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64-401: The texts were buried in tomb number three at Mawangdui (which was sealed in 168 BC), and were hidden until their late-20th-century discovery. Some were previously known only by title, and others are previously unknown commentaries on the I Ching . In general, they follow the same sequence as the received versions, which were passed down by copying and recopying texts collected and collated during

128-478: A connection between wu wei and esoteric practices, such as zuowang ('sitting in oblivion': emptying the mind of bodily awareness and thought) found in the Zhuangzi . The Tao Te Ching is a text of around 5,162 to 5,450 Chinese characters in 81 brief chapters or sections ( 章 ). There is some evidence that the chapter divisions were later additions—for commentary, or as aids to rote memorisation—and that

192-539: A decisive victory against Zhou, the Wu and Chu forces collapsed from starvation. Liu Pi fled to Donghai, which killed him and sought peace with Han. Liu Wu, the Prince of Chu, committed suicide. The other principalities involved were all eventually defeated as well. In 153 BC, because Empress Bo did not have a son, Emperor Jing made his oldest son Liu Rong (劉榮) crown prince. This made Liu Rong's mother, Consort Li (栗姬), who

256-585: A foundation in Chinese language and philosophy who are trying to render the original meaning of the text as faithfully as possible into English. Some of the more popular translations are written from a less scholarly perspective, giving an individual author's interpretation. Critics of these versions claim that their translators deviate from the text and are incompatible with the history of Chinese thought. Russell Kirkland goes further to argue that these versions are based on Western Orientalist fantasies and represent

320-480: A marquess but whose candidacy Zhou rebuffed. By 143 BC, he was retired when his son, in anticipation of his death, purchased retired armor and weapons from the imperial armory to serve as burial decorations. Zhou's son refused to pay the delivery workers, and the delivery workers, in retaliation, accused the Zhous of treason. Emperor Jing had Zhou Yafu arrested and interrogated, and the interrogator, when told by Zhou that

384-629: A total of over 13,000 characters, about 2,000 of which correspond with the Tao Te Ching. Both the Mawangdui and Guodian versions are generally consistent with the received texts, excepting differences in chapter sequence and graphic variants. Several recent Tao Te Ching translations utilise these two versions, sometimes with the verses reordered to synthesize the new finds. Although debated more in early scholarship, early modern scholars like Feng Youlan and Herrlee G. Creel still considered

448-689: A trusted adviser of Prince Qi. Despise this, Liu Qi has been known to taken an epicurean lifestyle to the point that Emperor Wen once considered deposing him as Crown Prince to Liu Wu, Prince of Liang, but dropped the matter as many officials opposed the idea. In July 157 BC, Emperor Wen died, and Prince Qi became emperor. In accordance with Emperor Wen's will, the period of mourning was shortened. Emperor Jing's grandmother Empress Dowager Bo became grand empress dowager, and Empress Dou became empress dowager. Prince Qi's wife, Crown Princess Bo (a member of his grandmother's clan) became empress. When he became Emperor, in contrast with many official's thinking, which

512-531: Is a famous puzzle which everyone would like to feel he had solved." The first English translation of the Tao Te Ching was produced in 1868 by the Scottish Protestant missionary John Chalmers , entitled The Speculations on Metaphysics, Polity, and Morality of the "Old Philosopher" Lau-tsze . It was heavily indebted to Julien 's French translation and dedicated to James Legge , who later produced his own translation for Oxford's Sacred Books of

576-687: Is commonly rendered Tao Te Ching , following the Wade–Giles romanisation, or as Daodejing , following pinyin . It can be translated as The Classic of the Way and its Power , The Book of the Tao and Its Virtue , The Book of the Way and of Virtue , The Tao and its Characteristics , The Canon of Reason and Virtue , The Classic Book of Integrity and the Way , or A Treatise on the Principle and Its Action . Ancient Chinese books were commonly referenced by

640-577: Is impossible to understand some passages without some transposition of characters. Emperor Jing of Han Emperor Jing of Han (188 BC – 9 March 141 BC ), born Liu Qi , was the sixth emperor of the Han dynasty from 157 to 141 BC. His reign saw the limiting of the power of the feudal kings and princes which resulted in the Rebellion of the Seven States in 154 BC. Emperor Jing managed to crush

704-578: Is in the Records of the Grand Historian , by Chinese historian Sima Qian ( c.  145–86 BC ), which combines three stories. In the first, Laozi was a contemporary of Confucius (551–479 BC). His surname was Li ( 李 ), and his personal name was Er ( 耳 ) or Dan ( 聃 ). He was an official in the imperial archives, and wrote a book in two parts before departing to the West; at the request of

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768-434: Is named after the legendary Heshang Gong ('legendary sage'), who supposedly lived during the reign of Emperor Wen of Han (180–157 BC). This commentary has a preface written by Ge Xuan (164–244 AD), granduncle of Ge Hong , and scholarship dates this version to c.  the 3rd century AD . The origins of the "Wang Bi" version have greater verification than either of the above. Wang Bi (226–249 AD)

832-550: Is unseen, but not transcendent, immensely powerful yet supremely humble, being the root of all things. People have desires and free will (and thus are able to alter their own nature). Many act "unnaturally", upsetting the natural balance of the Tao. The Tao Te Ching intends to lead students to a "return" to their natural state, in harmony with Tao. Language and conventional wisdom are critically assessed. Taoism views them as inherently biased and artificial, widely using paradoxes to sharpen

896-420: Is used to explain ziran , or harmony with the Tao. It includes the concepts that value distinctions are ideological and seeing ambition of all sorts as originating from the same source. Tao Te Ching used the term broadly with simplicity and humility as key virtues, often in contrast to selfish action. On a political level, it means avoiding such circumstances as war, harsh laws and heavy taxes. Some Taoists see

960-624: Is why the Henricks translation of them is named "Te-Tao Ching". Based on calligraphic styles and imperial naming taboo avoidances, scholars believe that Text A can be dated to about the first decade and Text B to about the third decade of the 2nd century BC. In 1993, the oldest known version of the text, written on bamboo slips , was found in a tomb near the town of Guodian ( 郭店 ) in Jingmen , Hubei, and dated prior to 300 BC. The Guodian Chu Slips comprise around 800 slips of bamboo with

1024-508: Is written in Classical Chinese , which generally poses a number of challenges for interpreters and translators. As Holmes Welch notes, the written language "has no active or passive, no singular or plural, no case, no person, no tense, no mood." Moreover, the received text lacks many grammatical particles which are preserved in the older Mawangdui and Beida texts, which permit the text to be more precise. Lastly, many passages of

1088-604: The Rule of Wen and Jing , was considered to be one of the golden ages in Chinese history. However, it is also apparent from his actions that he lacked the warmth and openness his father had, and in many ways his reign was marked by political intrigue and treachery. This coldness applied to Jing's inner circle as well; it is said of his relationship with the palace guard Zhou Wenren that 'the emperor loved him more than most people, but not as much as other emperors loved their male favorites.' Emperor Jing can also be credited for furthering

1152-643: The Xiang'er commentary, which had previously been lost. In 1973, archaeologists discovered copies of early Chinese books, known as the Mawangdui Silk Texts , in a tomb dated to 168 BC. They included two nearly complete copies of the text, referred to as Text A ( 甲 ) and Text B ( 乙 ), both of which reverse the traditional ordering and put the Te Ching section before the Tao Ching , which

1216-667: The Jixia Academy , Shen Dao is listed in the Outer Zhuangzi before Laozi and Zhuangzi, and shares content the Inner Zhuangzi , which does not appear to be familiar with the Tao Te Ching . Thus, an early stratum of the Zhuangzi may still have preceded them. Chad Hansen does not consider the Outer Zhuangzi entirely accurate chronologically, but still discusses Shen Dao as part of the theoretical framework of

1280-495: The Stanford Encyclopedia of Daoism, as "Pre-Laozi Daoist Theory". Discussing concepts of names and realities in its opening, Feng Youlan proposed the school of names as preceding it the Tao Te Ching , but while some may have, it does not demonstrate school of names influence the way the Zhuangzi does. Although differing, Mohism and Confucianism also discuss concepts of names and realities. The Tao Te Ching

1344-497: The Tao Te Ching are deliberately ambiguous. Since there is very little punctuation in Classical Chinese, determining the precise boundaries between words and sentences is not always trivial. Deciding where these phrasal boundaries are must be done by the interpreter. Some translators have argued that the received text is so corrupted due to its original medium being bamboo strips linked with silk threads—that it

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1408-632: The East . Other notable English translations of the Tao Te Ching are those produced by Chinese scholars and teachers: a 1948 translation by linguist Lin Yutang , a 1961 translation by author John Ching Hsiung Wu , a 1963 translation by sinologist Din Cheuk Lau , another 1963 translation by professor Wing-tsit Chan , and a 1972 translation by Taoist teacher Gia-Fu Feng together with his wife Jane English . Many translations are written by people with

1472-637: The Principalities of Chu (modern northern Jiangsu and northern Anhui ) and Zhao and six counties from the Principality of Jiaoxi (roughly modern Weifang , Shandong ), before carving two commanderies out of Wu. Wu did indeed start a rebellion, in alliance with Chu, Jiaoxi, Zhao, and three other smaller principalities— Jiaodong , Zichuan , and Jinan . Two other principalities that originally agreed to join, Qi (modern central Shandong ) and Jibei (modern northwestern Shandong ), reneged at

1536-443: The Seven States , was further given privilege to use imperial ceremonies and colors. Members of his household encouraged him to seek to become crown prince . This was favored by the empress dowager Dou as well, but opposed by the minister Yuan Ang, who believed such a move would bring instability to dynastic succession. When Prince Wu sought permission to build a highway directly from his capital Suiyang to Chang'an, Yuan, fearing that

1600-481: The Way and Its Power ( 道德真經 ; Dàodé zhēnjing ) and the descriptive Five Thousand Character Classic ( 五千文 ; Wǔqiān wén ). Among the many transmitted editions of the Tao Te Ching text, the three primary ones are named after early commentaries. The "Yan Zun Version", which is only extant for the Te Ching , derives from a commentary attributed to Han dynasty scholar Yan Zun ( 巖尊 , fl.  80 BC – 10 AD ). The "Heshang Gong" version

1664-462: The Zhuangzi itself. Terminology originating within the text has been reinterpreted and elaborated upon by Legalist thinkers , Confucianists , and particularly Chinese Buddhists , which had been introduced to China significantly after the initial solidification of Taoist thought. The text is well known in the West, and is one of the most translated texts in world literature. In English, the title

1728-548: The armor and weapons were for burial purposes, accused him of "underground treason"—i.e., ready to commit treason against the spirits of the emperors after he himself dies. Zhou committed suicide in prison. Emperor Jing died in 141 BC and was buried in the Han Yang Ling Mausoleum in Chang'an. He was succeeded by Crown Prince Che (as Emperor Wu ). His reign, along with that of his father Emperor Wen, known as

1792-419: The characters used in later traditional versions. Many characters are formed by combining two simpler characters: one indicating a general category of meaning, and the other to guide pronunciation. Where the traditional texts have both components, the silk texts frequently give only the phonetic half of the character. There are several hypotheses to explain this: In addition to partial characters mentioned above,

1856-492: The colonial appropriation of Chinese culture. Other Taoism scholars, such as Michael LaFargue and Jonathan Herman, argue that while they do not pretend to scholarship, they meet a real spiritual need in the West. These Westernized versions aim to make the wisdom of the Tao Te Ching more accessible to modern English-speaking readers by, typically, employing more familiar cultural and temporal references. The Tao Te Ching

1920-461: The commander of his armed forces to face the main rebel force—joint forces of Wu and Chu. However, he soon panicked at the prospect of losing, and at the suggestion of Chao Cuo's enemy Yuan Ang , he executed Chao to try to appease the seven princes, to no avail. Wu and Chu forces were fiercely attacking the Principality of Liang (modern eastern Henan ), whose prince Liu Wu, prince of Liang

1984-444: The earlier text, although both may be derived from the same parent text. Both Mawangdui texts place the de section (chapters 38–81) before the dao section (chapters 1–37), whereas the received text places the dao section first. D. C. Lau and Robert G. Henricks have made new translations of the Tao Te Ching based on the silk text, largely ignoring the received texts, although Henricks' translation compares received versions with

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2048-644: The emperor. This was already an issue in Emperor Wen's days, but Emperor Wen did not take any decisive actions on the issue. Emperor Jing did not designate a crown prince for the first few years of his reign, because Empress Bo did not have any sons. His mother, the Dowager Empress Dou, wanted him to make his younger brother Liu Wu , the Prince of Liang , the crown prince, but this did not happen because of opposition by officials. However, Liu Wu

2112-618: The fifth century AD. However, in some important aspects they differ noticeably from the received texts known before their discovery. Most received versions of the Tao Te Ching are in substantial agreement. Occasionally two versions will have a homonym , and a third text with a character which is a synonym for one of the first two characters is useful. There are two Mawangdui Laozi texts, namely A (甲; written in earlier small seal script ) and B (乙; written in later clerical script ). Texts A and B were copied at different times, with A being

2176-407: The final moment. Wu also sought assistance from the independent kingdoms of Dong'ou (modern Zhejiang ) and Minyue (modern Fujian ); while Dong'ou contributed forces, Minyue did not. Zhao sought assistance from Xiongnu , but while Xiongnu initially agreed to help, it did not actually enter the war. In accordance with instructions left by Emperor Wen, Emperor Jing commissioned Zhou Yafu as

2240-436: The highway might be used for military purposes if Liang rebelled, opposed it. Prince Wu had him assassinated. Emperor Jing was extremely angry and sent many investigators to Liang to track down the conspirators, whom Prince Wu eventually surrendered. Emperor Jing, afraid of offending his mother and still affectionate for his brother, pardoned Prince Wu but no longer considered him as possible heir. The late reign of Emperor Jing

2304-500: The influence she had on the emperor. Because of her influence, Emperor Jing largely continued his father's policy of non-interference with the people and reduction of tax and other burdens. Under Jing, taxes were cut in half, to one-thirtieth of the crop. He continued his policy of reducing criminal penalties, and in 156 BC, in reaction to the reality that his father's abolition of corporal punishments of cutting off nose and feet were in fact causing more people to die from whipping, reduced

2368-488: The keeper of the Han-ku Pass, Yinxi , Laozi composed the Tao Te Ching . In the second story, Laozi, also a contemporary of Confucius, was Lao Laizi ( 老萊子 ), who wrote a book in 15 parts. Third, Laozi was the grand historian and astrologer Lao Dan ( 老聃 ), who lived during the reign of Duke Xian of Qin ( r.  384–362 BC ). The Tao Te Ching describes the Tao as the source and ideal of all existence: it

2432-455: The name of their real or supposed author, in this case the "Old Master", Laozi. As such, the Tao Te Ching is also sometimes referred to as the Laozi , especially in Chinese sources. The title Tao Te Ching , designating the work's status as a classic, was only first applied during the reign of Emperor Jing of Han (157–141 BC). Other titles for the work include the honorific Sutra of

2496-572: The new emperor. Chao Cuo's advice for Emperor Jing was to, using as excuses offenses that princes have committed which had generally been ignored by Emperor Wen, cut down the sizes of the principalities to make them less threatening. Chao explicitly contemplated the possibility that Wu and other principalities may rebel, but justified the action by asserting that if they were going to rebel, it would be better to let them rebel earlier than later, when they might be more prepared. Under this theory, Emperor Jing, in 154 BC, carved out one commandery each from

2560-475: The number of whips that criminals would receive. (He would later reduce the penalty again in 144 BC.) He also continued his father's policy of heqin (marriage treaties) with Xiongnu , which largely avoided large conflicts with that northern neighbor. However, one immediate issue confronting Emperor Jing was the power possessed by princes of collateral lines of the imperial clan. The princes often built up their own military strengths and resisted edicts issued by

2624-587: The original text was more fluidly organised. It has two parts, the Tao Ching ( 道經 ; chapters 1–37) and the Te Ching ( 德經 ; chapters 38–81), which may have been edited together into the received text, possibly reversed from an original Te Tao Ching . The written style is laconic, and has few grammatical particles . While the ideas are singular, the style is poetic, combining two major strategies: short, declarative statements, and intentional contradictions, encouraging varied, contradictory interpretations. The first of these strategies creates memorable phrases, while

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2688-653: The people was due to the Taoist influences of his mother, Empress Dou . Still, during his reign he arrested and imprisoned Zhou Yafu , and he was generally ungrateful to his wife Empress Bo . He was the last emperor of Han who was the common ancestor of all subsequent emperors; all subsequent emperors of the Western Han were descendants of Emperor Wu, while all emperors of the Eastern Han were descendants of his sixth son Liu Fa, Prince Ding of Changsha. Emperor Jing

2752-463: The point. Wu wei , literally 'non-action' or 'not acting', is a central concept of the Tao Te Ching . The concept of wu wei is multifaceted, and reflected in the words' multiple meanings, even in English translation; it can mean "not doing anything", "not forcing", "not acting" in the theatrical sense, "creating nothingness", "acting spontaneously", and "flowing with the moment". This concept

2816-460: The precarious state that she would be in if Consort Li became empress dowager one day, carried out an alternative plan. She gave Chen Jiao as wife to Liu Che, the son of Emperor Jing's other favorite concubine, Wang Zhi , the Prince of Jiaodong. She then incessantly criticized Consort Li for her jealousy—pointing out that, if Consort Li became empress dowager, many concubines might suffer the fates of Consort Qi , Emperor Gao 's favorite concubine who

2880-515: The revolt and princes were thereafter denied rights to appoint ministers for their fiefs. This move helped to consolidate central power which paved the way for the long reign of his son Emperor Wu of Han . Emperor Jing had a complicated personality. He continued his father Emperor Wen 's policy of general non-interference with the people, reduced tax and other burdens, and promoted government thrift. He continued and magnified his father's policy of reduction in criminal sentences. His light governance of

2944-441: The sage Laozi , though the text's authorship, date of composition and date of compilation are debated. The oldest excavated portion dates to the late 4th century BC. The Tao Te Ching is central to both philosophical and religious Taoism, and has been highly influential to Chinese philosophy and religious practice in general. It is generally taken as preceding the Zhuangzi , the other core Taoist text, as suggested by

3008-571: The second forces the reader to reconcile supposed contradictions. With a partial reconstruction of the pronunciation of Old Chinese spoken during the Tao Te Ching ' s composition, approximately three-quarters rhymed in the original language. The Chinese characters in the earliest versions were written in seal script , while later versions were written in clerical script and regular script styles. The Tao Te Ching has been translated into Western languages over 250 times, mostly to English, German, and French. According to Holmes Welch, "It

3072-618: The study of Taoist text after he recognized the Tao Te Ching as a Chinese classic during his rule. In 2016, the discovery of the earliest tea traces known to date from the mausoleum of Emperor Jing in Xi'an was announced, indicating that tea was drunk by Han dynasty emperors as early as second century BC. These "era names" are not true "era names" in the sense that the era name system, as instituted by Emperor Jing's son Emperor Wu, had not come into place. Emperor Jing, in accordance to prior imperial calendaring systems, would have simply referred to

3136-674: The text found in the tomb. In 1990, sinologist Victor H. Mair translated the Ma-wang-tui version; Mair considered this earliest-known version (by 500 years) more authentic than the most commonly translated texts. The two silk books are part of the Cultural Relics from the Mawangdui Tombs collection at the Hunan Provincial Museum . The Chinese characters in the silk texts are often only fragments of

3200-455: The two halves of the text. Linguistic studies of the Tao Te Ching ' s vocabulary and rime scheme point to a date of composition after the Classic of Poetry , but before the Zhuangzi , and would generally be taken as preceding the Zhuangzi . Creel proposed that Shen Buhai preceded it as well. Schwartz's contemporaries discussed Shen Dao as a Daoistic predecessor. A member of

3264-468: The two-silk texts sometimes use characters different from those in later versions. This is similar to the English "She flowered the table" compared with "She floured the table", and the older version provides insight into a text's original meaning. Tao Te Ching The Tao Te Ching ( traditional Chinese : 道德經 ; simplified Chinese : 道德经 ) or Laozi is a Chinese classic text and foundational work of Taoism traditionally credited to

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3328-410: The walls to his palace. He was imprisoned and not permitted to write to his father. His granduncle Dou Ying (竇嬰, Empress Dowager Dou's brother or cousin) slipped in a knife pen; he wrote a letter and then committed suicide. A major incident involving another potential heir, Prince Wu of Liang , erupted in 148 BC as well. Prince Wu, because of his contributions to the victory during the Rebellion of

3392-498: The work a compilation, and most modern scholarship holds the text to be a compilation, as typical for long-form early Chinese texts. Essentially the dating of A.C. Graham , the current text might have been compiled c.  250 BCE , drawing on a wide range of versions dating back a century or two. Benjamin I. Schwartz still considered it remarkably unified by the time of the Mawangdui silk texts , even if these versions swap

3456-533: Was Emperor Jing's beloved younger brother, and Emperor Jing ordered Zhou to immediately head to Liang to save it. Zhou refused, reasoning that the proper strategy would involve first cutting off the Wu and Chu supply lines, thus starving them, so he headed to the northeast side of Liang and around the Wu and Chu forces to cut off their supplies. The strategy was effective. Wu and Chu, unable to capture Liang quickly and realizing that their supplies were dwindling, headed northeast to attack Zhou. After being unable to get

3520-457: Was a Taoist and required all of her children and grandchildren to study Taoist doctrines. He also developed deep bonds with his older sister Princess Liu Piao (劉嫖) and his younger brother Liu Wu (劉武), both also born of Empress Dou. As Prince Qi grew in age, as was customary, he established his own household, and a member of his household, Chao Cuo (晁錯), known for his intelligence and ruthless efficiency as well as his rhetorical talent, became

3584-523: Was a Three Kingdoms -period philosopher and commentator on the Tao Te Ching and I Ching . Tao Te Ching scholarship has advanced from archaeological discoveries of manuscripts, some of which are older than any of the received texts. Beginning in the 1920s and 1930s, Marc Aurel Stein and others found thousands of scrolls in the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang . They included more than 50 partial and complete manuscripts. Another partial manuscript has

3648-565: Was born to Emperor Wen , then Prince of Dai, and Consort Dou , one of his favorite consorts, in 188 BC. He was his father's oldest son. After his father became emperor in November 180 BC, then-Prince Qi was made crown prince in February or March 179 BC. Two months later, his mother was made empress . In his childhood as crown prince, Prince Qi was praised for being compassionate. He was deeply influenced by his mother Empress Dou , who

3712-402: Was crown prince, Liu Pi's heir apparent Liu Xian (劉賢) had been on an official visit to the capital Chang'an , and they gambled together by playing the liubo board game (heavily tied to divination and predictions of the future). While playing the board game, Liu Xian offended then-Crown Prince Qi, and Prince Qi threw the wooden board at Liu Xian, killing him. Liu Pi thus had great hatred for

3776-558: Was given many privileges not given to other princes. The issue of dealing with powerful princes would soon erupt into a war later known as the Rebellion of the Seven States . Emperor Jing already had an inimical relationship with his cousin-once-removed (a nephew of his grandfather Emperor Gaozu ) Liu Pi (劉濞), the prince of the wealthy Principality of Wu (modern southern Jiangsu , northern Zhejiang , southern Anhui , and northern Jiangxi ), which enjoyed, among other natural resources, abundant copper and salt supplies. While Emperor Jing

3840-496: Was marked by an incident for which he was much criticized: the death of Zhou Yafu , who had been instrumental in the victory against the Seven States. As prime minister, Zhou offended nearly every powerful figure around Emperor Jing, in particular his brother Prince Liu Wu and his mother Empress Dowager Dou (for refusing to save Liang first when Liang was sieged by the combined forces of Wu and Chu), and his wife Empress Wang and her brother Wang Xin (王信), whom Emperor Jing wanted to make

3904-489: Was one of Emperor Jing's favorite concubines, think she would be made empress, particularly after Empress Bo was deposed in 151 BC, following Grand Empress Dowager Bo's death. She hated Emperor Jing's sister Princess Liu Piao, because Princess Piao had often given her brother beautiful women as concubines, drawing Consort Li's jealousy. When Princess Piao wanted to end this dispute by giving her daughter Chen Jiao as wife to Prince Rong, Consort Li refused. Princess Piao, seeing

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3968-472: Was that Emperor Jing would be a bad leader like Jie , Zhou and You , with the danger of collapse of the Han dynasty imminent, the officials were shocked at Liu Qi's sudden change of personality and he proved to be a capable ruler. Emperor Jing was deeply and strongly influenced by his mother, Empress Dou , who was considered powerful and dangerous both because of her position as the emperor's mother and because of

4032-417: Was tortured and killed by Emperor Gao's wife Lü Zhi after Emperor Gao's death. Emperor Jing eventually agreed, and he deposed Prince Rong from his position in 150 BC. Consort Li died in anger. That year, Consort Wang was made empress, and Prince Che the crown prince. Prince Rong would not be spared. In 148 BC, he was accused of intruding onto the grounds of his grandfather Emperor Wen's temple when building

4096-557: Was traditionally ascribed to Laozi , whose historical existence has been a matter of scholarly debate. His name, which means "Old Master", has only fuelled controversy on this issue. Legends claim variously that Laozi was "born old" and that he lived for 996 years, with twelve previous incarnations starting around the time of the Three Sovereigns before the thirteenth as Laozi. Some scholars have expressed doubts over Laozi's historicity. The first biographical reference to Laozi

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