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63-438: Machinal has appeared on a variety of lists of the greatest plays. A young woman works as a low-level stenographer and lives with her mother. She follows the rituals that society expects of a woman, however resistant she may feel about them. She subsequently marries her boss, whom she finds repulsive. After having a baby with him, she has an affair with a younger man who fuels her lust for life. Driven to murder her husband, she

126-593: A 1864 copyright infringement lawsuit against Benn Pitman in Ohio. Graham died in 1895 and was buried in Montclair's Rosedale Cemetery ; even as late as 1918 his company Andrew J. Graham & Co continued to market his method. In his youth, Woodrow Wilson had mastered the Graham system and even corresponded with Graham in Graham. Throughout his life Wilson continued to develop and employ his own Graham system writing, to

189-596: A Musical four times. In addition to Rent , his Broadway credits include If/Then (also at the National Theatre in Washington, D.C. ), Next to Normal (also at Second Stage Theatre and Arena Stage ), Grey Gardens (also at Playwrights Horizons ), Dear Evan Hansen (also at Arena Stage and Second Stage), and War Paint (also at the Goodman Theatre , Chicago). In August 2023, it

252-561: A common example. The earliest known indication of shorthand systems is from the Parthenon in Ancient Greece , where a mid-4th century BC inscribed marble slab was found. This shows a writing system primarily based on vowels, using certain modifications to indicate consonants. Hellenistic tachygraphy is reported from the 2nd century BC onwards, though there are indications that it might be older. The oldest datable reference

315-582: A fraction of the time to acquire a useful speed of between 70 and 100 words per minute. Non-stenographic systems often supplement alphabetic characters by using punctuation marks as additional characters, giving special significance to capitalised letters, and sometimes using additional non-alphabetic symbols. Examples of such systems include Stenoscript , Speedwriting and Forkner shorthand . However, there are some pure alphabetic systems, including Personal Shorthand , SuperWrite, Easy Script Speed Writing, Keyscript Shorthand and Yash3k which limit their symbols to

378-443: A left-to-right, top-to-bottom writing direction. Several systems incorporate a loop into many of the strokes, giving the appearance of Gregg, Graham, or Cross's Eclectic shorthand without actually functioning like them. The Kotani (aka Same-Vowel-Same-Direction or SVSD or V-type) system's strokes frequently cross over each other and in so doing form loops. Japanese also has its own variously cursive form of writing kanji characters,

441-489: A legal battle ensued. The two systems use very similar, if not identical, symbols; however, these symbols are used to represent different sounds. For instance, on page 10 of the manual is the word d i m 'dim'; however, in the Gregg system, the spelling would actually mean n u k or 'nook'. Andrew J. Graham was a notable phonotypist operating in the period between the emergence of Pitman's and Gregg's systems. In 1854 he published

504-597: A less complex writing system, a syllabic shorthand script was sometimes used. After the decline of the Roman Empire , the Tironian notes were no longer used to transcribe speeches, though they were still known and taught, particularly during the Carolingian Renaissance . After the 11th century, however, they were mostly forgotten. When many monastery libraries were secularized in the course of

567-573: A more common method of writing a language. The process of writing in shorthand is called stenography , from the Greek stenos (narrow) and graphein (to write). It has also been called brachygraphy , from Greek brachys (short), and tachygraphy , from Greek tachys (swift, speedy), depending on whether compression or speed of writing is the goal. Many forms of shorthand exist. A typical shorthand system provides symbols or abbreviations for words and common phrases, which can allow someone well-trained in

630-442: A priori alphabetic characters. These have the added advantage that they can also be typed—for instance, onto a computer , PDA , or cellphone . Early editions of Speedwriting were also adapted so that they could be written on a typewriter, and therefore would possess the same advantage. Shorthand systems can also be classified according to the way that vowels are represented. Traditional shorthand systems are written on paper with

693-607: A revival by the Ustinov Studio of the Theatre Royal Bath . It ran periodically throughout the year in both London and Bath , its most prestigious venue at the 1,000 seat Old Vic Theatre in London, from 11th April-1st June 2024. The production garnered widespread praise, and was considered by some to be one of the best shows of the past several years. The main performance by actress Rosie Sheehy, as Young Woman,

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756-552: A short-lived (only 9 issues) phonotypy journal called The Cosmotype, subtitled "devoted to that which will entertain usefull, instruct, and improve humanity" , and several other monographs about phonography. In 1857 he published his own Pitman-like "Graham's Brief Longhand" that saw wide adoption in the United States in the late 19th century. He published a translation of the New Testament. His method landed him in

819-410: A stenographic pencil or a stenographic pen. Some consider that strictly speaking only handwritten systems can be called shorthand. Machine shorthand is also a common term for writing produced by a stenotype , a specialized keyboard . These are often used for court room transcripts and in live subtitling . However, there are other shorthand machines used worldwide, including: Velotype ; Palantype in

882-411: A system with 500 arbitrary symbols each representing one word. Bright's book was followed by a number of others, including Peter Bales' The Writing Schoolemaster in 1590, John Willis's Art of Stenography in 1602, Edmond Willis's An abbreviation of writing by character in 1618, and Thomas Shelton 's Short Writing in 1626 (later re-issued as Tachygraphy ). Shelton's system became very popular and

945-592: A total of nine pen shorthands in use. In addition, there is the Yamane pen shorthand (of unknown importance) and three machine shorthands systems (Speed Waapuro, Caver and Hayatokun or sokutaipu). The machine shorthands have gained some ascendancy over the pen shorthands. Japanese shorthand systems ('sokki' shorthand or 'sokkidou' stenography) commonly use a syllabic approach, much like the common writing system for Japanese (which has actually two syllabaries in everyday use). There are several semi-cursive systems. Most follow

1008-580: Is a contract from Middle Egypt , stating that Oxyrhynchos gives the "semeiographer" Apollonios for two years to be taught shorthand writing. Hellenistic tachygraphy consisted of word stem signs and word ending signs. Over time, many syllabic signs were developed. In Ancient Rome , Marcus Tullius Tiro (103–4 BC), a slave and later a freedman of Cicero , developed the Tironian notes so that he could write down Cicero's speeches. Plutarch ( c.  46  – c.  120 AD ) in his "Life of Cato

1071-639: Is an American stage director. He has won three Obie Awards and received five Tony Award nominations, for Rent , Grey Gardens , next to normal (sic), Dear Evan Hansen , and Hell's Kitchen . Greif attended Northwestern University and graduated from the University of California, San Diego graduate directing program. He was the Artistic Director of the La Jolla Playhouse , LaJolla, California from 1994 to 1999. He

1134-469: Is convicted of the crime and is executed in the electric chair . Produced and directed by Arthur Hopkins , Machinal opened on Broadway at the Plymouth Theatre on September 7, 1928, and closed on November 24, 1928, after 91 performances. The scenic design was by Robert Edmond Jones , who used an open stage with a permanent background and made scene changes primarily with lighting. The play

1197-404: Is fraught with a beauty unfamiliar to the stage." Atkinson describes the play as "the tragedy of one who lacks strength; she is not adaptable; she submits...Being the exposition of a character, stark and austere in style, Machinal makes no excuses for the tragedy it unfolds." The play has been revived many times since its original run. Adapted for television by Irving Gaynor Neiman , Machinal

1260-411: Is phonetic, but has the simplicity of being "light-line." Pitman's system uses thick and thin strokes to distinguish related sounds, while Gregg's uses only thin strokes and makes some of the same distinctions by the length of the stroke. In fact, Gregg claimed joint authorship in another shorthand system published in pamphlet form by one Thomas Stratford Malone; Malone, however, claimed sole authorship and

1323-508: Is presented in two parts, with ten scenes in the first and four in the second. The production is notable for featuring Clark Gable in his Broadway debut. In Britain, the play was first performed under the title The Life Machine in 1931. "It was unfortunate that word was sent broadcast before the first performance of Machinal that its theme and characters grew out of the notorious Snyder-Gray murder case," wrote Perriton Maxwell , editor of Theatre Magazine . "The play bears no likeness to

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1386-514: Is sometimes known as phonography , meaning "sound writing" in Greek. One of the reasons this system allows fast transcription is that vowel sounds are optional when only consonants are needed to determine a word. The availability of a full range of vowel symbols, however, makes complete accuracy possible. Isaac's brother Benn Pitman, who lived in Cincinnati , Ohio, was responsible for introducing

1449-405: Is well known because it was used by Samuel Pepys for his diary and for many of his official papers, such as his letter copy books. It was also used by Sir Isaac Newton in some of his notebooks. Shelton borrowed heavily from his predecessors, especially Edmond Willis. Each consonant was represented by an arbitrary but simple symbol, while the five vowels were represented by the relative positions of

1512-735: The Duployé system, adapted to write the Kamloops Wawa (used for Chinook Jargon ) writing system. Script shorthands are based on the motions of ordinary handwriting. The first system of this type was published under the title Cadmus Britanicus by Simon Bordley, in 1787. However, the first practical system was the German Gabelsberger shorthand of 1834. This class of system is now common in all more recent German shorthand systems, as well as in Austria , Italy , Scandinavia ,

1575-517: The Netherlands , Russia , other Eastern European countries, and elsewhere. Script-geometric , or semi-script , shorthands are based on the ellipse. Semi-script can be considered a compromise between the geometric systems and the script systems. The first such system was that of George Carl Märes in 1885. However, the most successful system of this type was Gregg shorthand , introduced by John Robert Gregg in 1888. Gregg had studied not only

1638-560: The geometric English systems, but also the German Stolze stenography, a script shorthand. Other examples include Teeline Shorthand and Thomas Natural Shorthand . The semi-script philosophy gained popularity in Italy in the first half of the 20th century with three different systems created by Giovanni Vincenzo Cima, Erminio Meschini, and Stenital Mosciaro. Some shorthand systems attempted to ease learning by using characters from

1701-412: The 16th-century Protestant Reformation , long-forgotten manuscripts of Tironian notes were rediscovered. In imperial China , clerks used an abbreviated, highly cursive form of Chinese characters to record court proceedings and criminal confessions. These records were used to create more formal transcripts. One cornerstone of imperial court proceedings was that all confessions had to be acknowledged by

1764-812: The Body and A Few Stout Individuals at Signature Theatre , Beauty of the Father for the Manhattan Theatre Club , the 2009 Playwrights Horizons production of Mrs. Sharp (with music and lyrics by Ryan Scott Oliver and starring Jane Krakowski ), and Romeo and Juliet , The Winter's Tale , and The Tempest at the New York Shakespeare Festival at the Delacorte Theater (2007, 2010, 2015). Grief has two children, born through artificial insemination with

1827-492: The Latin alphabet. Such non-stenographic systems have often been described as alphabetic , and purists might claim that such systems are not 'true' shorthand. However, these alphabetic systems do have value for students who cannot dedicate the years necessary to master a stenographic shorthand. Alphabetic shorthands cannot be written at the speeds theoretically possible with symbol systems—200 words per minute or more—but require only

1890-585: The UK are Pitman 2000, PitmanScript, Speedwriting , and Gregg. Teeline is also the most common shorthand method taught to New Zealand journalists, whose certification typically requires a shorthand speed of at least 80 words per minute. In Nigeria, shorthand is still taught in higher institutions of learning, especially for students studying Office Technology Management and Business Education. Michael Greif Michael Greif (born ca. 1959 in Brooklyn , New York )

1953-579: The UK, in the U.S., its popularity has been largely superseded by Gregg shorthand , developed by John Robert Gregg in 1888. In the UK, the spelling-based (rather than phonetic) Teeline shorthand is now more commonly taught and used than Pitman, and Teeline is the recommended system of the National Council for the Training of Journalists with an overall speed of 100 words per minute necessary for certification. Other less commonly used systems in

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2016-584: The UK; Grandjean Stenotype, used extensively in France and French-speaking countries; Michela Stenotype, used extensively in Italy; and Stenokey, used in Bulgaria and elsewhere. One of the most widely used forms of shorthand is still the Pitman shorthand method described above, which has been adapted for 15 languages. Although Pitman's method was extremely popular at first and is still commonly used, especially in

2079-618: The Younger" (95–46 BC) records that Cicero, during a trial of some insurrectionists in the senate, employed several expert rapid writers, whom he had taught to make figures comprising numerous words in a few short strokes, to preserve Cato's speech on this occasion. The Tironian notes consisted of Latin word stem abbreviations ( notae ) and of word ending abbreviations ( titulae ). The original Tironian notes consisted of about 4,000 signs, but new signs were introduced, so that their number might increase to as many as 13,000. In order to have

2142-534: The accused's signature, personal seal, or thumbprint, requiring fast writing. Versions of this technique survived in clerical professions into the modern day and, influenced by Western shorthand methods, some new methods were invented. An interest in shorthand or "short-writing" developed towards the end of the 16th century in England . In 1588, Timothy Bright published his Characterie; An Arte of Shorte, Swifte and Secrete Writing by Character which introduced

2205-550: The geometrical shapes that were common in the English stenographic tradition. Taylor's system was superseded by Pitman shorthand , first introduced in 1837 by English teacher Sir Isaac Pitman , and improved many times since. Pitman's system has been used all over the English-speaking world and has been adapted to many other languages, including Latin . Pitman's system uses a phonemic orthography . For this reason, it

2268-570: The highest speed in capturing spoken words with a pen. Major pen shorthand systems are Shuugiin, Sangiin, Nakane and Waseda [a repeated vowel shown here means a vowel spoken in double-length in Japanese, sometimes shown instead as a bar over the vowel]. Including a machine-shorthand system, Sokutaipu, we have 5 major shorthand systems now. The Japan Shorthand Association now has 1,000 members. There are several other pen shorthands in use (Ishimura, Iwamura, Kumassaki, Kotani, and Nissokuken), leading to

2331-507: The hiragana syllabary; foreign words may not have a kanji form and are spelled out using katakana. The new sokki were used to transliterate popular vernacular story-telling theater (yose) of the day. This led to a thriving industry of sokkibon (shorthand books). The ready availability of the stories in book form, and higher rates of literacy (which the very industry of sokkibon may have helped create, due to these being oral classics that were already known to most people) may also have helped kill

2394-836: The husband. An adaptation of Machinal aired August 14, 1960, on ITV the United Kingdom in the ABC Armchair Theatre series. Joanna Dunham starred, with Donald Pleasence portraying the husband. Machinal was produced Off-Broadway at the Gate Theatre, opening in April 1960, with direction by Gene Frankel , and featuring Delores Sutton , Vincent Gardenia , and Gerald O'Loughlin . In his review in The New York Times , Brooks Atkinson wrote "Gene Frankel has added modernistic details that visualize

2457-512: The idea of whole or partial semantic ideographic writing like that used in the Chinese characters, and the phonetic approach being mostly peripheral to writing in general. Even today, Japanese writing uses the syllabaries to pronounce or spell out words, or to indicate grammatical words. Furigana are written alongside kanji, or Chinese characters, to indicate their pronunciation especially in juvenile publications. Furigana are usually written using

2520-721: The inhumanity of the background... Ballou's cold settings, Lee Watson 's macabre lighting complete the design of one of Off-Broadway's most vibrant performances." The play was produced Off-Broadway by the New York Shakespeare Festival at the Public Theatre , running from September 25, 1990 to November 25, 1990. Directed by Michael Greif , the cast featured Jodie Markell (Young Woman), John Seitz (Husband), and Marge Redmond (Mother). The production won three Obie Awards : for Performance (Jodie Markell), Direction, and Design ( John Gromada ). Machinal

2583-507: The languages are not the same. Prior to the Meiji era, Japanese did not have its own shorthand (the kanji did have their own abbreviated forms borrowed alongside them from China). Takusari Kooki was the first to give classes in a new Western-style non-ideographic shorthand of his own design, emphasis being on the non-ideographic and new. This was the first shorthand system adapted to writing phonetic Japanese, all other systems prior being based on

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2646-486: The method to America. The record for fast writing with Pitman shorthand is 350 wpm during a two-minute test by Nathan Behrin in 1922. In the United States and some other parts of the world, it was largely superseded by Gregg shorthand , which was first published in 1888 by John Robert Gregg . This system was influenced by the handwriting shapes that Gabelsberger had introduced. Gregg's shorthand, like Pitman's,

2709-440: The most extremely simplified of which is known as Sōsho . The two Japanese syllabaries are themselves adapted from the Chinese characters: both of the syllabaries, katakana and hiragana, are in everyday use alongside the Chinese characters known as kanji; the kanji, being developed in parallel to the Chinese characters, have their own idiosyncrasies, but Chinese and Japanese ideograms are largely comprehensible, even if their use in

2772-416: The play's success to "three remarkable persons: Sophie Treadwell, Arthur Hopkins and Zita Johann." "From the sordid mess of a brutal murder the author, actors and producer of Machinal … have with great skill managed to retrieve a frail and sombre beauty of character," wrote theatre critic Brooks Atkinson of The New York Times . "Subdued, monotonous, episodic, occasionally eccentric in its style, Machinal

2835-708: The point that by 1950s, when the Graham method had all but disappeared Wilson scholars had trouble interpreting his shorthand. In 1960 an 84-year-old anachronistic shorthand expert Clifford Gehman managed to crack Wilson's shorthand, demonstrating on a translation of Wilson's acceptance speech for the 1912 presidential nomination. Our Japanese pen shorthand began in 1882, transplanted from the American Pitman-Graham system. Geometric theory has great influence in Japan. But Japanese motions of writing gave some influence to our shorthand. We are proud to have reached

2898-408: The sordid facts of that cheap tragedy... Machinal transcends the drab drama of the police court; it has a quality one finds it difficult to define, a beauty that cannot be conveyed in words, an aliveness and reality tinctured with poetic pathos which lift it to the realm of great art, greatly conceived and greatly presented." Calling Machinal "the most enthralling play of the year," Maxwell attributed

2961-484: The surrounding consonants. Thus the symbol for B with symbol for T drawn directly above it represented "bat", while B with T below it meant "but"; top-right represented "e", middle-right "i", and lower-right "o". A vowel at the end of a word was represented by a dot in the appropriate position, while there were additional symbols for initial vowels. This basic system was supplemented by further symbols representing common prefixes and suffixes. One drawback of Shelton's system

3024-438: The system to write as quickly as people speak. Abbreviation methods are alphabet-based and use different abbreviating approaches. Many journalists use shorthand writing to quickly take notes at press conferences or other similar scenarios. In the computerized world, several autocomplete programs, standalone or integrated in text editors, based on word lists, also include a shorthand function for frequently used phrases. Shorthand

3087-481: The target letter forms as geometric, script, and semi-script or elliptical. Geometric shorthands are based on circles, parts of circles, and straight lines placed strictly horizontally, vertically or diagonally. The first modern shorthand systems were geometric. Examples include Pitman shorthand , Boyd's syllabic shorthand , Samuel Taylor's Universal Stenography, the French Prévost-Delaunay, and

3150-615: The yose theater, as people no longer needed to see the stories performed in person to enjoy them. Sokkibon also allowed a whole host of what had previously been mostly oral rhetorical and narrative techniques into writing, such as imitation of dialect in conversations (which can be found back in older gensaku literature; but gensaku literature used conventional written language in between conversations, however). Shorthands that use simplified letterforms are sometimes termed stenographic shorthands, contrasting with alphabetic shorthands, below. Stenographic shorthands can be further differentiated by

3213-512: Was a highlight of the show. The direction by Richard Jones , CBE , also attracted much admiration. The set by Hyemi Shin included harsh yellow backgrounds, and a large speaker which sat suspended above the stage. The episode Intimate was well-liked for its beginning in darkness, then a diegetic light growing slowly. Costume designs were by Nicky Gillibrand, lighting by Adam Silverman, sound by Benjamin Grant and casting by Ginny Schiller. The show

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3276-593: Was an Artistic Associate at the New York Theatre Workshop where he directed, among others, Bright Lights, Big City (1998–99) and the original production of Rent for which he received the Obie Award for direction of a musical and which he later directed on Broadway. Greif has directed several original Broadway musicals and been nominated for the Tony Award for Best Direction of

3339-623: Was announced that his Chicago Shakespeare Theater production of The Notebook would transfer to Broadway in March 2024 and in September 2023, it was announced that he would transfer his Off-Broadway production of Days of Wine and Roses to Broadway in January 2024. Among his many directing credits Off-Broadway are Alicia Keys ' autobiographical musical Hell's Kitchen , Katori Hall's Our Lady of Kibeho , John Guare 's Landscape of

3402-577: Was by Rick Fisher , with music by Stephen Warbeck . A revival opened on Broadway in a Roundabout Theatre production at the American Airlines Theatre on January 16, 2014, directed by Lyndsey Turner, featuring Rebecca Hall , Michael Cumpsty , Suzanne Bertish and Morgan Spector . A new production opened at the Almeida Theatre in London on June 4, 2018, directed by Natalie Abrahami . In 2024, Machinal underwent

3465-704: Was created in partnership with the Royal Bank of Canada , with support from the Arts Council England . Machinal was included in Burns Mantle 's The Best Plays of 1928–29 . In 2013, Machinal was included on Entertainment Weekly' s list of the "50 Greatest Plays of the Past 100 Years". In 2015, theatre critic Michael Billington included the play in his list of the "101 greatest plays" ever written in any western language. In 2019, Machinal

3528-589: Was in its "55th edition" by 1721, and Jeremiah Rich 's system of 1654, which was published under various titles including The penns dexterity compleated (1669). Rich's system was used by George Treby chairman of the House of Commons Committee of Secrecy investigating the Popish Plot . Another notable English shorthand system creator of the 17th century was William Mason ( fl. 1672–1709) who published Arts Advancement in 1682. Modern-looking geometric shorthand

3591-565: Was introduced with John Byrom 's New Universal Shorthand of 1720. Samuel Taylor published a similar system in 1786, the first English shorthand system to be used all over the English-speaking world. Thomas Gurney published Brachygraphy in the mid-18th century. In 1834 in Germany , Franz Xaver Gabelsberger published his Gabelsberger shorthand . Gabelsberger based his shorthand on the shapes used in German cursive handwriting rather than on

3654-407: Was named as one of the "40 best plays of all time" by The Independent . In 2020, Machinal was included on BroadwayWorld's list of the "101 GREATEST PLAYS of the Past 100 Years". Accolades The Royal National Theatre production won three 1994 Laurence Olivier Awards , for Best Revival of a Play or Comedy, for Fiona Shaw as Best Actress and Stephen Daldry as Best Director of a Play. Ian MacNeil

3717-510: Was nominated as Best Set Designer. The 2014 Broadway production received four 2014 Tony Award nominations: Best Scenic Design of a Play ( Es Devlin ), Best Costume Design of a Play (Michael Krass), Best in Lighting Design of a Play (Jane Cox) and Best Sound Design of a Play (Matt Tierney). Stenographer Shorthand is an abbreviated symbolic writing method that increases speed and brevity of writing as compared to longhand ,

3780-480: Was presented January 18, 1954, on NBC -TV's Robert Montgomery Presents . Reviewing the starring performance of Joan Lorring , Jack Gould of The New York Times wrote that "her interpretation of the mentally tortured young woman in Machinal , Sophie Treadwell's expressionistic and bitter poem for the theatre, must rank among the video season's finest accomplishments." The cast also included Malcolm Lee Beggs as

3843-662: Was revived by the Royal National Theatre in London in a production directed by Stephen Daldry . It opened on 15 October 1993 with Fiona Shaw as the Young Woman, Ciarán Hinds as the Man, and John Woodvine as the Husband. The scenic design, which included a large metal grid that moved into different positions for the play's different scenes, was by Ian MacNeil , costumes were by Clare Mitchell , lighting design

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3906-593: Was that there was no way to distinguish long and short vowels or diphthongs; so the b-a-t sequence could mean "bat", or "bait", or "bate", while b-o-t might mean "boot", or "bought", or "boat". The reader needed to use the context to work out which alternative was meant. The main advantage of the system was that it was easy to learn and to use. It was popular, and under the two titles of Short Writing and Tachygraphy , Shelton's book ran to more than 20 editions between 1626 and 1710. Shelton's chief rivals were Theophilus Metcalfe 's Stenography or Short Writing (1633) which

3969-729: Was used more widely in the past, before the invention of recording and dictation machines . Shorthand was considered an essential part of secretarial training and police work and was useful for journalists. Although the primary use of shorthand has been to record oral dictation and other types of verbal communication, some systems are used for compact expression. For example, healthcare professionals might use shorthand notes in medical charts and correspondence. Shorthand notes were typically temporary, intended either for immediate use or for later typing, data entry, or (mainly historically) transcription to longhand . Longer-term uses do exist, such as encipherment : diaries (like that of Samuel Pepys ) are

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