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85-474: Mazyr is known as a center of oil refining, salt extraction, machine building, and food processing in Belarus. It is home to one of the largest oil refineries in Belarus, pumping out 18 million metric tons per year, and is served by a tram line. The Druzhba pipeline carries crude oil from Russia, splitting in two at Mazyr. One pipeline branch is directed into Poland and the other one to Ukraine . The city

170-402: A devolatilization process to separate usable oil from the waste asphaltene material. Certain cracked streams are particularly suitable to produce petrochemicals includes polypropylene, heavier polymers, and block polymers based on the molecular weight and the characteristics of the olefin specie that is cracked from the source feedstock. Oil refineries are large-scale plants, processing about

255-420: A yeshiva , Jewish school and Talmud-Torah school in the wake of the 20th century. All of the facilities had been closed down by 1939. Thousands of Jews were executed by German troops in the local ghetto during World War II. After the mass execution, almost no Jews remained in the city, whereas before the war 30% of the population within the city was Jewish. On August 31, 1941, hundreds of Jews gathered inside

340-632: A broad range of several applications. Once separated and purified of any contaminants and impurities, the fuel or lubricant can be sold without further processing. Smaller molecules such as isobutane and propylene or butylenes can be recombined to meet specific octane requirements by processes such as alkylation , or more commonly, dimerization . The octane grade of gasoline can also be improved by catalytic reforming , which involves removing hydrogen from hydrocarbons producing compounds with higher octane ratings such as aromatics . Intermediate products such as gasoils can even be reprocessed to break

425-761: A capacity of 940,000 bbl/d (149,000 m /d) but effective run rates have been dramatically lower due to the impact of 20 years of sanctions , and SK Energy 's Ulsan in South Korea with 840,000 bbl/d (134,000 m /d) are the second and third largest, respectively. Prior to World War II in the early 1940s, most petroleum refineries in the United States consisted simply of crude oil distillation units (often referred to as atmospheric crude oil distillation units). Some refineries also had vacuum distillation units as well as thermal cracking units such as visbreakers (viscosity breakers, units to lower

510-800: A few percent sulfur -containing molecules, elemental sulfur is also often produced as a petroleum product. Carbon , in the form of petroleum coke , and hydrogen may also be produced as petroleum products. The hydrogen produced is often used as an intermediate product for other oil refinery processes such as hydrocracking and hydrodesulfurization . Petroleum products are usually grouped into four categories: light distillates (LPG, gasoline, naphtha), middle distillates (kerosene, jet fuel, diesel), heavy distillates, and residuum (heavy fuel oil, lubricating oils, wax, asphalt). These require blending various feedstocks, mixing appropriate additives, providing short-term storage, and preparation for bulk loading to trucks, barges, product ships, and railcars. This classification

595-428: A heavy, long-chained oil into a lighter short-chained one, by various forms of cracking such as fluid catalytic cracking , thermal cracking , and hydrocracking . The final step in gasoline production is the blending of fuels with different octane ratings, vapor pressures , and other properties to meet product specifications. Another method for reprocessing and upgrading these intermediate products (residual oils) uses

680-454: A house at Malo-Pushkin street. They poured kerosene on the building walls and set it alight, while the people huddled inside. The mass suicide was an attempt to escape execution by the Germans. The incident is known as the " Belarusian Masada ". After the war some Jews returned to Mazyr. Although they refused to take back the partially-destroyed synagogue building, an official Jewish community

765-430: A hundred thousand to several hundred thousand barrels of crude oil a day. Because of the high capacity, many of the units operate continuously , as opposed to processing in batches , at steady state or nearly steady state for months to years. The high capacity also makes process optimization and advanced process control very desirable. Petroleum products are materials derived from crude oil ( petroleum ) as it

850-645: A large amount of steam and cooling water need to have an abundant source of water. Oil refineries, therefore, are often located nearby navigable rivers or on a seashore, nearby a port. Such location also gives access to transportation by river or by sea. The advantages of transporting crude oil by pipeline are evident, and oil companies often transport a large volume of fuel to distribution terminals by pipeline. A pipeline may not be practical for products with small output, and railcars, road tankers, and barges are used. Petrochemical plants and solvent manufacturing (fine fractionating) plants need spaces for further processing of

935-658: A large volume of refinery products, or to mix chemical additives with a product at source rather than at blending terminals. The refining process releases a number of different chemicals into the atmosphere (see AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors ) and a notable odor normally accompanies the presence of a refinery. Aside from air pollution impacts there are also wastewater concerns, risks of industrial accidents such as fire and explosion, and noise health effects due to industrial noise . Many governments worldwide have mandated restrictions on contaminants that refineries release, and most refineries have installed

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1020-531: A majority suffered from chemical poisoning after inhaling the toxic smoke. After the incident, the Ministry of Public Utilities and the Ministry of General Machine Building demanded changes be made to the design, and all trams were recalled to be modified. The modernized design, designated the KTM-5M3 ( M3 for third modification), replaced the fiberglass body with fluted metal. The roof remained plastic, as it

1105-462: A number of further chemical processes are integrated into it. For example, light hydrocarbons are steam-cracked in an ethylene plant, and the produced ethylene is polymerized to produce polyethene . To ensure both proper separation and environmental protection, a very low sulfur content is necessary in all but the heaviest products. The crude sulfur contaminant is transformed to hydrogen sulfide via catalytic hydrodesulfurization and removed from

1190-551: A shoreline necklace of refineries, built in the early 20th century before this area was populated, and associated chemical plants are adjacent to urban areas in Richmond , Martinez , Pacheco , Concord , Pittsburg , Vallejo and Benicia , with occasional accidental events that require " shelter in place " orders to the adjacent populations. A number of refineries are located in Sherwood Park, Alberta , directly adjacent to

1275-724: A sliding sash for passive airflow, while tram #2 had sealed frameless windows and forced air. Production models would use the sliding frame windows as well as forced air. Upon arrival in Moscow in March 1966, tram #1 was displayed at the Exhibition of Achievements of National Economy before joining tram #2 in passenger testing in July. In 1968 one of the trams was displayed along with the LM-68 at "Interbytmash-68" ( Russian : Интербытмаш-68 ) at

1360-646: A trailer or with one another as an electric multiple unit . In December 1959, the Council of Ministers of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic appointed Ust-Katav Wagon-Building Plant (UKVZ) to lead the development and eventual mass production for a four-axle, double bogie tram capable of operating as a multiple unit. The original KTM-5 was built in 1963 and consisted of two prototype tramcars. The electrical, mechanical, and aesthetic designs were derived from

1445-470: Is twinned with: Oil refinery An oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an industrial process plant where petroleum (crude oil) is transformed and refined into products such as gasoline (petrol), diesel fuel , asphalt base , fuel oils , heating oil , kerosene , liquefied petroleum gas and petroleum naphtha . Petrochemical feedstock like ethylene and propylene can also be produced directly by cracking crude oil without

1530-433: Is based on the way crude oil is distilled and separated into fractions. Over 6,000 items are made from petroleum waste by-products, including fertilizer , floor coverings , perfume , insecticide , petroleum jelly , soap , vitamin capsules . The image below is a schematic flow diagram of a typical oil refinery that depicts the various unit processes and the flow of intermediate product streams that occurs between

1615-408: Is cooled by exchanging heat with the incoming crude oil. All of the fractions (i.e., the overhead naphtha, the sidecuts, and the bottom residue) are sent to intermediate storage tanks before being processed further. A party searching for a site to construct a refinery or a chemical plant needs to consider the following issues: Factors affecting site selection for oil refinery: Refineries that use

1700-424: Is processed in oil refineries . The majority of petroleum is converted to petroleum products, which includes several classes of fuels. Oil refineries also produce various intermediate products such as hydrogen , light hydrocarbons, reformate and pyrolysis gasoline . These are not usually transported but instead are blended or processed further on-site. Chemical plants are thus often adjacent to oil refineries or

1785-413: Is removed from the distillation column by a pumparound system as shown in the diagram below. As shown in the flow diagram, the overhead distillate fraction from the distillation column is naphtha. The fractions removed from the side of the distillation column at various points between the column top and bottom are called sidecuts . Each of the sidecuts (i.e., the kerosene, light gas oil, and heavy gas oil)

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1870-475: Is then processed further in the other refinery processing units. The CDU is often referred to as the atmospheric distillation unit because it operates at slightly above atmospheric pressure. Below is a schematic flow diagram of a typical crude oil distillation unit. The incoming crude oil is preheated by exchanging heat with some of the hot, distilled fractions and other streams. It is then desalted to remove inorganic salts (primarily sodium chloride). Following

1955-648: The Allies , during the Oil Campaign of World War II . Another close contender for the title of hosting the world's oldest oil refinery is Salzbergen in Lower Saxony , Germany. Salzbergen's refinery was opened in 1860. At one point, the refinery in Ras Tanura , Saudi Arabia owned by Saudi Aramco was claimed to be the largest oil refinery in the world. For most of the 20th century, the largest refinery

2040-619: The Edeleanu process . This increased the refining efficiency compared to pure fractional distillation and allowed a massive development of the refining plants. Successively, the process was implemented in France, Germany, U.S. and in a few decades became worldwide spread. In 1910 Edeleanu founded "Allgemeine Gesellschaft für Chemische Industrie" in Germany, which, given the success of the name, changed to Edeleanu GmbH, in 1930. During Nazi's time,

2125-581: The Sokolniki Exhibition and Convention Centre . Three prototype trams were constructed and delivered to Omsk in December 1967 for testing in the harsh Siberian climate . Moscow trams #2 joined in July 1968 and #1 in 1969. The KTM-5M proved to be successful in testing, and in 1968 they were recommenced for mass production. In December 1968 the modification of the UKVZ plant was completed and

2210-858: The Soviet Union for tram and metro rolling stock. The KTM-5 became officially designated as the 71-605 ; where 71- designated tramcar, 6 designated the UKVZ Ust-Katav production plant, and 05 designated the tramcar generation. Suffixes were added to either name to distinguish variations. By the mid-1950s, tram fleets in Soviet cities were technically outdated, with most of the vehicles in service produced before World War II . The majority of domestically produced trams were small, two-axle vehicles, whose design severely limited passenger capacity on growing systems. In European Russia , large cities operated spacious, four-axle double bogie trams; Moscow

2295-493: The hydrocarbons to be separated by distillation . Since the lighter liquid products are in great demand for use in internal combustion engines, a modern refinery will convert heavy hydrocarbons and lighter gaseous elements into these higher-value products. Oil can be used in a variety of ways because it contains hydrocarbons of varying molecular masses , forms and lengths such as paraffins , aromatics , naphthenes (or cycloalkanes ), alkenes , dienes , and alkynes . While

2380-416: The octane rating of their product gasoline, lower the sulfur content of their diesel fuel and home heating fuels to comply with environmental regulations and comply with environmental air pollution and water pollution requirements. In the 19th century, refineries in the U.S. processed crude oil primarily to recover the kerosene . There was no market for the more volatile fraction, including gasoline, which

2465-422: The petrochemical industry with increased risk of various cancers, such as mesothelioma . It also found reduced risks of other cancers, such as stomach and rectal . The systematic review did mention that several of the associations were not due to factors directly related to the petroleum industry, rather were related to lifestyle factors such as smoking . Evidence for adverse health effects for nearby residents

2550-408: The vacuum distillation unit may also produce fractions that can be refined into end products such as spindle oil used in the textile industry, light machine oil, motor oil, and various waxes. The crude oil distillation unit (CDU) is the first processing unit in virtually all petroleum refineries. The CDU distills the incoming crude oil into various fractions of different boiling ranges, each of which

2635-399: The viscosity of the oil). All of the many other refining processes discussed below were developed during the war or within a few years after the war. They became commercially available within 5 to 10 years after the war ended and the worldwide petroleum industry experienced very rapid growth. The driving force for that growth in technology and in the number and size of refineries worldwide was

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2720-628: The 12th century. In the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127), a workshop called the "Fierce Oil Workshop", was established in the city of Kaifeng to produce refined oil for the Song military as a weapon. The troops would then fill iron cans with refined oil and throw them toward the enemy troops, causing a fire – effectively the world's first " fire bomb ". The workshop was one of the world's earliest oil refining factories where thousands of people worked to produce Chinese oil-powered weaponry. Prior to

2805-860: The 1800s, primarily producing kerosene for oil lamps. In the early twentieth century, the introduction of the internal combustion engine and its use in automobiles created a market for gasoline that was the impetus for fairly rapid growth of the petroleum industry. The early finds of petroleum like those in Ontario and Pennsylvania were soon outstripped by large oil "booms" in Oklahoma , Texas and California . Samuel Kier established America's first oil refinery in Pittsburgh on Seventh Avenue near Grant Street, in 1853. Polish pharmacist and inventor Ignacy Łukasiewicz established an oil refinery in Jasło , then part of

2890-609: The 71-605A and 71-605U ceased in late 1992, ending 23 years of continuous mass production of the KTM-5. In 1991, a railbus was built using the body of the tram at the Tbilisi Electric Locomotive Plant. This car ran on lines that had recently been deenergized near the Gldani depot. It was operated privately. For some cities, a cheaper solution than to buy a new tram was to undergo a body replacement, where

2975-589: The Austro-Hungarian Empire (now in Poland ) in 1854. The first large refinery opened at Ploiești , Romania, in 1856–1857. It was in Ploiesti that, 51 years later, in 1908, Lazăr Edeleanu , a Romanian chemist of Jewish origin who got his PhD in 1887 by discovering amphetamine , invented, patented and tested on industrial scale the first modern method of liquid extraction for refining crude oil,

3060-523: The City of Edmonton , which has a population of over 1,000,000 residents. NIOSH criteria for occupational exposure to refined petroleum solvents have been available since 1977. Modern petroleum refining involves a complicated system of interrelated chemical reactions that produce a wide variety of petroleum-based products. Many of these reactions require precise temperature and pressure parameters.   The equipment and monitoring required to ensure

3145-606: The Soviet RVZ-6 , based on the Czechslovakian Tatra T2, which in turn was a licensed adaptation of the North American PCC tram . The design used a rheostat control system. Compared to later variations of the KTM-5, the aesthetic design of the original prototypes featured a streamlined all-steel body, which was also influenced by the recently introduced Tatra T3 and LM-57 trams. In 1964

3230-584: The U.S. from 1976 until 2014 when the small Dakota Prairie Refinery in North Dakota began operation. More than half the refineries that existed in 1981 are now closed due to low utilization rates and accelerating mergers. As a result of these closures total US refinery capacity fell between 1981 and 1995, though the operating capacity stayed fairly constant in that time period at around 15,000,000 barrels per day (2,400,000 m /d). Increases in facility size and improvements in efficiencies have offset much of

3315-452: The bogies, and fluorescent lights were replaced with incandescent. In the early half of the 1970s, tram operators complained about poor build quality and reliability of early KTM-5M3 vehicles. The KTM-5M3's modernization only addressed the vehicle's caustic fiberglass exterior, but was still frequently experiencing brake failures, door drive malfunctions, and electrical fires. In response, UKVZ complained about operators' low qualifications. In

3400-851: The city in the late 19th century. During the Polish–Soviet War , on March 4, 1920, the town was captured by the Poles, but later on it fell to the Soviets. During World War II , the German occupiers operated a Nazi prison in the town. The city has suffered radioactive fallout from the Chernobyl disaster . After the dissolution of the Soviet Union , Cistercian churches were restored to the Catholics. Jews were first mentioned in chronicles in

3485-555: The company was bought by the Deutsche Erdöl-AG and Edeleanu, being of Jewish origin, moved back to Romania. After the war, the trademark was used by the successor company EDELEANU Gesellschaft mbH Alzenau (RWE) for many petroleum products, while the company was lately integrated as EDL in the Pörner Group . The Ploiești refineries, after being taken over by Nazi Germany , were bombed in the 1943 Operation Tidal Wave by

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3570-555: The construction of new refineries may have also contributed to rising fuel prices in the United States. Additionally, many refineries (more than 100 since the 1980s) have closed due to obsolescence and/or merger activity within the industry itself. Environmental and safety concerns mean that oil refineries are sometimes located some distance away from major urban areas. Nevertheless, there are many instances where refinery operations are close to populated areas and pose health risks. In California's Contra Costa County and Solano County ,

3655-667: The crude oil and depending on the demands of the market, refineries can produce different shares of petroleum products. The largest share of oil products is used as "energy carriers", i.e. various grades of fuel oil and gasoline . These fuels include or can be blended to give gasoline, jet fuel , diesel fuel , heating oil , and heavier fuel oils. Heavier (less volatile ) fractions can also be used to produce asphalt , tar , paraffin wax , lubricating and other heavy oils. Refineries also produce other chemicals , some of which are used in chemical processes to produce plastics and other useful materials. Since petroleum often contains

3740-487: The desalter, the crude oil is further heated by exchanging heat with some of the hot, distilled fractions and other streams. It is then heated in a fuel-fired furnace (fired heater) to a temperature of about 398 °C and routed into the bottom of the distillation unit. The cooling and condensing of the distillation tower overhead is provided partially by exchanging heat with the incoming crude oil and partially by either an air-cooled or water-cooled condenser. Additional heat

3825-443: The equipment needed to comply with the requirements of the pertinent environmental protection regulatory agencies. In the United States, there is strong pressure to prevent the development of new refineries, and no major refinery has been built in the country since Marathon's Garyville, Louisiana facility in 1976. However, many existing refineries have been expanded during that time. Environmental restrictions and pressure to prevent

3910-438: The first batch of production model trams were delivered to Omsk in 1969. Coincidentally, UKVZ ended production of two-axle trams. In 1970, one tram was fitted with an experimental thyristor -pulse control system and was identified as a KTM-5MT. The tram was tested in Moscow, but was unable to operate with passengers. The tram was returned to the UKVZ plant and refitted as a KTM-5M with the standard rheostat control system. In

3995-462: The first two years of deployment, the "Ural" trams experienced significant issues and safety problems, mostly electrical and brake failures and a number of fires. The iconic fiberglass design was susceptible to burning, and a tram could completely burn-out within minutes and emit toxic smoke. One particular incident occurred in 1971 in Tomsk , in which an undisclosed number of victims died in a tram fire,

4080-412: The growing demand for automotive gasoline and aircraft fuel. In the United States, for various complex economic and political reasons, the construction of new refineries came to a virtual stop in about the 1980s. However, many of the existing refineries in the United States have revamped many of their units and/or constructed add-on units in order to: increase their crude oil processing capacity, increase

4165-514: The highly automated and technically advanced nature of modern petroleum refineries, nearly all processes are contained within engineering controls and represent a substantially decreased risk of exposure to workers compared to earlier times. However, certain situations or work tasks may subvert these safety mechanisms, and expose workers to a number of chemical (see table above) or physical (described below) hazards. Examples of these scenarios include: A 2021 systematic review associated working in

4250-542: The hundreds of different hydrocarbon molecules in crude oil are separated in a refinery into components that can be used as fuels , lubricants , and feedstocks in petrochemical processes that manufacture such products as plastics , detergents , solvents , elastomers , and fibers such as nylon and polyesters . Petroleum fossil fuels are burned in internal combustion engines to provide power for ships , automobiles , aircraft engines , lawn mowers , dirt bikes , and other machines. Different boiling points allow

4335-480: The inlet crude oil feedstock and the final end products. The diagram depicts only one of the literally hundreds of different oil refinery configurations. The diagram also does not include any of the usual refinery facilities providing utilities such as steam, cooling water, and electric power as well as storage tanks for crude oil feedstock and for intermediate products and end products. There are many process configurations other than that depicted above. For example,

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4420-471: The introduction of a unique variation, the 71-605U ( Russian : 71-605У ), built exclusively for the standard gauge system in Rostov-on-Don . Because the system could accommodate wider vehicles, the only modification needed was standard gauge bogies on the traditional 71-605A tram. Build quality declined during the dissolution of the Soviet Union . After the introduction of the 71-608, production of

4505-621: The late Northern Wei dynasty , the Chinese geographer, writer and politician Li Daoyuan introduced the process of refining oil into various lubricants in his famous work Commentary on the Water Classic . Crude oil was often distilled by Persian chemists , with clear descriptions given in handbooks such as those of Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi ( c.  865–925 ). The streets of Baghdad were paved with tar , derived from petroleum that became accessible from natural fields in

4590-467: The latter half of the decade, UKVZ improved build quality and operators and mechanics learned the complicated idiosyncrasies of the tram. Throughout its production span, UKVZ made few improvements to the design. Since 1976 a new pantograph, developed for the KTM-6, became standard on production models. Since 1981 the dedicated parking brake was removed from the design, instead the function was performed by

4675-411: The less profitable refineries. Raw or unprocessed crude oil is not generally useful in industrial applications, although "light, sweet" (low viscosity, low sulfur ) crude oil has been used directly as a burner fuel to produce steam for the propulsion of seagoing vessels. The lighter elements, however, form explosive vapors in the fuel tanks and are therefore hazardous, especially in warships . Instead,

4760-439: The line is 20.3 km, with a full trip time of 40 minutes. The line has a high-speed layout, with radius of minimum 400 meters. There were plans for a second tram line, but this has not come to fruition. The rolling stock is mainly 71-605 and its derivative vehicles. VD Bolshoi Bokov airfield is located 4 miles (6.4 km) south of Mazyr and was used by Russian military aircraft during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine . Mazyr

4845-415: The lost physical capacity of the industry. In 1982 (the earliest data provided), the United States operated 301 refineries with a combined capacity of 17.9 million barrels (2,850,000 m ) of crude oil each calendar day. In 2010, there were 149 operable U.S. refineries with a combined capacity of 17.6 million barrels (2,800,000 m ) per calendar day. By 2014 the number of refinery had reduced to 140 but

4930-436: The molecules in crude oil include different atoms such as sulfur and nitrogen, the hydrocarbons are the most common form of molecules, which are molecules of varying lengths and complexity made of hydrogen and carbon atoms , and a small number of oxygen atoms. The differences in the structure of these molecules account for their varying physical and chemical properties , and it is this variety that makes crude oil useful in

5015-753: The need of using refined products of crude oil such as naphtha. The crude oil feedstock has typically been processed by an oil production plant . [1] There is usually an oil depot at or near an oil refinery for the storage of incoming crude oil feedstock as well as bulk liquid products. In 2020, the total capacity of global refineries for crude oil was about 101.2 million barrels per day. Oil refineries are typically large, sprawling industrial complexes with extensive piping running throughout, carrying streams of fluids between large chemical processing units, such as distillation columns. In many ways, oil refineries use many different technologies and can be thought of as types of chemical plants . Since December 2008,

5100-487: The nineteenth century, petroleum was known and utilized in various fashions in Babylon , Egypt , China , Philippines , Rome and Azerbaijan . However, the modern history of the petroleum industry is said to have begun in 1846 when Abraham Gessner of Nova Scotia , Canada devised a process to produce kerosene from coal. Shortly thereafter, in 1854, Ignacy Łukasiewicz began producing kerosene from hand-dug oil wells near

5185-733: The only original parts are usually the bogies. These upgrades cost less than a completely new tram, at 100,000 rubles for the upgrade compared to 28 million rubles for a new car. The upgrades features a completely new body with touchscreens for the driver, climate control, lighting, new traction converters and new flooring. These particular vehicles are rebuilt by Gorizont LLC, named 71-605RM13 and sees use in Magnitogorsk , Zlatoust and Saratov . Other modifications with different layouts were created in Krasnodar '71-605TH', '71-605EP' in Omsk ,

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5270-464: The product stream via amine gas treating . Using the Claus process , hydrogen sulfide is afterward transformed to elementary sulfur to be sold to the chemical industry. The rather large heat energy freed by this process is directly used in the other parts of the refinery. Often an electrical power plant is combined into the whole refinery process to take up the excess heat. According to the composition of

5355-455: The proper progression of these processes is complex, and has evolved through the advancement of the scientific field of petroleum engineering . The wide array of high pressure and/or high temperature reactions, along with the necessary chemical additives or extracted contaminants, produces an astonishing number of potential health hazards to the oil refinery worker.  Through the advancement of technical chemical and petroleum engineering,

5440-458: The prototype trams were delivered to Chelyabinsk for testing and were returned to UKVZ for revisions in 1965. Production of the KTM-5M ( M for Modified), also given the name "Ural", began in 1965 in limited quantities. The tram would have to wait until 1969 to enter mass production, as modification to the UKVZ plant had not been completed to allow mass production of bogies. In the meantime, UKVZ

5525-626: The region. In the 9th century, oil fields were exploited in the area around modern Baku , Azerbaijan. These fields were described by the Arab geographer Abu al-Hasan 'Alī al-Mas'ūdī in the 10th century, and by Marco Polo in the 13th century, who described the output of those wells as hundreds of shiploads. Arab and Persian chemists also distilled crude oil in order to produce flammable products for military purposes. Through Islamic Spain , distillation became available in Western Europe by

5610-418: The route. It is designed to server Mazyr Oil Refinery (MNPZ) and is owned by the refinery. Services on the tram line are coordinated with shifts at the refinery; service throughout the day is every 25-95 minutes while during the peaks it is 3-12 minutes, though those services pass suburban stops without stopping. Most passengers are workers, though it also serves residents living near the line. The total length of

5695-462: The second half of the 17th century. It is known that there were three synagogues in the city as of 1856. R. Kugel, a prominent Jewish community figure, had been the chief Rabbi of Mazyr since 1861. He was also the head of the local Jewish literacy school. During this period Jews were mostly engaged in craftsmanship and trading. Part of Mazyr's industry, the match factory and the wood sawing factory were owned by Jews. There were eight active synagogues,

5780-609: The time, reports of the health impacts of working in an oil refinery can be found as early as the 1800s. For instance, an explosion in a Chicago refinery killed 20 workers in 1890. Since then, numerous fires, explosions, and other significant events have from time to time drawn the public's attention to the health of oil refinery workers. Such events continue in the 21st century, with explosions reported in refineries in Wisconsin and Germany in 2018. However, there are many less visible hazards that endanger oil refinery workers. Given

5865-458: The total capacity increased to 18.02 million barrels (2,865,000 m ) per calendar day. Indeed, in order to reduce operating costs and depreciation, refining is operated in fewer sites but of bigger capacity. In 2009 through 2010, as revenue streams in the oil business dried up and profitability of oil refineries fell due to lower demand for product and high reserves of supply preceding the economic recession , oil companies began to close or sell

5950-621: The town of Krosno , Poland . Romania was registered as the first country in world oil production statistics, according to the Academy Of World Records . In North America, the first oil well was drilled in 1858 by James Miller Williams in Oil Springs, Ontario , Canada. In the United States, the petroleum industry began in 1859 when Edwin Drake found oil near Titusville , Pennsylvania . The industry grew slowly in

6035-473: The tram's drum brakes . In 1986 the arrangement of the tram's turn signals and brake lights was modified. By the late 1980s it was apparent that the tram had become outdated; the design had gone largely unchanged since it was first developed. On a national level, the Ministry of General Machine Building began to show concern with the outdated tram. In order to appease the Ministry, as well as raise prices on

6120-427: The tram, UKVZ made minimal improvements to the design, designating it as the 71-605A ( A for first modification). With it were new traction motors, significantly quieter than before, a new coupling system, and fluorescent lighting. In June 1989 the first improved trams were delivered to Prokopyevsk . In 1988 UKVZ began prototyping a successor, the 71-608 , but mass production would not begin until 1991. May 1990 saw

6205-420: The vast majority of these processes are automated and enclosed, thus greatly reducing the potential health impact to workers.   However, depending on the specific process in which a worker is engaged, as well as the particular method employed by the refinery in which he/she works, significant health hazards remain. Although occupational injuries in the United States were not routinely tracked and reported at

6290-507: The weight of the tram by 2 metric tons (4,400 lb), which, along with lighter and more powerful traction motors , improved the tram's capacity, acceleration, and speed. Two KTM-5M trams were constructed in December 1965 and destined for testing in Moscow . The trams, which remained unnumbered but known by their serial numbers #1 and #2, varied slightly from each other, mostly in window and ventilation design. Tram #1 had framed windows with

6375-601: The world's largest oil refinery has been the Jamnagar Refinery owned by Reliance Industries , located in Gujarat , India, with a processing capacity of 1.24 million barrels (197,000 m ) per day. Oil refineries are an essential part of the petroleum industry's downstream sector. The Chinese were among the first civilizations to refine oil. As early as the first century, the Chinese were refining crude oil for use as an energy source. Between 512 and 518, in

6460-612: Was able to import the Czechslovakian Tatra T2 , and domestic MTV-82 trams produced by RVR in the Latvian SSR . Leningrad was supplied by the local tram builder, Leningrad Wagon Repair Plant . Initially, it was expected that RVR would be able to mass produce the MTV-82, but production could not scaled to supply the Soviet Union. Additionally, MTV-82 trams were outdated in their design and could not operate with

6545-469: Was administratively part of the Minsk Governorate . The city was subjected to Russification policies. In the 19th century both Cistercian monasteries were closed down. The women's convent was converted into an Orthodox monastery, while the men's monastery was planned to be demolished, but the plan was abandoned as it served as a shelter for Jews after a city fire. Two annual fairs were held in

6630-479: Was also weak, with the evidence primarily centering around neighborhoods in developed countries . 71-605 The KTM-5 , later known as the 71-605 , is a Soviet tram model manufactured by UKVZ . First introduced in 1963, the KTM-5 was mass-produced between 1969 and 1992, with a total of 14,991 tramcars being made. KTM-5 trams were built exclusively for the Soviet Union , and therefore are currently only operating in post-Soviet states . Prior to 1976, KTM

6715-503: Was considered waste and was often dumped directly into the nearest river. The invention of the automobile shifted the demand to gasoline and diesel, which remain the primary refined products today. Today, national and state legislation require refineries to meet stringent air and water cleanliness standards. In fact, oil companies in the U.S. perceive obtaining a permit to build a modern refinery to be so difficult and costly that no new refineries were built (though many have been expanded) in

6800-617: Was mentioned in 1155. It was a county seat in the Mińsk Voivodeship of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth until the Partitions of Poland . In the 18th century, Baroque monasteries and churches of Cistercian monks and nuns were established. At various times, the 2nd and 3rd Lithuanian Vanguard Regiments were stationed there. During the Partitions of Poland , the city was annexed by Russia , within which it

6885-402: Was necessary for electrical components and pantograph to be mounted on a nonconductive surface. The front and rear of the tram remained plastic too. Among the approximately 620 to 900 "Ural" trams produced, 60% were recalled to UKVZ, while the remaining 40% were modified by their tram depots. Other minor changes were made; cables driving the doors were replaced with chains, new wheel arches exposed

6970-427: Was registered in 1946. A few years later, authorities denied the organization's right to exist. The community organization was re-established officially in 1989, when a revival began in the city. A synagogue and a Jewish culture club were opened. Mazyr has a tram service, which commenced operation on 1 August 1988. The line starts at the tram depot and terminates at the oil refinery, with four turning loops located along

7055-535: Was still revising and testing the design before entering mass production. The aesthetic appearance of the tram was completely redesigned from the prototype KTM-5, which was considered to be outdated. Led by the Institute of Technical Aesthetics in Sverdlovsk , the new tram design featured sharp edges, large windows, and the metal body was replaced with fiberglass paneling. The choice to use fiberglass reduced

7140-846: Was the Abadan Refinery in Iran . This refinery suffered extensive damage during the Iran–Iraq War . Since 25 December 2008, the world's largest refinery complex is the Jamnagar Refinery Complex, consisting of two refineries side by side operated by Reliance Industries Limited in Jamnagar, India with a combined production capacity of 1,240,000 barrels per day (197,000 m /d). PDVSA 's Paraguaná Refinery Complex in Paraguaná Peninsula , Venezuela , with

7225-414: Was used by UKVZ as a trademark for tram models, being an abbreviation of Kirov Motor Tram ( Russian : К ировский Т рамвай М оторный ). The -5 extension referred to it being a fifth generation tram model. Ural was a commonly used name for trams starting in 1965 until 1971, and "УРАЛ" (English: Ural ) was embossed on trams from this time period. In July 1976, a naming standard was introduced in

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