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70-540: The area of Macha is a high plateau with undulating hills and some of the higher mountain ranges. Traditionally Macha hardly move below 1500 meters above sea level, since there is a risk of sleeping sickness and malaria would exist. The Macha came in the second half of the 16th Century as part of the general expansion of the Oromo in the area south of the Blue Nile . The Ethiopian monk Bahrey most important chronicler of

140-542: A connection between the southern Atlantic Ocean and the Tethys Ocean . Many of the formations deposited by these freshwater and marine habitats are rich in pollen, invertebrate, and vertebrate (primarily fish) fossils . Kimberlite pipes that are thought to have formed during the Cretaceous, possibly due to a shock from a sudden decrease in the rate of seafloor spreading of the southern Mid-Atlantic Ridge , are

210-708: A dramatic return to wetter conditions. The following sedimentary geological formations have been deposited in the basin: Congo is a traditional name for the equatorial Middle Africa that lies between the Gulf of Guinea and the African Great Lakes . The basin begins in the highlands of the East African Rift system with input from the Chambeshi , the Uele and Ubangi rivers in the upper reaches and

280-558: A fixed (dried) smear can be stained using Giemsa 's or Field 's technique and examined under a microscope. Often, the parasite is in relatively low abundance in the sample, so techniques to concentrate the parasites can be used prior to microscopic examination. For blood samples, these include centrifugation followed by examination of the buffy coat ; mini anion-exchange/centrifugation; and the quantitative buffy coat (QBC) technique. For other samples, such as spinal fluid, concentration techniques include centrifugation followed by examination of

350-592: A large, otherwise extremely ancient ( Archean -aged) piece of exposed continental crust. The deformation of the Craton began as early as the late Cambrian or early Ordovician and continued over the Paleozoic , but the deformation over this period led to rapid erosion of much of this Paleozoic rock, creating a large unconformity . Sediment started to rapidly accumulate in the basin from the Mesozoic ( Triassic ) up to

420-595: A limb, abnormal muscle tone, gait disturbance, ataxia, speech disturbances, paraesthesia, hyperaesthesia, anaesthesia, visual disturbance, abnormal reflexes, seizures, and coma. Parkinson -like movements might arise due to non-specific movement disorders and speech disorders. Individuals may exhibit psychiatric symptoms which may sometimes dominate the clinical diagnosis and may include aggressiveness, apathy , irritability, psychotic reactions and hallucinations , anxiety , emotional lability , confusion , mania , attention deficit, and delirium . Without treatment,

490-466: A passive phase for months or years before symptoms emerge and the infection can last about three years before death occurs. T. b. rhodesiense is the acute form of the disease, and death can occur within months since the symptoms emerge within weeks and it is more virulent and faster developing than T. b. gambiense . Furthermore, trypanosomes are surrounded by a coat that is composed of variant surface glycoproteins (VSG). These proteins act to protect

560-660: A precise definition to the "conventional basin" of the Congo, which included the entire actual basin plus some other areas. The General Act bound its signatories to neutrality within the conventional basin, but this was not respected during the First World War . The World Resources Institute estimated that 80 million people live in and around the Congo Basin. The Congo Basin is a globally important climatic region with annual rainfall of between 1500 and 2000 mm. It

630-593: A total of 143,500 miles. A moratorium on logging in the Congo forest was agreed between the World Bank and the Democratic Republic of the Congo in May 2002. The World Bank agreed to provide $ 90 million of development aid to Democratic Republic of the Congo with the provision that the government did not issue any new concessions granting logging companies rights to exploit the forest. The deal also prohibited

700-428: Is 1–3 weeks for T. b. rhodesiense, and longer (but less precisely characterised) in T. b. gambiense infection. The first/initial stage, known as the hemolymphatic phase, is characterized by non-specific, generalised symptoms like: fever (intermittent) , headaches (severe), joint pains , itching , weakness, malaise, fatigue, weight loss, lymphadenopathy, and hepatosplenomegaly . Diagnosis may be delayed due to

770-430: Is a large, brown, biting fly that serves as both a host and vector for the trypanosome parasites. While taking blood from a mammalian host, an infected tsetse fly injects metacyclic trypomastigotes into skin tissue. From the bite, parasites first enter the lymphatic system and then pass into the bloodstream. Inside the mammalian host, they transform into bloodstream trypomastigotes, and are carried to other sites throughout

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840-420: Is an insect-borne parasitic infection of humans and other animals. Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), also known as African sleeping sickness or simply sleeping sickness , is caused by the species Trypanosoma brucei . Humans are infected by two types, Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (TbG) and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense (TbR). TbG causes over 92% of reported cases. Both are usually transmitted by

910-399: Is important for mitigating climate change in its role as a carbon sink . However, deforestation and degradation of the ecology by the impacts of climate change may increase stress on the forest ecosystem, in turn making the hydrology of the basin more variable. A 2012 study found that the variability in precipitation caused by climate change will negatively affect economic activity in

980-492: Is more uncertainty over how average rainfall in the region will change, with the climate models used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) disagreeing on core elements of the rainfall distribution in the region. While the average rainfall change is uncertain, it is likely that extreme rainfall events will become more extreme owing to the increases in water vapour in the atmosphere. Owing to

1050-572: Is one of three hotspots of deep convection ( thunderstorms ) in the tropics, the other two being over the Maritime continent and the Amazon . These three regions together drive the climate circulation of the tropics and beyond. The Congo Basin has the highest lightning strike frequency of anywhere on the planet. The high rainfall supports the second largest rainforest on Earth, which is a globally significant carbon sink and an important component of

1120-635: Is the Leopard , which are larger than their savannah counterparts due to lack of competition from other large predators. The basin is home to the endangered western lowland gorilla . In 2010, the United Nations Environment Programme warned that gorillas could be extinct from the greater Congo Basin in a matter of 15 years. The Congo Basin is the largest forest in Africa. More than 10,000 plant species can be found in and around

1190-564: Is to target its nucleotide metabolism. The nucleotide metabolism studies have both led to the development of adenosine analogues looking promising in animal studies, and to the finding that downregulation of the P2 adenosine transporter is a common way to acquire partial drug resistance against the melaminophenyl arsenical and diamidine drug families (containing melarsoprol and pentamidine, respectively). Drug uptake and degradation are two major issues to consider to avoid drug resistance development. In

1260-488: The Congo Basin , and two in 1920 and 1970, in several African countries. It is classified as a neglected tropical disease . Other animals, such as cows, may carry the disease and become infected in which case it is known as Nagana or animal trypanosomiasis . African trypanosomiasis symptoms occur in two stages: the hemolymphatic stage and the neurological stage (the latter being characterised by parasitic invasion of

1330-545: The Lualaba River draining wetlands in the middle reaches. Because of the young age and active uplift of the East African Rift at the headwaters , the river's yearly sediment load is very large, but the drainage basin occupies large areas of low relief throughout much of its area. It is delineated largely by swells including the Bie, Mayumbe, Adamlia, Nil-Congo , East African, and Zambian Swells. The basin ends where

1400-509: The Oromo hikes called the Macha and Tulama as subgroups of the Borana and mentions various clans and lineages of Macha . The establishment of Macha in their present territory seems to be done in small groups and not by larger segments, so that the same clan names are present on a number of places in the area.. The Macha originally had a common Gadaa system with Tulama whose center (chaffe)

1470-585: The blood-brain barrier . The treatment for first-stage disease is fexinidazole by mouth or pentamidine by injection for T. b. gambiense . Suramin by injection is used for T. b. rhodesiense . Fexinidazole may be used for the second stage of TbG, if the disease is not severe. Otherwise a regimen involving the combination of nifurtimox and eflornithine , nifurtimox-eflornithine combination treatment (NECT), or eflornithine alone appear to be more effective and result in fewer side effects. These treatments may replace melarsoprol when available. NECT has

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1540-521: The African desert regions to the north ( The Sahara ) and to the south ( Kalahari ). The differences in temperature between the deserts and the Congo Basin is important for driving wind systems known as African easterly jets , which affect climate and weather in the Sahel and Southern Africa . Future climate projections indicate that the region will get hotter in response to global climate change. There

1610-468: The Congo . It contains some of the largest tropical rainforests in the world and is an important source of water used in agriculture and energy generation. The rainforest in the Congo Basin is the largest rainforest in Africa and second only to the Amazon rainforest in size, with 300 million hectares compared to the 800 million hectares in the Amazon. Because of its size and diversity the basin's forest

1680-655: The actual stage of the disease is achieved by examining the cerebrospinal fluid for the presence of the parasite. Sleep-wake disturbances are a leading feature of the neurological stage and give the disease its common name of "sleeping sickness". Infected individuals experience a disorganized and fragmented sleep-wake cycle. Those affected experience sleep inversion resulting in daytime sleep and somnolence, and nighttime periods of wakefulness and insomnia. Additionally, those affected also experience episodes of sudden sleepiness. Neurological symptoms include: tremor , general muscle weakness, hemiparesis , paralysis of

1750-560: The backbone of the strategy used to control sleeping sickness. Systematic screening of at-risk communities is the best approach, because case-by-case screening is not practical in endemic regions. Systematic screening may be in the form of mobile clinics or fixed screening centres where teams travel daily to areas of high infection rates. Such screening efforts are important because early symptoms are not evident or serious enough to warrant people with gambiense disease to seek medical attention, particularly in very remote areas. Also, diagnosis of

1820-713: The basin. Eight sites of the Congo Basin are inscribed on the World Heritage List , five being also on the list of World Heritage in Danger (all five located in Democratic Republic of the Congo ). Fourteen percent of the humid forest is designated as protected. The Congo Basin is a large depression within the Congo Craton , making it a patch of relatively recent ( Phanerozoic -aged, and mostly Mesozoic & onwards) sedimentary rock within

1890-460: The benefit of requiring fewer injections of eflornithine. Intravenous melarsoprol was previously the standard treatment for second-stage (neurological phase) disease and is effective for both types. Melarsoprol is the only treatment for second stage T. b. rhodesiense ; however, it causes death in 5% of people who take it. Resistance to melarsoprol can occur. Drug development projects . A major challenge has been to find drugs that readily pass

1960-408: The bite of an infected tsetse fly and are most common in rural areas. Initially, the first stage of the disease is characterized by fevers, headaches, itchiness, and joint pains, beginning one to three weeks after the bite. Weeks to months later, the second stage begins with confusion, poor coordination, numbness, and trouble sleeping. Diagnosis is by finding the parasite in a blood smear or in

2030-462: The blood-brain barrier. The latest drug that has come into clinical use is fexinidazol, but promising results have also been obtained with the benzoxaborole drug acoziborole (SCYX-7158). This drug is currently under evaluation as a single-dose oral treatment, which is a great advantage compared to currently used drugs. Another research field that has been extensively studied in Trypanosoma brucei

2100-429: The body, reach other body fluids (e.g., lymph, spinal fluid), and continue to replicate by binary fission . The entire life cycle of African trypanosomes is represented by extracellular stages. A tsetse fly becomes infected with bloodstream trypomastigotes when taking a blood meal on an infected mammalian host. In the fly's midgut, the parasites transform into procyclic trypomastigotes, multiply by binary fission, leave

2170-462: The case of nucleoside analogues, they need to be taken up by the P1 nucleoside transporter (instead of P2), and they also need to be resistant against cleavage in the parasite. If untreated, T. b. gambiense almost always results in death, with only a few individuals shown in a long-term 15 year follow-up to have survived after refusing treatment. T. b. rhodesiense , being a more acute and severe form of

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2240-589: The case, there could be a financial incentive for protecting forests. L’Île Mbiye, an island in the Lualaba River in Kisangani , is part of a project about forest ecosystem conservation, conducted by Stellenbosch University . Democratic Republic of the Congo is also looking to expand the area of forest under protection, for which it hopes to secure compensation through emerging markets for forest carbon. The main Congolese environmental organization working to save

2310-456: The central nervous system). Neurological symptoms occur in addition to the initial features, and the two stages may be difficult to distinguish based on clinical features alone. The disease has been reported to present with atypical symptoms in infected individuals who originate from non-endemic areas (e.g. travelers). The reasons for this are unclear and may be genetic. The low number of such cases may also have skewed findings. In such persons,

2380-407: The disease in humans. Trypanosoma brucei gambiense causes the diseases in west and central Africa , whereas Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense has a limited geographical range and is responsible for causing the disease in east and southern Africa. In addition, a third subspecies of the parasite known as Trypanosoma brucei brucei is responsible for affecting animals but not humans. Humans are

2450-569: The disease is difficult and health workers may not associate such general symptoms with trypanosomiasis. Systematic screening allows early-stage disease to be detected and treated before the disease progresses, and removes the potential human reservoir. A single case of sexual transmission of West African sleeping sickness has been reported. In July 2000, a resolution was passed to form the Pan African Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Eradication Campaign (PATTEC). The campaign works to eradicate

2520-403: The disease is invariably fatal, with progressive mental deterioration leading to coma, systemic organ failure, and death. An untreated infection with T. b. rhodesiense will cause death within months whereas an untreated infection with T. b. gambiense will cause death after several years. Damage caused in the neurological phase is irreversible. Trypanosoma brucei gambiense accounts for

2590-520: The disease, is consistently fatal if not treated. Disease progression greatly varies depending on disease form. For individuals which are infected by T. b. gambiense , which accounts for 92% of all of the reported cases, a person can be infected for months or even years without signs or symptoms until the advanced disease stage, where it is too late to be treated successfully. For individuals affected by T. b. rhodesiense , which accounts for 2% of all reported cases, symptoms appear within weeks or months of

2660-485: The disease, the neurological phase (also called the meningoencephalic stage ), begins when the parasite invades the central nervous system by passing through the blood–brain barrier . Progression to the neurological phase occurs after an estimated 21–60 days in case of T. b. rhodesiens e infection, and 300–500 days in case of T. b. gambiense infection. In actuality, the two phases overlap and are difficult to distinguish based on clinical features alone; determining

2730-465: The endemic countries afflicted with African trypanosomiasis. A pilot program in Senegal has reduced the tsetse fly population by as much as 99% by introducing male flies which have been sterilized by exposure to gamma rays . The treatment is dependent on if the disease is discovered in the first or second stage of the disease. A requirement for treatment of the second stage is that the drug passes

2800-428: The fluid of a lymph node. A lumbar puncture is often needed to tell the difference between first- and second-stage disease. If the disease is not treated quickly, it can lead to death. Prevention of severe disease involves screening the at-risk population with blood tests for TbG. Treatment is easier when the disease is detected early and before neurological symptoms occur. Treatment of the first stage has been with

2870-494: The forest. The humid forests cover 1.6 million km². The Congo Basin is an important source of African teak , used for building furniture and flooring. An estimated 40 million people depend on these woodlands, surviving on traditional livelihoods. At a global level, Congo's forests act as the planet's second lung, counterpart to the rapidly dwindling Amazon. They are a huge " carbon sink ", trapping carbon that could otherwise remain carbon dioxide. The Congo Basin holds roughly 8% of

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2940-537: The formation of new VSGs. Thus, the antibodies produced by the immune system will no longer recognize the parasite leading to proliferation until new antibodies are created to combat the novel VSGs. Eventually, the immune system will no longer be able to fight off the parasite due to the constant changes in VSGs and infection will arise. G. tachinoides G. fuscipes G. morsitans G. swynnertoni G. pallidipes G. fuscipes The tsetse fly (genus Glossina )

3010-525: The global carbon cycle . Averaged across the whole basin, there are two major rainfall seasons in March to May and September to November. In both hemispheres the rainfall maximises in September to November, at above 210 mm per month. In northern hemisphere winter, rainfall is relatively low to the north of the equator (<80 mm per month). In southern hemisphere winter, rainfall is instead lower to

3080-605: The global climatic importance of the Congo Basin, it has been suggested that, along with the Amazon, severe changes in the rainfall or climate of the Congo Rainforest could act as a ' tipping point ', with widespread impacts on the Earth System. The Congo forest is home to the okapi , African forest elephant , pygmy hippopotamus , bongo (antelope) , chimpanzee , bonobo and the Congo peafowl . Its apex predator

3150-502: The human disease form. Tryptophol is a chemical compound produced by the trypanosomal parasite in sleeping sickness which induces sleep in humans. The gold standard for diagnosis is identification of trypanosomes in a sample by microscopic examination. Samples that can be used for diagnosis include ulcer fluid, lymph node aspirates, blood, bone marrow , and, during the neurological stage, cerebrospinal fluid . Detection of trypanosome-specific antibodies can be used for diagnosis, but

3220-531: The infection is said to present mainly as fever with gastrointestinal symptoms (e.g. diarrhoea and jaundice) with lymphadenopathy developing only rarely. Systemic disease is sometimes presaged by a trypanosomal ulcer developing at the site of the infectious fly bite within 2 days of infection. The ulcer is most commonly observed in T. b. rhodesiense infection, and only rarely in T. b. gambiense (however, in T. b. gambiense infection, ulcers are more common in persons from non-endemic areas). Incubation period

3290-583: The infection. Disease progression is rapid and invades the central nervous system, causing death within a short amount of time. Congo Basin The Congo Basin ( French : Bassin du Congo ) is the sedimentary basin of the Congo River . The Congo Basin is located in Central Africa , in a region known as west equatorial Africa. The Congo Basin region is sometimes known simply as

3360-436: The main reservoir for T. b. gambiense but this species can also be found in pigs and other animals. Wild game animals and cattle are the main reservoir of T. b. rhodesiense . These parasites primarily infect individuals in sub-Saharan Africa because that is where the vector (tsetse fly) is located. The two human forms of the disease also vary greatly in intensity. T. b. gambiense causes a chronic condition that can remain in

3430-435: The majority of African trypanosomiasis cases, with humans as the main reservoir needed for the transmission, while Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense is mainly zoonotic, with accidental human infections. The epidemiology of African trypanosomiasis is dependent on the interactions between the parasite (trypanosome), the vector ( tsetse fly ), and the host. There are two subspecies of the parasite that are responsible for starting

3500-508: The medications pentamidine or suramin . Treatment of the second stage has involved eflornithine or a combination of nifurtimox and eflornithine for TbG. Fexinidazole is a more recent treatment that can be taken by mouth, for either stage of TbG. While melarsoprol works for both types, it is typically only used for TbR, due to serious side effects. Without treatment, sleeping sickness typically results in death. The disease occurs regularly in some regions of sub-Saharan Africa with

3570-437: The midgut, and transform into epimastigotes. The epimastigotes reach the fly's salivary glands and continue multiplication by binary fission. The entire life cycle of the fly takes about three weeks. In addition to the bite of the tsetse fly , the disease can be transmitted by: Horse-flies ( Tabanidae ) and stable flies ( Muscidae ) possibly play a role in transmission of nagana (the animal form of sleeping sickness) and

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3640-460: The parasite from any lytic factors that are present in human plasma. The host's immune system recognizes the glycoproteins present on the coat of the parasite leading to the production of different antibodies (IgM and IgG). These antibodies will then act to destroy the parasites that circulate around the blood. However, from the several parasites present in the plasma, a small number of them will experience changes in their surface coats resulting in

3710-484: The population at risk being about 70 million in 36 countries. An estimated 11,000 people are currently infected with 2,800 new infections in 2015. In 2018 there were 977 new cases. In 2015 it caused around 3,500 deaths, down from 34,000 in 1990. More than 80% of these cases are in the Democratic Republic of the Congo . Three major outbreaks have occurred in recent history: one from 1896 to 1906 primarily in Uganda and

3780-524: The population of the region low, with the prevention of hunter-gatherer society, whose remnants of their culture survive to the present day. Eventually Bantu peoples migrated there and founded the Kingdom of Kongo . Belgium , France , and Portugal later established colonial control over the entire region by the late 19th century. The General Act of the Berlin Conference of 1885 gave

3850-657: The present day. Deposits throughout the Jurassic suggest the presence of a freshwater, lacustrine habitat in the basin, and this continued into the Early Cretaceous . By the start of the Late Cretaceous , a connection with the Trans-Saharan seaway led to a significant marine incursion into the basin (evidence of an earlier, Late Jurassic marine intrusion is disputed), causing it to serve as

3920-402: The renewal of existing concessions. The government has written a new forestry code that requires companies to invest in local development and follow a sustainable, 25-year cycle of rotational logging. When a company is granted a concession from the central government to log in Congo, it must sign an agreement with the local chiefs and hereditary land owners, who give permission for it to extract

3990-452: The risk of infection from a tsetse fly bite is minor (estimated at less than 0.1%), the use of insect repellants, wearing long-sleeved clothing, avoiding tsetse-dense areas, implementing bush clearance methods and wild game culling are the best options to avoid infection available for local residents of affected areas. Regular active and passive surveillance, involving detection and prompt treatment of new infections, and tsetse fly control are

4060-548: The river empties into the Gulf of Guinea on the Atlantic Ocean. The basin is a total of 3.7 million square kilometers and is home to some of the largest undisturbed stands of tropical rainforest on the planet, in addition to large wetlands. Countries wholly or partially in the Congo region: The first inhabitants of the Congo Basin area were believed to be pygmies , and at that time, the dense forests and wet climate kept

4130-549: The sediment. Three serological tests are also available for detection of the parasite: the micro-CATT (card agglutination test for trypanosomiasis), wb-CATT, and wb-LATEX. The first uses dried blood, while the other two use whole blood samples. A 2002 study found the wb-CATT to be the most efficient for diagnosis, while the wb-LATEX is a better exam for situations where greater sensitivity is required. Currently there are few medically related prevention options for African trypanosomiasis (i.e. no vaccine exists for immunity). Although

4200-410: The sensitivity and specificity of these methods are too variable to be used alone for clinical diagnosis. Further, seroconversion occurs after the onset of clinical symptoms during a T. b. rhodesiense infection, so is of limited diagnostic use. Trypanosomes can be detected from samples using two different preparations. A wet preparation can be used to look for the motile trypanosomes. Alternatively,

4270-713: The source of the region's famous diamonds . By the Cenozoic , an uplift in the borders of the Cuvette Centrale had blocked any further marine connections. During the Paleogene , high rainfall turned the basin into a series of marshy ponds and swamps. A shift to more arid conditions with seasonal droughts occurred with the start of the Neogene . Later in the Neogene, a sudden shift to fluvial deposits suggests

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4340-433: The south of the equator (<80 mm per month). The annual rhythm of the wind systems which carry water vapour account for the rainfall seasonality. Much of the rainfall is derived from large Mesoscale convective systems . The systems last over 11 hours on average and have a mean size exceeding 500 km2 in some parts of the Congo Basin. Temperatures in the Congo Basin (usually between 20 and 30 °C) are lower than in

4410-418: The tell-tale swollen lymph nodes along the back of the neck, may appear. Winterbottom's sign is common in T. b. gambiense infection. Those affected may additionally present with: skin rash, haemolytic anaemia, hepatomegaly and abnormal liver function, splenomegaly, endocrine disturbance, cardiac involvement (e.g. pericarditis, and congestive heart failure), and ophthalmic involvement. The second phase of

4480-631: The trees in return for development packages. In theory, the companies must pay the government nearly $ 18 million rent per year for these concessions, of which 40% should be returned to provincial governments for investment in social development of the local population in the logged areas. In its current form, the Kyoto Protocol does not reward so-called "avoided deforestation"—initiatives that protect forest from being cut down. But many climate scientists and policymakers hope that negotiations for Kyoto's successor will include such measures. If this were

4550-487: The tsetse vector population levels and subsequently the protozoan disease, by use of insecticide-impregnated targets, fly traps, insecticide-treated cattle, ultra-low dose aerial/ground spraying (SAT) of tsetse resting sites and the sterile insect technique (SIT). The use of SIT in Zanzibar proved effective in eliminating the entire population of tsetse flies but was expensive and is relatively impractical to use in many of

4620-645: The vagueness of initial symptoms. The disease may also be mistaken for malaria (which may in fact occur as a co-infection). Fever is intermittent, with attacks lasting from a day to a week, separated by intervals of a few days to a month or longer. Episodes of fever become less frequent over the course of the disease. Invasion of the circulatory and lymphatic systems by the parasite is associated with severe swelling of lymph nodes , often to tremendous sizes. Posterior cervical lymph nodes are most commonly affected, however, axillary, inguinal, and epitrochlear lymph node involvement may also occur. Winterbottom's sign ,

4690-535: The world's forest-based carbon. If these woodlands are deforested, the carbon they trap will be released into the atmosphere. Predictions for future unabated deforestation estimate that by 2050 activities in the DRC will release roughly the same amount of carbon dioxide as the United Kingdom has emitted over the last 60 years. A 2013 study by British scientists showed that deforestation in the Congo Basin rainforest

4760-451: Was first engaged mainly local issues and the promotion of local development began, but soon also for political and cultural freedoms for all Oromo use. As a result, it was banned 1967. In 1994, a successor organization was founded, which was banned in 2004 again. The Macha are the westernmost Cushitic Horners of the Horn peninsula. African trypanosomiasis African trypanosomiasis

4830-637: Was slowing down. In 2017, British scientists discovered that peatlands in the Cuvette Centrale , which cover a total of 145,500 sq km, contain 30 billion tonnes of carbon, or 20 years of U.S. fossil fuel emissions. In 2021, the deforestation rate of the Congolese rainforest increased by 5%. The Global Forest Atlas estimated that the logging industry covers from 44 to 66 million hectares of forest. A study published in 2019 in Nature Sustainability showed that 54,000 miles of roads for forest concessions were built between 2003 and 2018, reaching

4900-523: Was south of present-day Addis Ababa. But in the late 16th century, Macha established their own Gadaa with chaffe in Odaa Bilii / Tute Bisil upper Gibe Valley. A man named Makkoo Bilii called there, the independent Gadaa of Macha. In their lore, and Macha Tulama make mutually responsible for this break. In 1963 , Macha and Tulama Self-Help Association was established mainly by Oromo , but also by members of other ethnic groups in southern Ethiopia. This

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