129-421: Maariv or Maʿariv ( Hebrew : מַעֲרִיב , [maʔaˈʁiv] ), also known as Arvit , or Arbit ( Hebrew : עַרְבִית , [ʔaʁˈvit] ), is a Jewish prayer service held in the evening or night . It consists primarily of the evening Shema and Amidah . The service will often begin with two verses from Psalms , followed by the communal recitation of Barechu . The three paragraphs of
258-685: A Hebrew form. Medieval Hebrew added 6421 words to (Modern) Hebrew. The approximate number of new lexical items in Israeli is 17,000 (cf. 14,762 in Even-Shoshan 1970 [...]). With the inclusion of foreign and technical terms [...], the total number of Israeli words, including words of biblical, rabbinic and medieval descent, is more than 60,000. In Israel, Modern Hebrew is currently taught in institutions called Ulpanim (singular: Ulpan). There are government-owned, as well as private, Ulpanim offering online courses and face-to-face programs. Modern Hebrew
387-595: A century ago, was fluent enough in this idiom to be able to follow the Mishna Berurah without any trouble." Hebrew has been revived several times as a literary language, most significantly by the Haskalah (Enlightenment) movement of early and mid-19th-century Germany. In the early 19th century, a form of spoken Hebrew had emerged in the markets of Jerusalem between Jews of different linguistic backgrounds to communicate for commercial purposes. This Hebrew dialect
516-661: A corollary Hebrew ceased to function as a spoken language around the same time. Moshe Zvi Segal , Joseph Klausner and Ben Yehuda are notable exceptions to this view. During the latter half of the 20th century, accumulating archaeological evidence and especially linguistic analysis of the Dead Sea Scrolls has disproven that view. The Dead Sea Scrolls, uncovered in 1946–1948 near Qumran revealed ancient Jewish texts overwhelmingly in Hebrew, not Aramaic. The Qumran scrolls indicate that Hebrew texts were readily understandable to
645-579: A distinct style of philosophical Hebrew. This is used in the translations made by the Ibn Tibbon family. (Original Jewish philosophical works were usually written in Arabic. ) Another important influence was Maimonides , who developed a simple style based on Mishnaic Hebrew for use in his law code, the Mishneh Torah . Subsequent rabbinic literature is written in a blend between this style and
774-611: A few assorted verses, and a half Kaddish. The first main part of the service is focused on the Shema Yisrael . When a minyan is present, Barechu , the formal public call to prayer, is recited. Then come two blessings, one praising God for creating the cycle of day and night, and one thanking God for the Torah . The three passages of the Shema are then recited. Two more blessings are recited. The first praises God for taking
903-594: A gradually accepted movement. It was not, however, until the 1904–1914 Second Aliyah that Hebrew had caught real momentum in Ottoman Palestine with the more highly organized enterprises set forth by the new group of immigrants. When the British Mandate of Palestine recognized Hebrew as one of the country's three official languages (English, Arabic, and Hebrew, in 1922), its new formal status contributed to its diffusion. A constructed modern language with
1032-468: A literary language down through the Byzantine period from the 4th century CE. The exact roles of Aramaic and Hebrew remain hotly debated. A trilingual scenario has been proposed for the land of Israel. Hebrew functioned as the local mother tongue with powerful ties to Israel's history, origins and golden age and as the language of Israel's religion; Aramaic functioned as the international language with
1161-536: A literary language, especially in Spain, as the language of commerce between Jews of different native languages, and as the liturgical language of Judaism, evolving various dialects of literary Medieval Hebrew , until its revival as a spoken language in the late 19th century. In May 2023, Scott Stripling published the finding of what he claims to be the oldest known Hebrew inscription, a curse tablet found at Mount Ebal , dated from around 3200 years ago. The presence of
1290-548: A set of dialects evolving out of Late Biblical Hebrew and into Mishnaic Hebrew, thus including elements from both but remaining distinct from either. By the start of the Byzantine Period in the 4th century CE, Classical Hebrew ceased as a regularly spoken language, roughly a century after the publication of the Mishnah, apparently declining since the aftermath of the catastrophic Bar Kokhba revolt around 135 CE. In
1419-668: A spoken language, it continued to be used as a lingua franca among scholars and Jews traveling in foreign countries. After the 2nd century CE when the Roman Empire exiled most of the Jewish population of Jerusalem following the Bar Kokhba revolt , they adapted to the societies in which they found themselves, yet letters, contracts, commerce, science, philosophy, medicine, poetry and laws continued to be written mostly in Hebrew, which adapted by borrowing and inventing terms. After
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#17327720732981548-472: A truly Semitic vocabulary and written appearance, although often European in phonology , was to take its place among the current languages of the nations. While many saw his work as fanciful or even blasphemous (because Hebrew was the holy language of the Torah and therefore some thought that it should not be used to discuss everyday matters), many soon understood the need for a common language amongst Jews of
1677-558: A vernacular in Judea until it was displaced by Aramaic, probably in the 3rd century CE. Certain Sadducee , Pharisee , Scribe , Hermit, Zealot and Priest classes maintained an insistence on Hebrew, and all Jews maintained their identity with Hebrew songs and simple quotations from Hebrew texts. While there is no doubt that at a certain point, Hebrew was displaced as the everyday spoken language of most Jews, and that its chief successor in
1806-480: Is 16.1° below the horizon, or else a fixed 72 (or 90) minutes before sunrise. Daybreak (עֲלוֹת הַשַּׁחַר, Alot Hashachar ) refers to when the first rays of light are visible in the morning. After daybreak, there is a time known as misheyakir , "when one can recognize [another person four cubits away]." This is the earliest time to wear tzitzit and tefillin (though ex post facto , if one did so after Alot Hashachar , he fulfilled his obligation). Misheyakir
1935-518: Is 8198, of which some 2000 are hapax legomena (the number of Biblical Hebrew roots, on which many of these words are based, is 2099). The number of attested Rabbinic Hebrew words is less than 20,000, of which (i) 7879 are Rabbinic par excellence, i.e. they did not appear in the Old Testament (the number of new Rabbinic Hebrew roots is 805); (ii) around 6000 are a subset of Biblical Hebrew; and (iii) several thousand are Aramaic words which can have
2064-644: Is a Northwest Semitic language within the Afroasiatic language family . A regional dialect of the Canaanite languages , it was natively spoken by the Israelites and remained in regular use as a first language until after 200 CE and as the liturgical language of Judaism (since the Second Temple period ) and Samaritanism . The language was revived as a spoken language in the 19th century, and
2193-533: Is a major festival falling in the middle of the week, they are omitted. If the first day of Passover falls the following Sabbath, customs very as to whether the Eve of Passover, generally considered a minor holiday, is enough to exempt the recitation of these verses. Nusach Ashkenaz and Italian Nusach also add " Veyiten Lecha " (whereas Nusach Sefard and most Sfardim say this at home after Havdala). These are verses of blessing, that we pray should be fulfilled over
2322-567: Is fighting to stop businesses from using only English signs to market their services. In 2012, a Knesset bill for the preservation of the Hebrew language was proposed, which includes the stipulation that all signage in Israel must first and foremost be in Hebrew, as with all speeches by Israeli officials abroad. The bill's author, MK Akram Hasson , stated that the bill was proposed as a response to Hebrew "losing its prestige" and children incorporating more English words into their vocabulary. Hebrew
2451-401: Is generally calculated relative to season and place, and because there are no Talmudic or early sources as to when this time occurs, there are a wide range of opinions. Most calculate it based on when the sun is 10.2-11.5 degrees below the horizon, but there are opinions that make it as late as 6 degrees. Sunrise (הָנֵץ הַחַמָּה, Hanetz Hachamah ) refers to when the ball of the sun rises above
2580-474: Is inserted into the fourth blessing of the Amidah. The recitation of this paragraph officially ends Shabbat. One who forgets to recite this paragraph may also end Shabbat through Havdalah or by saying the words "Blessed is He Who differentiates between the holy and the secular." Two sections of prayers, " Vayehi Noam " (the last verse from Psalm 90 , followed by the full Psalm 91 ) and V'Ata Kadosh (all but
2709-554: Is not recited by Ashkenazim (both Nusach Ashkenaz and Nusach Sefard), although it is recited by some congregations associated with Machon Moreshes Ashkenaz . It is recited by Baladi Yemenite Jews in and out of Israel (albeit combined with the last blessing), and by Italian rite Jews in and out of Israel. It is also recited in an abbreviated form at the conclusion of the Sabbath by some Moroccan Jews. On Shabbat and holidays, some congregations recite relevant verses at this point, after
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#17327720732982838-654: Is omitted on the first night of Passover , because that is considered a "time of protection"; in the Western Ashkenazic rite as well as some other communities, it is recited as normal. In communities that did not recite ba-meh madlikin before maariv, it is recited after the full Kaddish. Many communities also recite kiddush at this point. During the Maariv service following Shabbat , several additions are made. Many communities recite (usually sing) Psalm 144 and Psalm 67 . A paragraph called "Ata Chonantanu"
2967-543: Is one of several languages for which the constitution of South Africa calls to be respected in their use for religious purposes. Also, Hebrew is an official national minority language in Poland , since 6 January 2005. Hamas has made Hebrew a compulsory language taught in schools in the Gaza Strip. Zmanim#Nightfall Zmanim ( Hebrew : זְמַנִּים , literally means "times", singular zman ) are specific times of
3096-465: Is praying as a congregation. Furthermore, it is questionable whether an individual may pray maariv after plag hamincha if he doesn't always recite mincha before Plag Hamincha; nevertheless, the Halachic authorities allow one to do so on Friday night. Sunset ( שְׁקִיעַת הַחַמָּה , Shkiyat Hachamah - often referred to simply as ShKia / Sh'Kia / SheKia ) is the time at which
3225-853: Is read during Maariv in many communities. On Purim , the Book of Esther is read, followed by V'Ata Kadosh , and on Tish'a Ba'av the Book of Lamentations and some kinnot are recited, also followed by V'Ata Kadosh . On Yom Kippur , an extended order of Selichot is recited; in Ashkenazic communities, this is followed by Avinu Malkeinu (except on the Sabbath). On both Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur, many congregations recite Psalm 24 . Hebrew language Hebrew ( Hebrew alphabet : עִבְרִית , ʿĪvrīt , pronounced [ ʔivˈʁit ] or [ ʕivˈrit ] ; Samaritan script : ࠏࠨࠁࠬࠓࠪࠉࠕ ʿÎbrit )
3354-510: Is the earliest time to recite Minchah , although one should try, if possible, to wait until Minchah Ketanah . On Shabbat , and Jewish holidays , it is preferable to begin Mussaf by this time, because otherwise it is questionable whether they would be required to pray the more frequent prayer (Minchah) first. Minchah Ketanah (מִנְחָה קְטַנָּה, literally the smaller [window of praying] Minchah), two and one-half variable hours before sunset,
3483-556: Is the midpoint between nightfall and daybreak, or equivalently between sunset and sunrise. The evening Shema should be recited by now, and the Afikoman on Passover should be eaten by this time. The Talmud in Berachot rules that all "night" mitzvot should be performed by Chatzot, at least ab initio, in case the person would otherwise fall asleep and then fail to perform the mitzvot. Some rise at this time and recite Tikkun Chatzot ,
3612-573: Is the only successful large-scale example of linguistic revival . It is the only Canaanite language, as well as one of only two Northwest Semitic languages, with the other being Aramaic , still spoken today. The earliest examples of written Paleo-Hebrew date back to the 10th century BCE. Nearly all of the Hebrew Bible is written in Biblical Hebrew , with much of its present form in the dialect that scholars believe flourished around
3741-505: Is the preferable earliest time to recite Minchah. Plag Hamincha (פְּלַג הַמִּנְחָה, literally half of the Minchah) is the midpoint between Minchah Ketanah and sunset, i.e. one and one-quarter variable hours before sunset. If one prayed Minchah before this time, one may recite Maariv afterwards (at the conclusion of the Sabbath, this may only be done under extenuating circumstances). Otherwise, one must wait until sunset, unless one
3870-457: Is the primary official language of the State of Israel. As of 2013 , there are about 9 million Hebrew speakers worldwide, of whom 7 million speak it fluently. Currently, 90% of Israeli Jews are proficient in Hebrew, and 70% are highly proficient. Some 60% of Israeli Arabs are also proficient in Hebrew, and 30% report having a higher proficiency in Hebrew than in Arabic. In total, about 53% of
3999-595: Is three halachic hours into the day. These hours are variable/seasonal hours and refer to one twelfth of the time between daybreak and nightfall (according to the Magen Avraham ) or one twelfth of the time between sunrise and sunset (according to the Vilna Gaon ). Sof Zman Tefilah (סוֹף זְמַן תְּפִלָּה) means "end of the time to say the Shacharit Amidah." This is four halachic hours into
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4128-547: Is used to pronounce the Hebrew Bible; however, properly it should be distinguished from the historical Biblical Hebrew of the 6th century BCE, whose original pronunciation must be reconstructed. Tiberian Hebrew incorporates the scholarship of the Masoretes (from masoret meaning "tradition"), who added vowel points and grammar points to the Hebrew letters to preserve much earlier features of Hebrew, for use in chanting
4257-650: The Chayei Adam in Hebrew, as opposed to Yiddish , as a guide to Halacha for the " average 17-year-old" (Ibid. Introduction 1). Similarly, Rabbi Yisrael Meir Kagan 's purpose in writing the Mishnah Berurah was to "produce a work that could be studied daily so that Jews might know the proper procedures to follow minute by minute". The work was nevertheless written in Talmudic Hebrew and Aramaic, since, "the ordinary Jew [of Eastern Europe] of
4386-521: The Amidah , in order to separate between the required Shema and the (originally) optional Amidah . The Amidah is followed by the full Kaddish (sometime with additions recited beforehand, see below). Unlike in other prayers, the Amidah is not repeated aloud by the chazzan in Maariv. Sephardim (and, in Israel, most who follow Nusach Sefard ) then say Psalm 121 (or another topical Psalm ), say
4515-727: The Ancient Greek Ἑβραῖος ( hebraîos ) and Aramaic 'ibrāy , all ultimately derived from Biblical Hebrew Ivri ( עברי ), one of several names for the Israelite ( Jewish and Samaritan ) people ( Hebrews ). It is traditionally understood to be an adjective based on the name of Abraham 's ancestor, Eber , mentioned in Genesis 10:21 . The name is believed to be based on the Semitic root ʕ-b-r ( ע־ב־ר ), meaning "beyond", "other side", "across"; interpretations of
4644-547: The Canaanite group of languages . Canaanite languages are a branch of the Northwest Semitic family of languages. Hebrew was the spoken language in the Iron Age kingdoms of Israel and Judah during the period from about 1200 to 586 BCE. Epigraphic evidence from this period confirms the widely accepted view that the earlier layers of biblical literature reflect the language used in these kingdoms. Furthermore,
4773-572: The Counting of the Omer (between Passover and Shavuot ) and (in many communities) Psalm 27 (between the first of Elul and the end of Sukkot ). Maariv is generally recited after sunset , however, it may be recited as early as one and a quarter seasonal hours before sunset. This is common only on Friday nights, in order to begin Shabbat earlier. At the conclusion of Shabbat and holidays ,
4902-650: The Days of Awe and Sukkot . This is again followed by the mourner's Kaddish. In a house of mourning, many communities conclude the service with Psalm 16 or Psalm 49 . In the Western Ashkenazic rite (as well as some German and Hungarian communities following the Eastern Ashkenazic rite), Psalms 24 , 8 and 28 are recited when maariv is recited after nightfall; these can be followed by a Mourners Kaddish if needed (since these communities usually only allow one mourner to recite each Kaddish). In most communities,
5031-572: The Gospel of Matthew . (See the Hebrew Gospel hypothesis or Language of Jesus for more details on Hebrew and Aramaic in the gospels.) The term "Mishnaic Hebrew" generally refers to the Hebrew dialects found in the Talmud , excepting quotations from the Hebrew Bible. The dialects organize into Mishnaic Hebrew (also called Tannaitic Hebrew, Early Rabbinic Hebrew, or Mishnaic Hebrew I), which
5160-495: The Latin alphabet of ancient Rome . The Gezer calendar is written without any vowels , and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places in which later Hebrew spelling requires them. Numerous older tablets have been found in the region with similar scripts written in other Semitic languages, for example, Proto-Sinaitic . It is believed that the original shapes of the script go back to Egyptian hieroglyphs , though
5289-464: The Maariv prayer earlier than usually, generally during Pelag Hamincha (1¼ hours before sunset). This is in order to fulfill the precept of adding from the weekday to the holiness of Shabbat. However, this is too early for the recitation of Shema, so Shema should be repeated later under these circumstances. On weekdays, the service begins with two verses from Psalms : 78:38 and 20:10 . In some communities, these verses are proceeded by Psalm 134 ,
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5418-682: The Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE) and the emergence of the Hasmonean kingdom , the Great Jewish Revolt (66–73 CE), and the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–135 CE). The nationalist significance of Hebrew manifested in various ways throughout this period. Michael Owen Wise notes that "Beginning with the time of the Hasmonean revolt [...] Hebrew came to the fore in an expression akin to modern nationalism. A form of classical Hebrew
5547-536: The Second Aliyah , it replaced a score of languages spoken by Jews at that time. Those languages were Jewish dialects of local languages, including Judaeo-Spanish (also called "Judezmo" and "Ladino"), Yiddish , Judeo-Arabic and Bukhori (Tajiki), or local languages spoken in the Jewish diaspora such as Russian , Persian and Arabic . The major result of the literary work of the Hebrew intellectuals along
5676-503: The Shema are then said, both preceded and followed by two blessings, although sometimes a fifth blessing is added at the end. The hazzan (leader) then recites half- Kaddish . The Amidah is said quietly by everyone, and, unlike at the other services, is not repeated by the hazzan . The chazzan recites the full Kaddish , Aleinu is recited, and the mourners' Kaddish ends the service; some recite another Psalm or Psalms before or after Aleinu. Other prayers occasionally added include
5805-462: The literary and liturgical language into everyday spoken language . However, his brand of Hebrew followed norms that had been replaced in Eastern Europe by different grammar and style, in the writings of people like Ahad Ha'am and others. His organizational efforts and involvement with the establishment of schools and the writing of textbooks pushed the vernacularization activity into
5934-620: The official language of the State of Israel . Estimates of worldwide usage include five million speakers in 1998, and over nine million people in 2013. After Israel, the United States has the largest Hebrew-speaking population, with approximately 220,000 fluent speakers (see Israeli Americans and Jewish Americans ). Modern Hebrew is the official language of the State of Israel, while pre-revival forms of Hebrew are used for prayer or study in Jewish and Samaritan communities around
6063-543: The ostraca found near Lachish , which describe events preceding the final capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonian captivity of 586 BCE. In its widest sense, Biblical Hebrew refers to the spoken language of ancient Israel flourishing between c. 1000 BCE and c. 400 CE . It comprises several evolving and overlapping dialects. The phases of Classical Hebrew are often named after important literary works associated with them. Sometimes
6192-607: The 10th century BCE at the beginning of the Monarchic period , the traditional time of the reign of David and Solomon . Classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew , the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar (named after the city in whose proximity it was found) is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that, through the Greeks and Etruscans , later became
6321-555: The 1980s in the USSR , Hebrew studies reappeared due to people struggling for permission to go to Israel ( refuseniks ). Several of the teachers were imprisoned, e.g. Yosef Begun , Ephraim Kholmyansky , Yevgeny Korostyshevsky and others responsible for a Hebrew learning network connecting many cities of the USSR. Standard Hebrew, as developed by Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, was based on Mishnaic spelling and Sephardi Hebrew pronunciation. However,
6450-611: The 19th century was a lexical modernization of Hebrew. New words and expressions were adapted as neologisms from the large corpus of Hebrew writings since the Hebrew Bible, or borrowed from Arabic (mainly by Ben-Yehuda) and older Aramaic and Latin. Many new words were either borrowed from or coined after European languages, especially English, Russian, German, and French. Modern Hebrew became an official language in British-ruled Palestine in 1921 (along with English and Arabic), and then in 1948 became an official language of
6579-604: The 6th century BCE, during the time of the Babylonian captivity . For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as Lashon Hakodesh ( לְשׁוֹן הַקֹּדֶש , lit. ' the holy tongue ' or ' the tongue [of] holiness ' ) since ancient times. The language was not referred to by the name Hebrew in the Bible , but as Yehudit ( transl. ' Judean ' ) or Səpaṯ Kəna'an ( transl. "the language of Canaan " ). Mishnah Gittin 9:8 refers to
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#17327720732986708-412: The Amidah, for those who came late. While originally this was said only by the leader, it is now customary in most Ashkenazic communities (except for those who follow the practices of the Vilna Gaon ) for the congregation to recite the middle part before the leader does so or together with the leader. In the most communities of the Eastern Ashkenazic rite as well as many Sephardic communities, this blessing
6837-766: The Aramaized Rabbinic Hebrew of the Talmud. Hebrew persevered through the ages as the main language for written purposes by all Jewish communities around the world for a large range of uses—not only liturgy, but also poetry, philosophy, science and medicine, commerce, daily correspondence and contracts. There have been many deviations from this generalization such as Bar Kokhba 's letters to his lieutenants, which were mostly in Aramaic, and Maimonides' writings, which were mostly in Arabic; but overall, Hebrew did not cease to be used for such purposes. For example,
6966-687: The British Mandate who at the turn of the 20th century were arriving in large numbers from diverse countries and speaking different languages. A Committee of the Hebrew Language was established. After the establishment of Israel, it became the Academy of the Hebrew Language . The results of Ben-Yehuda's lexicographical work were published in a dictionary ( The Complete Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Hebrew , Ben-Yehuda Dictionary ). The seeds of Ben-Yehuda's work fell on fertile ground, and by
7095-526: The Great conquered Babylon, he allowed the Jewish people to return from captivity. In time, a local version of Aramaic came to be spoken in Israel alongside Hebrew. By the beginning of the Common Era , Aramaic was the primary colloquial language of Samarian , Babylonian and Galileean Jews, and western and intellectual Jews spoke Greek , but a form of so-called Rabbinic Hebrew continued to be used as
7224-432: The Hebrew name of god , Yahweh, as three letters, Yod-Heh-Vav (YHV), according to the author and his team meant that the tablet is Hebrew and not Canaanite. However, practically all professional archeologists and epigraphers apart from Stripling's team claim that there is no text on this object. In July 2008, Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel discovered a ceramic shard at Khirbet Qeiyafa that he claimed may be
7353-602: The Hebrew Bible. The Masoretes inherited a biblical text whose letters were considered too sacred to be altered, so their markings were in the form of pointing in and around the letters. The Syriac alphabet , precursor to the Arabic alphabet , also developed vowel pointing systems around this time. The Aleppo Codex , a Hebrew Bible with the Masoretic pointing, was written in the 10th century, likely in Tiberias, and survives into
7482-454: The Israeli population speaks Hebrew as a native language, while most of the rest speak it fluently. In 2013 Hebrew was the native language of 49% of Israelis over the age of 20, with Russian , Arabic , French , English , Yiddish and Ladino being the native tongues of most of the rest. Some 26% of immigrants from the former Soviet Union and 12% of Arabs reported speaking Hebrew poorly or not at all. Steps have been taken to keep Hebrew
7611-416: The Jews out of Egypt , and the second prays for protection during the night. A fifth blessing, Baruch Adonai L'Olam , is then recited by Ashkenazim outside of Israel (except for some chassidic communities such as Chabad-Lubavitch , and followers of the Vilna Gaon ). This blessing is made mostly from a tapestry of biblical verses. However, the blessing is omitted on Shabbat and holidays, and by some at
7740-417: The Middle East was the closely related Aramaic language, then Greek , scholarly opinions on the exact dating of that shift have changed very much. In the first half of the 20th century, most scholars followed Abraham Geiger and Gustaf Dalman in thinking that Aramaic became a spoken language in the land of Israel as early as the beginning of Israel's Hellenistic period in the 4th century BCE, and that as
7869-488: The Mourner's Kaddish and repeat Barechu , before concluding with the Aleinu. Ashkenazim , in the diaspora , neither say Psalm 121 nor repeat Barechu, but conclude with Aleinu followed by the Mourner's Kaddish (in Israel, most Ashkenazim do repeat Barechu after mourner's Kaddish). From the beginning of Elul through Hoshanah Rabbah (and outside of Israel, on Shemini Atzeret as well), most Nusach Ashkenaz communities recite Psalm 27 , which contains many allusions to
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#17327720732987998-402: The Shacharit Amidah, ex post facto, is this time. On the Shabbat and on holidays , one is supposed to eat before this time. On Tish'a Ba'av one may sit on a chair at this time, and those who fast on Erev Rosh Hashanah usually eat at this time. Minchah Gedolah (מִנְחָה גְּדוֹלָה, literally the greater Minchah ), one-half variable hour after midday (6.5 variable hours into the day),
8127-410: The Shema later in the evening. In many congregations, the afternoon and evening prayers are recited back-to-back, to save people having to attend synagogue twice. The Vilna Gaon discouraged this practice, and followers of his set of customs commonly wait until after nightfall to recite Ma'ariv , since the name derives from the word "nightfall". On the eve of Shabbat , some have the custom to recite
8256-518: The Shulchan Aruch rules that since we are unsure what stars are medium or big, we must be stringent to wait for the appearance of small stars. Since this time is not clearly defined, most communities (at least for the end of the Sabbath) wait until around 8.5° of solar depression. Some, following the interpretation of Rabbeinu Tam, wait until 72 (or 90) minutes after astronomical sunset; this is common practice in Chasidic and other Charedi communities. There are two times for beginning of mitzvot during
8385-449: The Talmud, the Gemara , generally comments on the Mishnah and Baraitot in two forms of Aramaic. Nevertheless, Hebrew survived as a liturgical and literary language in the form of later Amoraic Hebrew, which occasionally appears in the text of the Gemara, particularly in the Jerusalem Talmud and the classical aggadah midrashes . Hebrew was always regarded as the language of Israel's religion, history and national pride, and after it faded as
8514-406: The Talmud, various regional literary dialects of Medieval Hebrew evolved. The most important is Tiberian Hebrew or Masoretic Hebrew, a local dialect of Tiberias in Galilee that became the standard for vocalizing the Hebrew Bible and thus still influences all other regional dialects of Hebrew. This Tiberian Hebrew from the 7th to 10th century CE is sometimes called "Biblical Hebrew" because it
8643-422: The ability to speak the language and attempted to promote its use. According to the Jerusalem Talmud , Megillah 1:9: "Rebbi Jonathan from Bet Guvrrin said, four languages are appropriate that the world should use them, and they are these: The Foreign Language (Greek) for song, Latin for war, Syriac for elegies, Hebrew for speech. Some are saying, also Assyrian (Hebrew script) for writing." The later section of
8772-411: The above phases of spoken Classical Hebrew are simplified into "Biblical Hebrew" (including several dialects from the 10th century BCE to 2nd century BCE and extant in certain Dead Sea Scrolls) and "Mishnaic Hebrew" (including several dialects from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE and extant in certain other Dead Sea Scrolls). However, today most Hebrew linguists classify Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew as
8901-455: The average Jew, and that the language had evolved since Biblical times as spoken languages do. Recent scholarship recognizes that reports of Jews speaking in Aramaic indicate a multilingual society, not necessarily the primary language spoken. Alongside Aramaic, Hebrew co-existed within Israel as a spoken language. Most scholars now date the demise of Hebrew as a spoken language to the end of the Roman period , or about 200 CE. It continued on as
9030-447: The ball of the sun falls below the horizon. The next day of the Hebrew calendar begins at this point for almost all purposes. Some sources indicate that if one ate an additional specified quantity of bread, and a meal eaten now includes the new day's additions in the grace after meals , then they are added. For example, these include ReTzei and YaaLeh V'YaVo on Shabbat Erev Rosh Chodesh. Mitzvot that must be performed during
9159-428: The beginning of the 20th century, Hebrew was well on its way to becoming the main language of the Jewish population of both Ottoman and British Palestine. At the time, members of the Old Yishuv and a very few Hasidic sects, most notably those under the auspices of Satmar , refused to speak Hebrew and spoke only Yiddish. In the Soviet Union, the use of Hebrew, along with other Jewish cultural and religious activities,
9288-602: The composition of 1 Maccabees in archaizing Hebrew, Hasmonean coinage under John Hyrcanus (134-104 BCE), and coins from both the Great Revolt and Bar Kokhba Revolt featuring exclusively Hebrew and Palaeo-Hebrew script inscriptions. This deliberate use of Hebrew and Paleo-Hebrew script in official contexts, despite limited literacy, served as a symbol of Jewish nationalism and political independence. The Christian New Testament contains some Semitic place names and quotes. The language of such Semitic glosses (and in general
9417-399: The conclusion of those days and on Chol HaMoed . It has been largely dropped by Sephardic communities, but appears in old printings of Sephardic siddurim (including Venice and Livorno). However, some Moroccan communities (both in Israel and elsewhere) recite the last part of the blessing (starting from Yir'u eineinu) at Maariv at the conclusion of the Sabbath. In Israel, Baruch Adonai L'Olam
9546-410: The content of Hebrew inscriptions suggests that the written texts closely mirror the spoken language of that time. Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew was a spoken vernacular in ancient times following the Babylonian exile when the predominant international language in the region was Old Aramaic . Hebrew was extinct as a colloquial language by late antiquity , but it continued to be used as
9675-461: The counting until the end of the service. If it is not yet nightfall, many congregations leave the counting to the individual. In general, relatively few prayers are added onto Maariv . On Festivals, some communities recite piyyutim called Maarivim during the blessings of Shema; in many communities, these piyyutim are omitted when the Festival falls on the Sabbath. On Simchat Torah , the Torah
9804-420: The course of the week. These verses are recited even when 'Vayehi Noam' is omitted, but they are omitted when Tisha Bav falls at the conclusion of the Sabbath. In some communities, Havdalah is also recited at this point. During the seven weeks from the second night of Passover until (but not including) Shavuot , the day is counted. This is usually done during Maariv , just before Aleinu . Others postpone
9933-457: The darkness of the sky 72 minutes after sundown (for example) varies substantially from place to place, and from date to date. Therefore, they hold that "72 minutes after sundown" actually refers to the degree of darkness of the sky, 72 minutes after sundown in Jerusalem on an equinox. That degree of darkness is reckoned as being reached when the sun has fallen a certain number of degrees below
10062-463: The day could be offered at night. Since this was not always necessary, the evening prayer was also declared optional. However, the Jews long ago accepted it as an obligation, so it is now considered to be mandatory. However, there remain some vestiges of its original voluntary status; for example, the Amidah is not repeated by the leader, unlike by all other prayers (an exception being on the Sabbath, when
10191-501: The day may no longer be performed ab initio. Minchah should not be delayed past now. Maariv may be recited now, although many wait until after nightfall. Bein Hashemashot (בֵּין הַשְּׁמָשׁוֹת, literally between the suns) is the period between sunset and nightfall, and is considered a time of questionable status. On the Sabbath, festivals, and fast days the stringencies of both the previous and following days apply. For example, if
10320-423: The day mentioned in Jewish law . These times appear in various contexts: Shabbat and Jewish holidays begin and end at specific times in the evening, while some rituals must be performed during the day or the night, or during specific hours of the day or night. The daytime period is divided into twelve equal "relative hours" (or "seasonal" or "variable" hours), which can be longer or shorter than 60 minutes, as
10449-460: The day. Since the Amidah is only rabbinically required (unlike the Shema which is Scriptually mandated) it is common to rely on the later time (Vilna Gaon), thus only a few calendars publish the earlier time (Magen Avraham). Midday (חֲצוֹת הַיּוֹם, Chatzot Hayom or just Chatzot ) means the midpoint between sunrise and sunset, or equivalently between daybreak and sundown. The absolute latest time for
10578-462: The day: The Mishnah lists a number of daytime mitzvot should be performed after sunrise, but if they are performed after daybreak, one fulfilled his obligation ex post facto . The Talmud in Pesachim (see above) holds symmetrically that the time between daybreak and sunrise is also the time in which one can walk four mils. For morning calculations, daybreak is normally held to be when the sun
10707-568: The dialects of Classical Hebrew that functioned as a living language in the land of Israel. A transitional form of the language occurs in the other works of Tannaitic literature dating from the century beginning with the completion of the Mishnah. These include the halachic Midrashim ( Sifra , Sifre , Mekhilta etc.) and the expanded collection of Mishnah-related material known as the Tosefta . The Talmud contains excerpts from these works, as well as further Tannaitic material not attested elsewhere;
10836-423: The earliest Hebrew writing yet discovered, dating from around 3,000 years ago. Hebrew University archaeologist Amihai Mazar said that the inscription was "proto-Canaanite" but cautioned that "[t]he differentiation between the scripts, and between the languages themselves in that period, remains unclear", and suggested that calling the text Hebrew might be going too far. The Gezer calendar also dates back to
10965-513: The earliest speakers of Modern Hebrew had Yiddish as their native language and often introduced calques from Yiddish and phono-semantic matchings of international words. Despite using Sephardic Hebrew pronunciation as its primary basis, modern Israeli Hebrew has adapted to Ashkenazi Hebrew phonology in some respects, mainly the following: The vocabulary of Israeli Hebrew is much larger than that of earlier periods. According to Ghil'ad Zuckermann : The number of attested Biblical Hebrew words
11094-532: The early 6th century BCE, the Neo-Babylonian Empire conquered the ancient Kingdom of Judah , destroying much of Jerusalem and exiling its population far to the east in Babylon . During the Babylonian captivity , many Israelites learned Aramaic, the closely related Semitic language of their captors. Thus, for a significant period, the Jewish elite became influenced by Aramaic. After Cyrus
11223-543: The end of the first blessing of the prayer, "Blessed are you, O Lord, who brings on the evenings." Arvit is the adjective form of this word, roughly translated as "of the evening". It shares the same etymological root as maghrib , the Islamic evening prayer. Maariv corresponds to the evening observances in the Temple in Jerusalem . Although no sacrifices were brought at night, any animal parts that were not burned during
11352-461: The evening Shema , the Seder , or Bedikat Chametz ) may be performed. There is a mitzvah to add some additional time to one's Shabbat observance after nightfall ( tosefet shabbat ), and thus published times for the end of Shabbat may be a few minutes later than the time calculated (according to whatever opinion) for nightfall. Midnight (חֲצוֹת הַלַּילָה, Chatzot Halailah or just Chatzot )
11481-439: The fast of Tish'a Ba'av immediately follows the Sabbath, the intervening Bein Hashemashot is forbidden in eating, drinking, and working . However, there are occasional leniencies. Nightfall (צֵאת הַכּוֹֹכָבִים, Tzet Hakochavim ) is described in detail above . After nightfall, it is considered definitely the following day. All restrictions of the previous day go away, and any Mitzvot that must be performed at night (such as
11610-711: The first Middle East printing press, in Safed (modern Israel), produced a small number of books in Hebrew in 1577, which were then sold to the nearby Jewish world. This meant not only that well-educated Jews in all parts of the world could correspond in a mutually intelligible language, and that books and legal documents published or written in any part of the world could be read by Jews in all other parts, but that an educated Jew could travel and converse with Jews in distant places, just as priests and other educated Christians could converse in Latin. For example, Rabbi Avraham Danzig wrote
11739-410: The first two verses of Uva Letzion ), are added to the service. These prayers are recited out of mercy for the wicked. The wicked are given a reprieve from Gehinnom during Shabbat, and the reprieve continues until all evening prayers following Shabbat are concluded. In Nusach Ashkenaz and Nusach Sefard , these verses are only recited if there are a full six days of work in the upcoming week; if there
11868-406: The generic term for these passages is Baraitot . The dialect of all these works is very similar to Mishnaic Hebrew. About a century after the publication of the Mishnah, Mishnaic Hebrew fell into disuse as a spoken language. By the third century CE, sages could no longer identify the Hebrew names of many plants mentioned in the Mishnah. Only a few sages, primarily in the southern regions, retained
11997-432: The horizon (for example, 7°5′ below the horizon), and that number of degrees becomes the actual standard used for all places and all dates. One calendar day ends, and the next day begins, in the evening. The Talmud states there is an uncertainty as to whether the day ends exactly at sundown or nightfall, so the period in between - known as bein hashemashot (בין השמשות) - has a status of doubt, as it could belong to either
12126-532: The horizon. It is preferable to pray the morning Shema just before this time and begin the Amidah just afterwards, and praying this way is known as vatikin . Most mitzvot that must be performed during the day (such as the Four Species or Hallel ) should be done after this time ab initio. Sof Zman Kriyat Shema (סוֹף זְמַן קְרִיאַת שְׁמַע) means "end of the time to say the [morning] Shema ." This
12255-462: The language as Ivrit , meaning Hebrew; however, Mishnah Megillah refers to the language as Ashurit , meaning Assyrian , which is derived from the name of the alphabet used , in contrast to Ivrit , meaning the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet . Hebrew ceased to be a regular spoken language sometime between 200 and 400 CE, as it declined in the aftermath of the unsuccessful Bar Kokhba revolt , which
12384-465: The language spoken by Jews in scenes from the New Testament) is often referred to as "Hebrew" in the text, although this term is often re-interpreted as referring to Aramaic instead and is rendered accordingly in recent translations. Nonetheless, these glosses can be interpreted as Hebrew as well. It has been argued that Hebrew, rather than Aramaic or Koine Greek, lay behind the composition of
12513-471: The language. The revival of the Hebrew language as a mother tongue was initiated in the late 19th century by the efforts of Ben-Yehuda. He joined the Jewish national movement and in 1881 immigrated to Palestine , then a part of the Ottoman Empire . Motivated by the surrounding ideals of renovation and rejection of the diaspora " shtetl " lifestyle, Ben-Yehuda set out to develop tools for making
12642-470: The last Shema blessing. On Festivals, some Ashkenazic communities recite piyyutim called Ma'arivim during the blessings of Shema. The most well-known of these piyyutim is Lel Shimurim Oto El Hatzah , recited on the first night of Passover. In the past, this was also done by Italian and Romaniote Jews . This is followed by the Shemoneh Esreh ( Amidah ). Half Kaddish is recited just before
12771-462: The leader recites an abbreviated repetition, see below). Another explanation is that as the third prayer, Maariv corresponds to Jacob , the third patriarch . Support is brought from Genesis 28:11 , which says that when Jacob left his hometown of Beersheba to go to Haran , he "met at the place for the sun had set." The Talmud understands this to mean that Jacob prayed at night and hence instituted Maariv. Some suggest that he first started reciting
12900-568: The length of bein hashemashot . According to the Geonim, nightfall is 13½-18 minutes after sundown (or, equivalently, when the sun falls 3–4.65° below the horizon). According to Rabbeinu Tam, nightfall occurs exactly 72 (or 90 ) minutes after sundown (or, equivalently, when the sun falls 16.1° or 20° below the horizon). A third Talmudic passage (Shabbat 35b) states that nightfall occurs when three medium-sized stars become visible. Until recently, all Jewish communities followed this passage, waiting for
13029-539: The morning than "Vilna Gaon times"; in practice, there are communities that follow each of those standards. For times in the afternoon, the Vilna Gaon's times are earlier, and are almost universally followed. Near New York, for example, a "seasonal hour" based on the Vilna Gaon's calculations lasts ~45 minutes near the winter solstice, ~60 minutes near the equinoxes, and ~75 minutes near the summer solstice. The Talmud often states calculations of zmanim in terms of
13158-727: The newly declared State of Israel . Hebrew is the most widely spoken language in Israel today. In the Modern Period, from the 19th century onward, the literary Hebrew tradition revived as the spoken language of modern Israel, called variously Israeli Hebrew , Modern Israeli Hebrew , Modern Hebrew , New Hebrew , Israeli Standard Hebrew , Standard Hebrew and so on. Israeli Hebrew exhibits some features of Sephardic Hebrew from its local Jerusalemite tradition but adapts it with numerous neologisms, borrowed terms (often technical) from European languages and adopted terms (often colloquial) from Arabic. The literary and narrative use of Hebrew
13287-496: The observation of three stars to end Shabbat. This passage seems to contradict the other two, as in most of the world stars become visible more than 18 and less than 72 minutes after astronomical sunset. To reconcile the passages, various writers have proposed that halachic "sundown" (the beginning of bein hashemashot ) is not when the sun crosses the horizon, but rather earlier (according to Rabbeinu Tam) or later (according to Geonim). While Shabbat 35b refers to medium-sized stars,
13416-406: The period of daylight is generally not exactly twelve hours long. Hours of the day are counted according to these relative hours for commandments: thus, the Shema prayer must be recited in "the first three hours" of the day, i.e. the first 1/4 of the daytime period. There are two major opinions regarding the definition of the daytime period: The result is that "Magen Avraham times" are earlier in
13545-534: The phonetic values are instead inspired by the acrophonic principle. The common ancestor of Hebrew and Phoenician is called Canaanite , and was the first to use a Semitic alphabet distinct from that of Egyptian. One ancient document is the famous Moabite Stone , written in the Moabite dialect; the Siloam inscription , found near Jerusalem , is an early example of Hebrew. Less ancient samples of Archaic Hebrew include
13674-487: The prayer after he fled from his homeland, and as a result, the prayer service has become associated with trust in God. Generally, the time when Maariv can first be recited is when the time for reciting Mincha ends. But there are varying opinions on this. Maariv should not begin before 1¼ hours before sunset . Others delay Maariv until after sunset or after dusk . If Maariv is recited prior to dusk, individuals repeat
13803-591: The present day. It is perhaps the most important Hebrew manuscript in existence. During the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain , important work was done by grammarians in explaining the grammar and vocabulary of Biblical Hebrew; much of this was based on the work of the grammarians of Classical Arabic . Important Hebrew grammarians were Judah ben David Hayyuj , Jonah ibn Janah , Abraham ibn Ezra and later (in Provence ), David Kimhi . A great deal of poetry
13932-404: The previous or next day. The length and timing of bein hashemashot are subject to dispute. Two Talmudic passages provide contradictory statements regarding to its length: Tractate Pesachim states that the length is four mil , while Shabbat 34b states that the length is just 3/4 mil . Later authorities differ in their interpretations of these passages: These lead to different opinions on
14061-570: The primary language of use, and to prevent large-scale incorporation of English words into the Hebrew vocabulary. The Academy of the Hebrew Language of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem currently invents about 2,000 new Hebrew words each year for modern words by finding an original Hebrew word that captures the meaning, as an alternative to incorporating more English words into Hebrew vocabulary. The Haifa municipality has banned officials from using English words in official documents, and
14190-734: The rest of the Middle East; and eventually Greek functioned as another international language with the eastern areas of the Roman Empire. William Schniedewind argues that after waning in the Persian period, the religious importance of Hebrew grew in the Hellenistic and Roman periods, and cites epigraphical evidence that Hebrew survived as a vernacular language – though both its grammar and its writing system had been substantially influenced by Aramaic. According to another summary, Greek
14319-487: The service is usually delayed until nightfall . While Maariv should be prayed before midnight , it may be recited until daybreak or even sunrise . The word Maariv is the first significant word in the opening blessing of the evening service. It is derived from the Hebrew word erev , which translates to evening . Maariv is a conversion of this word into a verb, which means "bringing on evening." The name comes from
14448-473: The seventh day of creation . Although these verses were already said during the Amidah (and will be recited yet again during Kiddush at home) they are repeated. This is because when Shabbat coincides with a holiday , the Amidah does not include the passage. The three verses are followed by the Seven-Faceted Blessing . This is a single blessing designed to summarize the seven blessings of
14577-493: The southern villages of Judea." In other words, "in terms of dialect geography, at the time of the tannaim Palestine could be divided into the Aramaic-speaking regions of Galilee and Samaria and a smaller area, Judaea, in which Rabbinic Hebrew was used among the descendants of returning exiles." In addition, it has been surmised that Koine Greek was the primary vehicle of communication in coastal cities and among
14706-474: The spoken language of the Russian Jews, should be treated as their only national language, while Hebrew was to be treated as a foreign language. Hebrew books and periodicals ceased to be published and were seized from the libraries, although liturgical texts were still published until the 1930s. Despite numerous protests, a policy of suppression of the teaching of Hebrew operated from the 1930s on. Later in
14835-470: The term "Hebrew" generally render its meaning as roughly "from the other side [of the river/desert]"—i.e., an exonym for the inhabitants of the land of Israel and Judah , perhaps from the perspective of Mesopotamia , Phoenicia or Transjordan (with the river referred to being perhaps the Euphrates , Jordan or Litani ; or maybe the northern Arabian Desert between Babylonia and Canaan ). Compare
14964-463: The time it takes to walk some distance, stated in mil ( Biblical miles ). Most authorities reckon the time it takes to walk one mil as being 18 minutes, though there are opinions of up to 24 minutes. Many authorities hold such calculations to be absolute: the phrase "four mils after sundown," for example, means exactly "72 minutes after sundown" in all places on all dates. Other authorities, especially those living in higher latitudes, noted that
15093-580: The upper class of Jerusalem , while Aramaic was prevalent in the lower class of Jerusalem, but not in the surrounding countryside. After the suppression of the Bar Kokhba revolt in the 2nd century CE, Judaeans were forced to disperse. Many relocated to Galilee, so most remaining native speakers of Hebrew at that last stage would have been found in the north. Many scholars have pointed out that Hebrew continued to be used alongside Aramaic during Second Temple times, not only for religious purposes but also for nationalistic reasons, especially during revolts such as
15222-437: The verses normally recited before barekhu are omitted, and the service begins with barekhu. In most communities (except Chabad , those who follow the Vilna Gaon , and some Baladi Yemenites), the verses Exodus 31:16-17 are recited proceeding half kaddish before the Amidah. At the beginning of Shabbat on Friday night, the Amidah is immediately followed by the recitation of Genesis 1–3 which discusses God's "resting" on
15351-455: The word Habiru or cognate Assyrian ebru , of identical meaning. One of the earliest references to the language's name as " Ivrit " is found in the prologue to the Book of Sirach , from the 2nd century BCE. The Hebrew Bible does not use the term "Hebrew" in reference to the language of the Hebrew people; its later historiography, in the Book of Kings , refers to it as יְהוּדִית Yehudit " Judahite (language)". Hebrew belongs to
15480-595: The world today; the latter group utilizes the Samaritan dialect as their liturgical tongue. As a non- first language , it is studied mostly by non-Israeli Jews and students in Israel, by archaeologists and linguists specializing in the Middle East and its civilizations , and by theologians in Christian seminaries . The modern English word "Hebrew" is derived from Old French Ebrau , via Latin from
15609-421: Was a spoken language , and Amoraic Hebrew (also called Late Rabbinic Hebrew or Mishnaic Hebrew II), which was a literary language . The earlier section of the Talmud is the Mishnah that was published around 200 CE, although many of the stories take place much earlier, and were written in the earlier Mishnaic dialect. The dialect is also found in certain Dead Sea Scrolls. Mishnaic Hebrew is considered to be one of
15738-406: Was carried out against the Roman Empire by the Jews of Judaea . Aramaic and, to a lesser extent, Greek were already in use as international languages, especially among societal elites and immigrants. Hebrew survived into the medieval period as the language of Jewish liturgy , rabbinic literature , intra-Jewish commerce, and Jewish poetic literature . The first dated book printed in Hebrew
15867-491: Was now a more significant written language than Aramaic within Judaea." This nationalist aspect was further emphasized during periods of conflict, as Hannah Cotton observing in her analysis of legal documents during the Jewish revolts against Rome that "Hebrew became the symbol of Jewish nationalism, of the independent Jewish State." The nationalist use of Hebrew is evidenced in several historical documents and artefacts, including
15996-566: Was published by Abraham Garton in Reggio ( Calabria , Italy) in 1475. With the rise of Zionism in the 19th century, the Hebrew language experienced a full-scale revival as a spoken and literary language. The creation of a modern version of the ancient language was led by Eliezer Ben-Yehuda . Modern Hebrew ( Ivrit ) became the main language of the Yishuv in Palestine , and subsequently
16125-629: Was revived beginning with the Haskalah movement. The first secular periodical in Hebrew, Ha-Me'assef (The Gatherer), was published by maskilim in Königsberg (today's Kaliningrad ) from 1783 onwards. In the mid-19th century, publications of several Eastern European Hebrew-language newspapers (e.g. Hamagid , founded in Ełk in 1856) multiplied. Prominent poets were Hayim Nahman Bialik and Shaul Tchernichovsky ; there were also novels written in
16254-531: Was suppressed. Soviet authorities considered the use of Hebrew "reactionary" since it was associated with Zionism, and the teaching of Hebrew at primary and secondary schools was officially banned by the People's Commissariat for Education as early as 1919, as part of an overall agenda aiming to secularize education (the language itself did not cease to be studied at universities for historical and linguistic purposes ). The official ordinance stated that Yiddish, being
16383-551: Was the language of government, Hebrew the language of prayer, study and religious texts, and Aramaic was the language of legal contracts and trade. There was also a geographic pattern: according to Bernard Spolsky , by the beginning of the Common Era, " Judeo-Aramaic was mainly used in Galilee in the north, Greek was concentrated in the former colonies and around governmental centers, and Hebrew monolingualism continued mainly in
16512-408: Was to a certain extent a pidgin . Near the end of that century the Jewish activist Eliezer Ben-Yehuda , owing to the ideology of the national revival ( שיבת ציון , Shivat Tziyon , later Zionism ), began reviving Hebrew as a modern spoken language. Eventually, as a result of the local movement he created, but more significantly as a result of the new groups of immigrants known under the name of
16641-570: Was written, by poets such as Dunash ben Labrat , Solomon ibn Gabirol , Judah ha-Levi , Moses ibn Ezra and Abraham ibn Ezra , in a "purified" Hebrew based on the work of these grammarians, and in Arabic quantitative or strophic meters. This literary Hebrew was later used by Italian Jewish poets. The need to express scientific and philosophical concepts from Classical Greek and Medieval Arabic motivated Medieval Hebrew to borrow terminology and grammar from these other languages, or to coin equivalent terms from existing Hebrew roots, giving rise to
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