one of his last acts in office. The tariff took effect one month after it
13986-441: The vote positively or negatively. Anyone who votes for the other party's candidate could face serious consequences, as was the case when Democrat James Traficant voted for Republican Dennis Hastert in 2001 ( 107th Congress ). In response, the Democrats stripped him of his seniority, and he lost all of his committee posts. Upon election, the new speaker is sworn in by the dean of the United States House of Representatives ,
14112-401: Was a protective tariff law adopted on March 2, 1861. Passed after anti-tariff southerners had left Congress during the process of secession, Morrill designed it with the advice of Pennsylvania economist Henry C. Carey. It was one of the last acts signed into law by James Buchanan , and replaced the Tariff of 1857 . Additional tariffs Morrill sponsored were passed to raise revenue during
14238-700: Was a founder of the Republican Party , and won reelection five times as a Republican, serving from March 4, 1855, to March 3, 1867. He served as chairman of the Committee on Ways and Means in the Thirty-ninth Congress . He also served on the Joint Committee on Reconstruction , which drafted the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution . In 1866 Morrill was elected to the U.S. Senate as
14364-546: Was a founder of the new Republican Party. He won reelection to the U.S. House every two years from 1856 to 1864, and he served from March 1857 to March 1867. During his House service, Morrill served as chairman of the Ways and Means Committee and the House Republican Conference . In 1866, Morrill was elected to the U.S. Senate, and he served from March 1867 until his death. During his Senate career, Morrill
14490-409: Was a somewhat less influential speaker, particularly because of dissent from younger members of the Democratic Party. During the mid-1970s, the power of the speakership once again grew under Democrat Carl Albert . The Committee on Rules ceased to be a semi-independent panel, as it had been since 1910. Instead, it once again became an arm of the party leadership. Moreover, in 1975, the speaker was granted
14616-399: Was called by his opponents, sought to end the obstruction of bills by the minority, in particular by countering the tactic known as the " disappearing quorum ". By refusing to vote on a motion, the minority could ensure that a quorum would not be achieved and that the result would be invalid. Reed, however, declared that members who were in the chamber but refused to vote would still count for
14742-599: Was chairman of the Senate Finance Committee and the Joint Committee on Public Buildings . Morrill died in Washington, D.C. , on December 28, 1898. He was buried at Strafford Cemetery. Morrill was born in Strafford, Vermont , on April 14, 1810, the son of Mary Hunt (Proctor) Morrill and Nathaniel Morrill, a farmer, blacksmith, and militia leader who attained the rank of colonel . Morrill attended
14868-408: Was particularly infamous for his marginalization of the minority Democrats and centralizing of authority to the speakership. In more recent times, Speaker Nancy Pelosi played a role in continuing the push for health care reform during the presidency of fellow Democrat Barack Obama and in pushing for increases in infrastructure and climate spending during the presidency of Democrat Joe Biden . On
14994-409: Was reelected speaker in the 111th Congress, and again in the 116th and 117th Congresses. The January 2023 speakership election occurred two months after the 2022 House elections in which the Republicans won a slim four-seat majority. Kevin McCarthy was nominated for speaker by the House Republican Conference but due to a division among the Republicans, no one received a majority of the votes on
15120-419: Was revealed to be the first name on McCarthy's list and became acting speaker. The intent of the rule was for the speaker pro tempore to serve for a short period, until the House elected a new speaker, but the House rules set no specific limit on the length of time that a member may be speaker pro tempore . The designation of a speaker pro tempore for purposes of succession, and for purposes of serving as
15246-412: Was rigidly protective. Compared with that, the one in force at the time of the secession was a free-trade tariff: This latter was the result of several successive modifications in the direction of freedom; and its principle was not protection for protection, but as much of it only as might incidentally result from duties imposed for revenue. Even the Morrill tariff (which never could have been passed but for
15372-484: Was signed into law. Besides setting tariff rates, the bill altered and restricted the Warehousing Act of 1846. The tariff was drafted and passed the House before the Civil War began or was expected, and it was passed by the Senate after seven States had seceded. At least one author has argued that the first Morrill should not be considered "Civil War" legislation. In fact, the tariff proved to be too low for
15498-599: Was the longest in U.S. history. He has since been surpassed, but still ranks 26th as of March 2021. The Justin Smith Morrill Homestead in Strafford is a National Historic Landmark. Many colleges established under the Morrill Act created a 'Morrill Hall' in his honor. Morrill was initiated into the Delta Upsilon fraternity as an honorary member in 1864. He received honorary degrees from
15624-429: Was then revealed, by Livingston himself, who had been publicly critical of President Bill Clinton 's alleged perjury during his sexual harassment trial, that he had engaged in an extramarital affair. He opted to resign from the House, despite being urged to stay on by House Democratic leader Gephardt. Subsequently, the chief deputy whip Dennis Hastert was selected as speaker. The Republicans retained their majorities in
15750-499: Was thought of, alone talked of. Slavery was battled for and against, on the floor of Congress and in the plains of Kansas; on the slavery question exclusively was the party constituted which now rules the United States: on slavery Fremont was rejected, on slavery Lincoln was elected; the South separated on slavery, and proclaimed slavery as the one cause of separation. The communist philosopher Karl Marx also saw slavery as
15876-503: Was threatened by the defection of several members from his own party who chose not to vote for him. Boehner's tenure as speaker, which ended when he resigned from Congress in October 2015, was marked by multiple battles with the conservatives in his own party related to " Obamacare ", appropriations , among other political issues. This intra-party discord continued under Boehner's successor, Paul Ryan . When Republican leader John Boehner succeeded Pelosi as speaker in 2011, Pelosi remained
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