Dunlop 's Maxaret was the first anti-lock braking system (ABS) to be widely used. Introduced in the early 1950s, Maxaret was rapidly taken up in the aviation world, after testing found a 30% reduction in stopping distances, and the elimination of tyre bursts or flat spots due to skids . Experimental fittings on cars and motorcycles demonstrated mixed performance, and ABS systems would not appear on mainstream, non-sporting cars until the 1970s when electronic controls matured.
106-409: The Maxaret system had four main parts, all of which weighed only 4.7 pounds and fit within the small confines of a main landing gear wheel. The system was entirely mechanical and worked by measuring the relative speed of two spinning disks. The first, the "drum", was surrounded by a rubber disk and arranged within the wheel's internal periphery, so that the rubber maintained strong mechanical contact with
212-482: A l 2 ) {\textstyle {\frac {1}{2}}m({r_{\mathrm {external} }}^{2}+{r_{\mathrm {internal} }}^{2})} . For a given flywheel design, the kinetic energy is proportional to the ratio of the hoop stress to the material density and to the mass. The specific tensile strength of a flywheel can be defined as σ t ρ {\textstyle {\frac {\sigma _{t}}{\rho }}} . The flywheel material with
318-591: A UHF transmitter-receiver (ARC-52). The initial B.2 radio fit was similar to the B.1A though it was ultimately fitted with the ARC-52, a V/UHF transmitter/receiver (PTR-175), and a single-sideband modulation HF transmitter-receiver ( Collins 618T). The navigation and bombing system comprised an H2S Mk9 radar and a navigation bombing computer Mk1. Other navigation aids included a Marconi radio compass ( ADF ), GEE Mk3 , Green Satin Doppler radar to determine
424-561: A V-class of bombers, and the Air Council announced the following month that the 698 would be called Vulcan after the Roman god of fire and destruction . In January 1953, VX770 was grounded for the installation of wing fuel tanks, Armstrong Siddeley ASSa.6 Sapphire engines of 7,500 lbf (33 kN) thrust and other systems; it flew again in July 1953. From 1957, VX770 was used as
530-477: A contract for the prototype SA.4 to the less-stringent Specification B.14/46. The SA.4, later named Sperrin, was not required. In April 1948, Vickers also received authority to proceed with their Type 660 , which, although falling short of the B.35/46 Specification, but being of a more conventional design, would be available sooner. This plane entered service as the Valiant. As Avro had no flight experience of
636-408: A conventional control wheel, was powered by four Rolls-Royce RA.3 Avon engines of 6,500 lbf (29 kN) thrust, its intended Bristol Olympus engines not being available. The prototype had fuselage fuel tanks but no wing tanks, so temporary additional tankage was carried in the bomb bay. VX770 made an appearance at the 1952 Society of British Aircraft Constructors' (SBAC) Farnborough Air Show
742-410: A dorsal spine; a new main undercarriage to carry an all-up-weight of 339,000 lb (154,000 kg); and reheated Olympus 301s of 30,000 lbf (130 kN) thrust. An amended proposal of October 1960 inserted a 10 ft 9 in (3.28 m) plug into the forward fuselage with capacity for six crew members including a relief pilot, all facing forwards on ejection seats, and aft-fan versions of
848-490: A drop in power input and will conversely absorb any excess power input (system-generated power) in the form of rotational energy. Common uses of a flywheel include smoothing a power output in reciprocating engines , energy storage , delivering energy at higher rates than the source, controlling the orientation of a mechanical system using gyroscope and reaction wheel , etc. Flywheels are typically made of steel and rotate on conventional bearings; these are generally limited to
954-549: A field. In early testing on the Avro Canada CF-100 , the Maxaret allowed landings to be safely made on runways covered in ice. Since the operational requirements of most aircraft are defined by the best take-off or landing distances under all weather conditions, Maxaret allowed aircraft to operate at 15% higher all-up weights. Another benefit was initially unexpected. Braking effect is greatly reduced at high speeds;
1060-432: A flywheel in a child's toy is not efficient; however, the flywheel velocity never approaches its burst velocity because the limit in this case is the pulling-power of the child. In other applications, such as an automobile, the flywheel operates at a specified angular velocity and is constrained by the space it must fit in, so the goal is to maximize the stored energy per unit volume. The material selection therefore depends on
1166-416: A flywheel is determined by E M = K σ ρ {\textstyle {\frac {E}{M}}=K{\frac {\sigma }{\rho }}} , in which K {\displaystyle K} is the shape factor, σ {\displaystyle \sigma } the material's tensile strength and ρ {\displaystyle \rho } the density. While
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#17327830644891272-433: A flywheel is determined by the maximum amount of energy it can store per unit weight. As the flywheel's rotational speed or angular velocity is increased, the stored energy increases; however, the stresses also increase. If the hoop stress surpass the tensile strength of the material, the flywheel will break apart. Thus, the tensile strength limits the amount of energy that a flywheel can store. In this context, using lead for
1378-436: A fresh charge of air and fuel. Another example is the friction motor which powers devices such as toy cars . In unstressed and inexpensive cases, to save on cost, the bulk of the mass of the flywheel is toward the rim of the wheel. Pushing the mass away from the axis of rotation heightens rotational inertia for a given total mass. A flywheel may also be used to supply intermittent pulses of energy at power levels that exceed
1484-673: A government decision in January 1947 to authorise research and development work on atomic weapons, the U.S. Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (McMahon Act) having prohibited exporting atomic knowledge, even to countries that had collaborated on the Manhattan Project . OR.1001 envisaged a weapon not to exceed 24 ft 2 in (7.37 m) in length, 5 ft (1.5 m) in diameter and 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) in weight. The weapon had to be suitable for release from 20,000 to 50,000 ft (6,100 to 15,200 m). In January 1947,
1590-541: A heavy landing at Farnborough. It was repaired, fitted with Olympus 101 engines of 11,000 lbf (49 kN) thrust before resuming trials with Avro and the Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (A&AEE) at Boscombe Down . While exploring VX777's high-speed and high-altitude flight envelope at the A&;AEE, mild buffeting and other undesirable flight characteristics were experienced while approaching
1696-660: A high-pressure pneumatic system to actuate the brakes, including the Maxaret anti-skid system. Other aircraft fitted with Maxaret were the Avro Vulcan , Vickers Viscount , Vickers Valiant , Folland Gnat , de Havilland Comet 2c , de Havilland Sea Vixen , and later aircraft, such as the Vickers VC10 , Hawker Siddeley 125 , Hawker Siddeley HS 748 and derived British Aerospace ATP , and BAC One-Eleven . By 1966 an electronic version of Maxaret had been developed, called Maxaret Mark X. There were numerous applications of
1802-574: A maritime radar reconnaissance role and six for an airborne tanker role. An updated bomb rack assembly allowing the carriage of 30 1,000 lb bombs, up from 21 was demonstrated by Avro but was not introduced. The updated wing profile increased range to 4,000 nm (7,400 km). The Avro 718 was a 1951 proposal for a delta-winged military transport based on the Type 698 to carry 80 troops or 110 passengers. It would have been powered by four Bristol Olympus BOl.3 engines. The Avro Type 722 Atlantic
1908-481: A maximum revolution rate of a few thousand RPM . High energy density flywheels can be made of carbon fiber composites and employ magnetic bearings , enabling them to revolve at speeds up to 60,000 RPM (1 kHz ). The principle of the flywheel is found in the Neolithic spindle and the potter's wheel , as well as circular sharpening stones in antiquity. In the early 11th century, Ibn Bassal pioneered
2014-572: A new AC electrical system, XA893; ECM including jammers within a bulged tail cone and a tail warning radar , XA895: and for Blue Steel development work, XA903. The 46th production aircraft and first B.2, XH533, first flew in September 1958 using Olympus 200 engines, six months before the last B.1 XH532 was delivered in March 1959. The second B.2, XH534, flew in January 1959. Powered by production Olympus 201s with 17,000 lbf (76 kN) thrust, it
2120-474: A percentage of the flywheel's moment of inertia, with the majority from the rim, so that I r i m = K I f l y w h e e l {\displaystyle I_{\mathrm {rim} }=KI_{\mathrm {flywheel} }} . For example, if the moments of inertia of hub, spokes and shaft are deemed negligible, and the rim's thickness is very small compared to its mean radius ( R {\displaystyle R} ),
2226-505: A practical refit scheme was rejected. A rudimentary sixth seat forward of the navigator radar was provided for an additional crew member; the B.2 had an additional seventh seat opposite the sixth seat and forward of the AEO. The visual bomb-aimer's compartment could be fitted with a T4 (Blue Devil) bombsight , in many B.2s, this space housed a vertically mounted Vinten F95 Mk.10 camera for assessing simulated low-level bombing runs. Fuel
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#17327830644892332-468: A prototype contract for its crescent-winged HP.80 B.35/46 tender in November 1947. Although considered the best option, the contract award for Avro's design was delayed while its technical strength was established. Instructions to proceed with the construction of two Avro 698 prototypes were received in January 1948. As an insurance measure against both radical designs failing, Short Brothers received
2438-467: A solid cylinder it is 1 2 m r 2 {\textstyle {\frac {1}{2}}mr^{2}} , for a thin-walled empty cylinder it is approximately m r 2 {\textstyle mr^{2}} , and for a thick-walled empty cylinder with constant density it is 1 2 m ( r e x t e r n a l 2 + r i n t e r n
2544-482: A superflywheel does not explode or burst into large shards like a regular flywheel, but instead splits into layers. The separated layers then slow a superflywheel down by sliding against the inner walls of the enclosure, thus preventing any further destruction. Although the exact value of energy density of a superflywheel would depend on the material used, it could theoretically be as high as 1200 Wh (4.4 MJ) per kg of mass for graphene superflywheels. The first superflywheel
2650-467: A typical flywheel has a shape factor of 0.3, the shaftless flywheel has a shape factor close to 0.6, out of a theoretical limit of about 1. A superflywheel consists of a solid core (hub) and multiple thin layers of high-strength flexible materials (such as special steels, carbon fiber composites, glass fiber, or graphene) wound around it. Compared to conventional flywheels, superflywheels can store more energy and are safer to operate. In case of failure,
2756-416: A wide range of applications: gyroscopes for instrumentation, ship stability , satellite stabilization ( reaction wheel ), keeping a toy spin spinning ( friction motor ), stabilizing magnetically-levitated objects ( Spin-stabilized magnetic levitation ). Flywheels may also be used as an electric compensator, like a synchronous compensator , that can either produce or sink reactive power but would not affect
2862-556: A wrap-around camouflage of dark sea grey and dark green because, during Red Flag exercises in the US, defending SAM forces had found that the grey-painted undersides of the Vulcan became much more visible against the ground at high angles of bank. The original Vulcan B.1 radio fit was: two 10-channel VHF transmitter/receivers (TR-1985/TR-1986) and an STR-18, 24-channel HF transmitter-receiver (R4187/T4188). The Vulcan B.1A also featured
2968-536: Is a jet-powered , tailless , delta-wing , high-altitude, strategic bomber , which was operated by the Royal Air Force (RAF) from 1956 until 1984. Aircraft manufacturer A.V. Roe and Company ( Avro ) designed the Vulcan in response to Specification B.35/46 . Of the three V bombers produced, the Vulcan was considered the most technically advanced, hence the riskiest option. Several reduced-scale aircraft, designated Avro 707s , were produced to test and refine
3074-413: Is described in the generalized concept of an accumulator . As with other types of accumulators, a flywheel inherently smooths sufficiently small deviations in the power output of a system, thereby effectively playing the role of a low-pass filter with respect to the mechanical velocity (angular, or otherwise) of the system. More precisely, a flywheel's stored energy will donate a surge in power output upon
3180-437: Is the angular velocity of the cylinder. A rimmed flywheel has a rim , a hub, and spokes . Calculation of the flywheel's moment of inertia can be more easily analysed by applying various simplifications. One method is to assume the spokes, shaft and hub have zero moments of inertia, and the flywheel's moment of inertia is from the rim alone. Another is to lump moments of inertia of spokes, hub and shaft may be estimated as
3286-525: Is the angular velocity , and I {\displaystyle I} is the moment of inertia of the flywheel about its axis of symmetry. The moment of inertia is a measure of resistance to torque applied on a spinning object (i.e. the higher the moment of inertia, the slower it will accelerate when a given torque is applied). The moment of inertia can be calculated for cylindrical shapes using mass ( m {\textstyle m} ) and radius ( r {\displaystyle r} ). For
Maxaret - Misplaced Pages Continue
3392-407: Is the voltage of rotor winding, V t {\displaystyle V_{t}} is stator voltage, and δ {\displaystyle \delta } is the angle between two voltages. Increasing amounts of rotation energy can be stored in the flywheel until the rotor shatters. This happens when the hoop stress within the rotor exceeds the ultimate tensile strength of
3498-401: The Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment 's chief test pilot Squadron Leader Samuel Eric Esler, DFC, AE. The second low-speed 707, VX790, built with the still uncompleted 707A's nose section (containing an ejection seat ) and redesignated 707B, flew in September 1950 piloted by Avro test pilot Wg Cdr Roland "Roly" Falk . The high-speed 707A, WD480, followed in July 1951. Due to
3604-665: The Cold War . Although the Vulcan was typically armed with nuclear weapons , it could also carry out conventional bombing missions, which it did in Operation Black Buck during the Falklands War between the United Kingdom and Argentina in 1982. The Vulcan had no defensive weaponry, initially relying upon high-speed, high-altitude flight to evade interception. Electronic countermeasures were employed by
3710-655: The Ministry of Defence in January 1982 stated that little prospect was seen of this happening without ascertaining the Argentine interest and whether such interest was genuine: 'On the face of it, a strike aircraft would be entirely suitable for an attack on the Falklands.' Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands less than three months later, after which a British embargo on the sale of any military equipment
3816-481: The Ministry of Supply distributed Specification B.35/46 to UK aviation companies to satisfy Air Staff Operational Requirement OR.229 for "a medium range bomber landplane capable of carrying one 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) bomb to a target 1,500 nautical miles (1,700 mi; 2,800 km) from a base which may be anywhere in the world." A cruising speed of 500 knots (580 mph; 930 km/h) at altitudes between 35,000 and 50,000 ft (11,000 and 15,000 m)
3922-713: The North American A-5 Vigilante , BAC TSR-2 , General Dynamics F-111 , had become available. Had the Australian government pre-ordered the TSR-2, several V-bombers, including Vulcans, would have been made available, for interim use by the RAAF; however, the F-111C was ordered. (The UK government almost followed that decision – after the cancellation of the TSR-2 – it was offered the similar F-111K .) In
4028-481: The coefficient of friction between a tyre and concrete is about 0.7 to 1.0 at 30 miles per hour (48 km/h), but decreases dramatically to 0.3 to 0.5 at 120 miles per hour (190 km/h). This means that it is much easier to skid when first landing, a fact that led pilots to hold off on the brakes until the aircraft was firmly down, and then slowly increase pressure to avoid skids. With Maxaret, they simply applied full braking as soon as they touched down, knowing that
4134-439: The groundspeed and drift angle , radio and radar altimeters , and an instrument landing system . TACAN replaced GEE in the B.1A and B.2 in 1964. Decca Doppler 72 replaced Green Satin in the B.2 around 1969 A continuous display of the aircraft's position was maintained by a ground position indicator. Vulcan B.2s were eventually fitted with the free-running dual-gyroscopic heading reference system (HRS) Mk.2, based upon
4240-564: The inertial platform of the Blue Steel missile, which had been integrated into the system when the missile had been carried. With the HRS a navigator's heading unit was provided, which enabled the navigator plotter to adjust the aircraft heading, through the autopilot, by as little as 0.1 degrees. The B.2 (MRR) was additionally fitted with the LORAN C navigation system. The original ECM fit of
4346-452: The 698's development. More influential than the Avro 707 in the 698's design was the wind-tunnel testing performed at RAE Farnborough . This necessitated a wing redesign incorporating a cranked and drooped leading edge and vortex generators to avoid the onset of compressibility drag, which would have restricted the maximum speed. This wing modification resulted in the "phase 2" wing which
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4452-455: The A&AEE for trials for the type's initial Certificate of Airworthiness which it received the following month. (In 1956, VX777 was modified with the even larger phase 2(C) wing. Fitted with Olympus 104 engines, it became the aerodynamic prototype of the Vulcan B.2.) The first 15 production B.1s were powered by the Olympus 101. Many of these early examples in a metallic finish remained
4558-485: The B.1 (designated B.1A) and B.2 from around 1960. A change to low-level tactics was made in the mid-1960s. In the mid-1970s, nine Vulcans were adapted for maritime radar reconnaissance operations, redesignated as B.2 (MRR). In the final years of service, six Vulcans were converted to the K.2 tanker configuration for aerial refuelling . After retirement by the RAF, one example, B.2 XH558 , named The Spirit of Great Britain ,
4664-426: The B.1A and B.2 was one Green Palm voice communications jammer; two Blue Diver metric jammers; three Red Shrimp S-band jammers; a Blue Saga passive warning receiver with four aerials; a Red Steer tail warning radar ; and chaff dispensers. The bulk of the equipment was carried in a large, extended tail cone, and a flat ECM aerial counterpoise plate was mounted between the starboard tailpipes. Later equipment on
4770-583: The B.1As were not strengthened for low-level operations and all were withdrawn by 1968. As far back as 1952, Bristol Aero Engines had begun development of the BOl.6 (Olympus 6) rated at 16,000 lbf (71 kN) thrust but if fitted to the B.1, this would have reintroduced the buffet requiring further redesign of the wing. The decision to proceed with the B.2 versions of the Vulcan was made in May 1956, being developed by Avro's chief designer Roy Ewans . The first B.2
4876-560: The B.2 included: an L band jammer (replacing a Red Shrimp); the ARI 18146 X-band jammer; replacing the Green Palm; the improved Red Steer Mk.2; infra-red decoys (flares); and the ARI 18228 PWR with its aerials that gave a squared top to the fin. The aircraft was controlled by a fighter-type control stick and rudder bar, which operated the powered flying controls, which each had a single electrohydraulic-powered flying control unit, except
4982-420: The B.2) ejection seats whilst on the lower level the navigator radar , navigator plotter , and air electronics officer (AEO) sat facing rearwards and would abandon the aircraft via the entrance door. The original B35/46 specification sought a jettisonable crew compartment , but this requirement was removed in a subsequent amendment; the rear crew's escape system was often an issue of controversy, such as when
5088-510: The Maxaret to various vehicles, including experimental fits to a Royal Enfield Super Meteor and some production use on semi-trailers . Most noticeable to the general public was its use on the Jensen FF , the British sportscar that introduced ABS, all-wheel drive and a traction control system . Sports Illustrated called it the "safest car in the world" in a 1965 article. In this case
5194-572: The MoS's Air Fleet on radio trials), amazed crowds at the Farnborough Air Show by executing a barrel roll on his second flypast in front of the SBAC president's tent. After two days of flying, he was called in front of service and civil aviation authorities and ordered to refrain from carrying out this "dangerous" manoeuvre. Now fitted with a phase 2 wing, XA889 was delivered in March 1956 to
5300-469: The Olympus 104 standard, ultimately rated at 13,500 lbf (60 kN) thrust. Rebuilding B.1s as B.2s was considered but rejected over cost. Nevertheless, to extend the B.1's service life, 28 (the surviving B1 aircraft fitted with Olympus 102/104 engines) were upgraded by Armstrong Whitworth between 1959 and 1963 to the B.1A standard, including features of the B.2 such as ECM equipment, in-flight refuelling receiving equipment, and UHF radio. However,
5406-480: The Olympus 301. To counter improving Soviet defences after the cancellation of Skybolt , Avro proposed a Vulcan with three Gnat fighters slung underneath. The Gnats were to have been released in enemy airspace to provide fighter cover, and they were expected to land "in friendly territory" or return to the Vulcan to replenish their tanks by means of a specially installed flight-refuelling drogue. Other countries expressed interest in purchasing Vulcans, but as with
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#17327830644895512-812: The RAF with these modifications. When the Mk.2 version of Blue Steel was cancelled in favour of the Douglas GAM-87 Skybolt air-launched ballistic missile in December 1959, fittings were changed in anticipation of the new missile, one under each wing. Though Skybolt was cancelled in November 1962, many aircraft were delivered or retrofitted with "Skybolt" blisters. Later aircraft were delivered with Olympus 301 engines with 20,000 lbf (89 kN) thrust. Two earlier aircraft were re-engined (XH557 and XJ784) for trials and development work; another seven aircraft were converted around 1963. The last B.2 XM657
5618-557: The Smiths Military Flight System (MFS), the pilots' components being: two beam compasses; two director-horizons; and an Mk.10A or Mk.10B autopilot . From 1966, B.2s were fitted with the ARI 5959 TFR, built by General Dynamics , its commands being fed into the director-horizons. The B.1 had four elevators (inboard) and four ailerons (outboard). In the B.2, these were replaced by eight elevons . The Vulcan
5724-653: The UK, quickly found uses on most UK military aircraft, such as the Handley Page Victor , BAC TSR.2 , and English Electric Lightning . Civil aircraft included airliners such as the Hawker Siddeley Trident . Many companies followed suit, both in military and civilian models. One interesting variation was used on the Fokker F-27 aircraft, which did not have a hydraulic system, and instead used
5830-444: The abilities of its energy source. This is achieved by accumulating energy in the flywheel over a period of time, at a rate that is compatible with the energy source, and then releasing energy at a much higher rate over a relatively short time when it is needed. For example, flywheels are used in power hammers and riveting machines . Flywheels can be used to control direction and oppose unwanted motions. Flywheels in this context have
5936-416: The application. Flywheels are often used to provide continuous power output in systems where the energy source is not continuous. For example, a flywheel is used to smooth the fast angular velocity fluctuations of the crankshaft in a reciprocating engine. In this case, a crankshaft flywheel stores energy when torque is exerted on it by a firing piston and then returns that energy to the piston to compress
6042-446: The basic ideas here are the same, the flywheels are controlled to spin exactly at the frequency which you want to compensate. For a synchronous compensator, you also need to keep the voltage of rotor and stator in phase, which is the same as keeping the magnetic field of rotor and the total magnetic field in phase (in the rotating frame reference ). Avro Vulcan The Avro Vulcan (later Hawker Siddeley Vulcan from July 1963)
6148-501: The bomb bay. Despite being designed before a low radar cross-section and other stealth factors were ever a consideration, an RAE technical note of 1957 stated that of all the aircraft so far studied, the Vulcan appeared by far the simplest radar-echoing object, due to its shape; only one or two components contributed significantly to the echo at any aspect, compared with three or more on most other types. The two prototype Vulcans were finished in gloss white. Early Vulcan B.1s left
6254-591: The brakes off for up to four seconds in total before the reservoir was full. Aircraft have a much lower ratio of tyre contact patch to vehicle weight than automobiles and operate at much higher speeds. For these reasons, it is much easier to enter a skid in an aircraft through the over-application of brakes, and threshold braking is essentially impossible as the skid develops so rapidly. This makes landings in marginal conditions very difficult and leads to many common weather conditions precluding flying. Slippery conditions from heavy rain, or even light snow or ice, will close
6360-427: The cabin and was fitted with Bristol Olympus 100 engines of 9,750 lbf (43.4 kN) thrust. At Falk's suggestion, a fighter-style control stick had replaced the control wheel. Like VX770, VX777 had the original wing with straight leading edges. VX777 was joined in formation by the first prototype VX770 and four Avro 707s at the 1953 Farnborough Air Show. During trials in July 1954, VX777 was substantially damaged in
6466-509: The control column had to be pushed rather than pulled to maintain level flight. This artificial pitch-up made the Vulcan handle more like other aircraft as its speed increased. The first production B.1 XA889 first flew in February 1955 with the original wing and joined the trials in June. In September 1955, Falk, flying the second production B.1 XA890 (which had remained at Woodford as part of
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#17327830644896572-469: The delay of the 707 programme, the contribution of the 707B and 707A towards the basic design of the 698 was not considered significant, though it did highlight a need to increase the length of the nosewheel to give a ground incidence of 3.5°, the optimum take-off attitude. The 707B and 707A proved the design's validity and gave confidence in the delta planform . A second 707A, WZ736, and a two-seat 707C, WZ744, were also constructed, but they played no part in
6678-456: The delta wing, the company planned two smaller experimental aircraft based on the 698, the one-third scale model 707 for low-speed handling and the one-half scale model 710 for high-speed handling. Two of each were ordered. The 710 was cancelled when it was considered too time-consuming to develop; a high-speed variant of the 707 was designed in its place, the 707A. The first 707, VX784 , flew in September 1949, but crashed later that month, killing
6784-558: The delta-wing design principles. The Vulcan B.1 was first delivered to the RAF in 1956; deliveries of the improved Vulcan B.2 started in 1960. The B.2 featured more powerful engines, a larger wing, an improved electrical system, and electronic countermeasures , and many were modified to accept the Blue Steel missile. As a part of the V-force , the Vulcan was the backbone of the United Kingdom's airborne nuclear deterrent during much of
6890-421: The development of the flywheel in the steam engine , and his contemporary James Pickard used a flywheel combined with a crank to transform reciprocating motion into rotary motion. The kinetic energy (or more specifically rotational energy ) stored by the flywheel's rotor can be calculated by 1 2 I ω 2 {\textstyle {\frac {1}{2}}I\omega ^{2}} . ω
6996-399: The drum and flywheel reached 60 degrees, the drum would be driven forward to press on a valve. This released brake fluid into a reservoir, lowering hydraulic pressure, and releasing the brakes. As soon as the drum started spinning again and reached the (slowing) speed of the flywheel, the valve was released and the brakes re-applied. The system could cycle about ten times a second and could hold
7102-480: The early 1980s, Argentina approached the UK with a proposal to buy a number of Vulcans. An application, made in September 1981, requested the 'early availability' of a 'suitable aircraft'. With some reluctance, British ministers approved the export of a single aircraft but emphasised that clearance had not been given for the sale of a larger number. A letter from the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office to
7208-437: The early aircraft were retained for trials, and the 12th B.2, XH558, was the first to be delivered to the RAF in July 1960. Coincidentally, XH558 was also the last Vulcan in service with the RAF, before being retired in 1992. The 26th B.2, XL317, the first of a production batch ordered in February 1956, was the first Vulcan, apart from development aircraft, capable of carrying the Blue Steel missile; 33 aircraft were delivered to
7314-448: The factory in a natural metal finish; the front half of the nose radome was painted black, the rear half painted silver. Front-line Vulcan B.1s had a finish of anti-flash white and RAF "type D" roundels . Front-line Vulcan B.1As and B.2s were similar, but with pale roundels. With the adoption of low-level attack profiles in the mid-1960s, B.1As and B.2s were given a glossy sea grey medium and dark green disruptive pattern camouflage on
7420-497: The flying testbed for the Rolls-Royce Conway by-pass engine. It crashed at a flying display at RAF Syerston in September 1958. The second prototype, VX777, first flew on 3 September 1953. More representative of production aircraft, it was lengthened to accommodate a longer nose undercarriage leg to increase the angle of attack of the wing, shortening the take-off run. It featured a visual bomb-aiming blister under
7526-463: The flywheel's moment of inertia is constant (i.e., a flywheel with fixed mass and second moment of area revolving about some fixed axis) then the stored (rotational) energy is directly associated with the square of its rotational speed. Since a flywheel serves to store mechanical energy for later use, it is natural to consider it as a kinetic energy analogue of an electrical capacitor . Once suitably abstracted, this shared principle of energy storage
7632-726: The highest specific tensile strength will yield the highest energy storage per unit mass. This is one reason why carbon fiber is a material of interest. For a given design the stored energy is proportional to the hoop stress and the volume. An electric motor-powered flywheel is common in practice. The output power of the electric motor is approximately equal to the output power of the flywheel. It can be calculated by ( V i ) ( V t ) ( sin ( δ ) X S ) {\textstyle (V_{i})(V_{t})\left({\frac {\sin(\delta )}{X_{S}}}\right)} , where V i {\displaystyle V_{i}}
7738-545: The introduction of the Avro Blue Steel stand-off missile , then in development. To develop these proposals, the second Vulcan prototype VX777 was rebuilt with the larger and thinner phase-2C wing, improved flying control surfaces, and Olympus 102 engines, first flying in this configuration in August 1957. Several Vulcan B.1s were used for the development of the B.2: development of the BOl.6 (later Olympus 200), XA891;
7844-426: The limiting Mach number, including an alarming tendency to enter an uncontrollable dive . This was judged unacceptable for an unarmed bomber. Fitting the phase 2 wing removed the buffeting and an auto-mach trimmer countered the high-speed dive. The latter applied up-elevator as the speed critically increased. This up-elevator force was greater than the force required to counter the dive. Consequently, as speed increased,
7950-411: The next month when Falk demonstrated an almost vertical bank. After its Farnborough appearance, the future name of the Avro 698 was a subject of speculation. Avro had strongly recommended the name Ottawa , in honour of the company's connection with Avro Canada . The weekly magazine Flight suggested Albion after rejecting Avenger , Apollo , and Assegai . The chief of the air staff preferred
8056-657: The other V-bombers, no foreign sales materialised. As early as 1954, the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) recognised that the English Electric Canberra might soon become outdated. Potential replacements, such as the Boeing B-47 E, Handley-Page Victor and Vulcan were considered. Political pressure for a Canberra replacement came to a head in 1962, by which time agile, supersonic bombers/strategic strike aircraft , such as
8162-477: The property of the Ministry of Supply, being retained for trials and development purposes. Those entering RAF service were delivered to No 230 Operational Conversion Unit (OCU), the first in July 1956. Later aircraft, painted in anti-flash white and powered by the Olympus 102 with 12,000 lbf (53 kN) thrust, began to enter squadron service in July 1957. The Olympus 102s were modified during overhaul to
8268-568: The prototype), the Type 732 showed its Vulcan heritage. In 1960, the Air Staff approached Avro with a request into a study for a patrol missile carrier armed with up to six Skybolt missiles capable of a mission length of 12 hours. Avro's submission in May 1960 was the Phase 6 Vulcan, which would have been the Vulcan B.3. The aircraft was fitted with an enlarged wing of 121 ft (37 m) span with increased fuel capacity; additional fuel tanks in
8374-450: The radius of rotation of the rim is equal to its mean radius and thus I r i m = M r i m R 2 {\textstyle I_{\mathrm {rim} }=M_{\mathrm {rim} }R^{2}} . A shaftless flywheel eliminates the annulus holes, shaft or hub. It has higher energy density than conventional design but requires a specialized magnetic bearing and control system. The specific energy of
8480-428: The real power. The purposes for that application are to improve the power factor of the system or adjust the grid voltage. Typically, the flywheels used in this field are similar in structure and installation as the synchronous motor (but it is called synchronous compensator or synchronous condenser in this context). There are also some other kinds of compensator using flywheels, like the single phase induction machine. But
8586-405: The rotor material. Tensile stress can be calculated by ρ r 2 ω 2 {\displaystyle \rho r^{2}\omega ^{2}} , where ρ {\displaystyle \rho } is the density of the cylinder, r {\displaystyle r} is the radius of the cylinder, and ω {\displaystyle \omega }
8692-423: The rudder, which had two, one running as a back-up. Artificial feel and auto stabilisation in the form of pitch and yaw dampers were provided, as well as an auto Mach trimmer. The flight instruments in the B.1 were traditional and included G4B compasses; Mk.4 artificial horizons; and zero reader flight display instruments. The B.1 had a Smiths Mk10 autopilot. In the B.2, these features were incorporated into
8798-431: The skidding, spreading it out over the entire surface of the tyre, the tyre lifetime was improved. One early tester summed up the system thus: The runway was very wet on the first landing, and the aircraft's all up weight was at least 12 per cent above the maximum landing weight. The brakes were held on at approximately 1,200 lb/sq in pressure from a speed of 80-85 knots, until the aircraft came to rest. The braking distance
8904-484: The specification. No worthwhile information about high-speed flight was available from the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) or the US. Avro were aware that Alexander Lippisch had designed a delta-wing fighter and considered the same delta configuration would be suitable for their bomber. The team estimated that an otherwise conventional aircraft, with a swept wing of 45°, would have doubled
9010-454: The system had an undesirable side-effect; the relief valve fed directly into the master pump, and caused the brake pedal to drive back towards the driver when it actuated. Flywheel A flywheel is a mechanical device that uses the conservation of angular momentum to store rotational energy , a form of kinetic energy proportional to the product of its moment of inertia and the square of its rotational speed . In particular, assuming
9116-464: The system would prevent skids. As a result, braking distances even in perfect conditions were greatly improved on the order of 30%. A later modification allowed the pilot to push on the brakes before landing, with the valve actually applying the brakes only after the wheel had spun up at least once. When skidding occurs, the tyres can be rubbed flat, or even burst. Aircraft tyres have much shorter lifetimes than cars for these reasons. Since Maxaret reduced
9222-437: The upper surfaces, white undersurfaces, and "type D" roundels. (The last 13 Vulcan B.2s, XM645 onwards, were delivered thus from the factory ). In the mid-1970s, Vulcan B.2s received a similar scheme with matte camouflage, light aircraft grey undersides, and "low-visibility" roundels. B.2(MRR)s received a similar scheme in gloss; and the front halves of the radomes were no longer painted black. Beginning in 1979, 10 Vulcans received
9328-662: The use of flywheel in noria and saqiyah . The use of the flywheel as a general mechanical device to equalize the speed of rotation is, according to the American medievalist Lynn White , recorded in the De diversibus artibus (On various arts) of the German artisan Theophilus Presbyter (ca. 1070–1125) who records applying the device in several of his machines. In the Industrial Revolution , James Watt contributed to
9434-416: The weight requirement. Realising that swept wings increase longitudinal stability, the team deleted the tail ( empennage ) and the supporting fuselage , it thus became a swept-back flying wing with only a rudimentary forward fuselage and a fin ( vertical stabilizer ) at each wingtip. The estimated weight was now only 50% over the requirement; a delta shape resulted from reducing the wingspan and maintaining
9540-420: The wheel. The second, a flywheel , was attached to the drum with a one-way clutch . Normally, with the wheel turning, the wheel would spin the drum, which would spin the flywheel, so that all of the moving parts were spinning at the same speed. When a skid developed, the wheel would stop, stopping the drum along with it. The flywheel, driven by the one-way clutch, continued to spin. If the relative angle between
9646-449: The wing area by filling in the space between the wingtips, which enabled the specification to be met. Although Alexander Lippisch is generally credited as the pioneer of the delta wing, Chadwick's team had followed its own logical design process. The initial design submission had four large turbojets stacked in pairs buried in the wings on either side of the centreline. Outboard of the engines were two bomb bays . In August 1947, Chadwick
9752-434: The wing transport joints; the intakes and centre fuselage ; the front fuselage, incorporating the pressure cabin ; the nose; the outer wings; the leading edges; the wing trailing edge and rear end of the fuselage; and a single swept tail fin with a single rudder was on the trailing edge. A five-man crew was accommodated within the pressure cabin on two levels; the first pilot and co-pilot sitting on Martin-Baker 3K (3KS on
9858-482: Was a 1952 proposal (announced in June 1953) for a 120-passenger delta-winged airliner based on the Type 698. The Avro 732 was a 1956 proposal for a supersonic development of the Vulcan and would have been powered by 8 de Havilland Gyron Junior engines. Unlike the proposed Avro 721 low-level bomber of 1952 or the Avro 730 supersonic stainless steel canard bomber dating from 1954 (cancelled in 1957 before completion of
9964-472: Was also fitted with six electrically operated three-position (retracted, medium drag, high drag) airbrakes , four in the upper centre section and two in the lower. Originally, four lower airbrakes were used, but the outboard two were deleted before the aircraft entered service. A brake parachute was installed inside the tail cone. The main electrical system on the B.1/B.1A was 112 V DC supplied by four 22.5 kW engine-driven starter-generators . Backup power
10070-418: Was anticipated to be around the 45th aircraft of the 99 then on order. As well as being able to achieve greater heights over targets, operational flexibility was believed to be extended by the provision of in-flight refuelling equipment and tanker aircraft. The increasing sophistication of Soviet air defences required the fitting of electronic countermeasure (ECM) equipment, and vulnerability could be reduced by
10176-466: Was carried in 14 bag tanks, four in the centre fuselage above and to the rear of the nosewheel bay, and five in each outer wing. The tanks were split into four groups of almost equal capacity, each normally feeding its respective engine, though cross-feeding was possible. The centre of gravity was automatically maintained by electric timers, which sequenced the booster pumps on the tanks. B.2 aircraft could be fitted with one or two additional fuel tanks in
10282-405: Was considered too exacting. Six companies submitted technical brochures to this specification, including Avro. Required to tender by the end of April 1947, work began on receipt of Specification B.35/46 at Avro, led by technical director Roy Chadwick and chief designer Stuart Davies ; the type designation was Avro 698 . As was obvious to the design team, conventional aircraft could not satisfy
10388-467: Was delivered in 1965 and the type served until 1984. Whilst in service, the B.2 was continuously updated with modifications, including rapid engine starting, bomb-bay fuel tanks, wing strengthening to give the fatigue life to enable the aircraft to fly at low level (a tactic introduced in the mid-1960s), upgraded navigation equipment, terrain-following radar , standardisation on a common weapon ( WE.177 ) and improved ECM equipment. Nine B.2s were modified for
10494-455: Was estimated at 1,200 yards. The tyres were completely unmarked. Landing previously in an identical machine without Maxarets, and at approximately the same all up weight, great difficulty was experienced in stopping the aircraft in an estimated distance of 1,600 yards, with the braking parachute streamed at approximately 70 knots. On this occasion two tyres were burst, and the remaining six were damaged beyond repair. Maxaret, developed by Dunlop in
10600-429: Was first investigated on Avro 707A WD480. This modification was too late to be incorporated on the two prototype 698s and the first three B.1 aircraft before their first flights. (The B.1s were quickly retrofitted). Painted gloss white, the 698 prototype VX770, with its pure delta wing, flew for the first time on 30 August 1952 piloted by Roly Falk flying solo. VX770, fitted with only the first pilot's ejection seat and
10706-494: Was killed in the crash of the Avro Tudor 2 prototype , and was succeeded by Sir William Farren. Reductions in wing thickness made incorporating the split bomb bays and stacked engines impossible, thus the engines were placed side by side in pairs on either side of a single bomb bay, with the fuselage growing somewhat. The wingtip fins gave way to a single fin on the aircraft's centreline. Rival manufacturer Handley Page received
10812-440: Was more representative of a production aircraft, being fitted with an in-flight refuelling probe and a bulged ECM tail cone. Some subsequent B.2s were initially lacking probes and ECM tail cones, but these were retrofitted. The first 10 B.2s outwardly showed their B.1 ancestry, retaining narrow engine air intakes. Anticipating even more powerful engines, the air intakes were deepened on the 11th (XH557) and subsequent aircraft. Many of
10918-581: Was patented in 1964 by the Soviet-Russian scientist Nurbei Guilia . Flywheels are made from many different materials; the application determines the choice of material. Small flywheels made of lead are found in children's toys. Cast iron flywheels are used in old steam engines. Flywheels used in car engines are made of cast or nodular iron, steel or aluminum. Flywheels made from high-strength steel or composites have been proposed for use in vehicle energy storage and braking systems. The efficiency of
11024-410: Was quickly imposed. Despite its radical and unusual shape, the airframe was built along traditional lines. Except for the most highly stressed parts, the whole structure was manufactured from standard grades of light alloy. The airframe was broken down into a number of major assemblies: The centre section, a rectangular box containing the bomb bay and engine bays bounded by the front and rear spars and
11130-637: Was restored for use in display flights and air shows, whilst two other B.2s, XL426 and XM655 , have been kept in taxiable condition for ground runs and demonstrations. B.2 XH558 flew for the last time in October 2015 and is also being kept in taxiable condition. XM612 is on display at Norwich Aviation Museum . The origin of the Vulcan and the other V bombers is linked with early British atomic weapon programme and nuclear deterrent policies. Britain's atom bomb programme began with Air Staff Operational Requirement OR.1001 issued in August 1946. This anticipated
11236-441: Was specified. The maximum weight when fully loaded should not exceed 100,000 lb (45,000 kg). Alternatively, the aircraft was to be capable of carrying a conventional bomb load of 20,000 lb (9,100 kg). The similar OR.230 required a "long-range bomber" with a 2,000 nautical miles (2,300 mi; 3,700 km) radius of action with a maximum weight of 200,000 lb (91,000 kg) when fully loaded; this requirement
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