119-396: Macquarie Island is a subantarctic island in the south-western Pacific Ocean , about halfway between New Zealand and Antarctica . Regionally part of Oceania and politically a part of Tasmania , Australia , since 1900, it became a Tasmanian State Reserve in 1978 and was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997. It was a part of Esperance Municipality until 1993, when
238-422: A by-product of the sugar refining process, could be fermented into alcohol, and then distilled. The earliest record, in a 1651 document from Barbados, mentions the island of Nevis in particular: "The chief fuddling they make in the island is Rumbullion, alias Kill-Divil, and this is made of sugar canes distilled, a hot, hellish, and terrible liquor." By the late 17th century rum had replaced French brandy as
357-463: A carbon sink , absorbing atmospheric carbon dioxide and storing it in solution. If the SAMW temperature increases as a result of climate change , the SAMW will have less capacity to store dissolved carbon dioxide. Research using a computerized climate system model suggests that if atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration were to increase to 860 ppm by the year 2100 (roughly double today's concentration),
476-488: A distillery three years later. The manufacture of rum became early colonial New England's largest and most prosperous industry. New England became a distilling center due to the technical, metalworking and cooperage skills and abundant lumber; the rum produced there was lighter, more like whiskey. Much of the rum was exported, and distillers in Newport of Rhode Island even made an extra strong rum specifically to be used as
595-477: A distinct subspecies of fur seals with thicker furs, although it is unclear whether these seals were genetically distinct. Royal penguins and Macquarie shags are endemic breeders, while king penguins , southern rockhopper penguins and gentoo penguins also breed here in large numbers. The island has been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area because it supports about 3.5 million breeding seabirds of 13 species. The island ecology
714-399: A fuller-tasting rum. Fermentation products like 2-ethyl-3-methyl butyric acid and esters like ethyl butyrate and ethyl hexanoate give rise to the sweetness and fruitiness of rum. The fermented product is then distilled. As with all other aspects of rum production, no standard method is used for distillation. While some producers work in batches using pot stills , most rum production
833-564: A low, narrow isthmus. The high points include Mount Elder on the north-east coastal ridge at 385 m (1,263 ft), and Mounts Hamilton and Fletcher in the south at 410 m (1,345 ft). The island is almost equidistant between the island of Tasmania and the Antarctic continent's Anderson Peninsula (about 1,500 km (930 mi) to either point). In addition, Macquarie Island is about 630 km (390 mi) south-west of Auckland Island , and 1,300 km (810 mi) north of
952-559: A medium of economic exchange, used to help fund enterprises such as slavery via triangular trade , organized crime, and military insurgencies such as the American Revolution and the Australian Rum Rebellion . The origin of the word "rum" is unclear. The most widely accepted hypothesis is that it is related to "rumbullion", a beverage made from boiling sugar cane stalks, or possibly "rumbustion," which
1071-490: A member of the royal family or, on certain occasions, the admiralty board in the UK, with similar restrictions in other Commonwealth navies. Recently, such occasions have included royal marriages or birthdays, or special anniversaries. In the days of daily rum rations, the order to "splice the mainbrace" meant double rations would be issued. A legend involving naval rum and Horatio Nelson says that following his victory and death at
1190-416: A mixture that became known as grog . Many believe the term was coined in honour of the grogram cloak Admiral Vernon wore in rough weather. The Royal Navy continued to give its sailors a daily rum ration, known as a "tot", until the practice was abolished on 31 July 1970. Today, a tot (totty) of rum is still issued on special occasions, using an order to " splice the mainbrace ", which may only be given by
1309-416: A recent time period. The glaciers of Laurens Peninsula, whose maximum elevation is only 500 m above sea level, are smaller and shorter than most of the other Heard Island glaciers, and therefore much more sensitive to temperature effects. Accordingly, their total area has decreased by over 30 percent. Jacka Glacier on the east coast of Laurens Peninsula has also demonstrated marked recession since 1955. In
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#17327978164511428-409: A return visit in early 1980. Retreat of Heard Island glaciers is most dramatic on the eastern section of the island, where the termini of former tidewater glaciers are now located inland. Glaciers on the northern and western coasts have narrowed significantly, while the area of glaciers and ice caps on Laurens Peninsula have shrunk by 30% – 65%. During the time period between 1947 and 1988,
1547-687: A slave currency. Rhode Island rum even joined gold as an accepted currency in Europe for a period of time. While New England triumphed in price and consistency, Europeans still viewed the best rums as coming from the Caribbean. Estimates of rum consumption in the American colonies before the American Revolutionary War had every man, woman, or child drinking an average of 3 imperial gallons (14 L ) of rum each year. In
1666-426: A surgeon's mate, noted that there was not much for the men to do and drinking rum was very popular. In fact, Ensign Robert Johnstone, one of the officers, "thought proper to turn trader by selling (the) common rum to the soldiers & all others by whom he might gain a penny in this clandestine Manner." To conceal this theft, "he was observed to have filled up several Barrels of common rum with boiling water to make up
1785-648: A type of rum. Seco , from Panama, is also a spirit similar to rum, which is triple distilled, similar to some vodka . Mexico produces a number of brands of light and dark rum, as well as other less-expensive flavored and unflavored sugarcane-based liquors, such as aguardiente de caña and charanda . Aguardiente is also the name for unaged distilled cane spirit in some, primarily Spanish-speaking countries since their definition of rum includes at least two years of ageing in wood. A spirit known as aguardiente , distilled from molasses and often infused with anise , with additional sugarcane juice added after distillation,
1904-545: A unique environment, noted for its very high marine productivity , especially for antarctic krill . Because of this, all lands and waters situated south of the Antarctic Convergence are considered to belong to the Antarctic from a climatological , biological and hydrological standpoint. However, the text of the Antarctic Treaty , article VI ("Area covered by Treaty") states: "The provisions of
2023-523: A unique style. For the most part, these styles can be grouped by the language traditionally spoken. Due to the overwhelming influence of Puerto Rican rum, most rum consumed in the United States is produced in the "Spanish-speaking" style. Cachaça is a spirit similar to rum that is produced in Brazil. Cachaca also comes from sugar cane. Some countries, including the United States, classify cachaça as
2142-627: A vessel as penalty for the offence. Between 1902 and 1920, the Tasmanian Government leased the island to Joseph Hatch (1837–1928) for his oil industry based on harvesting penguins. Between 1911 and 1914, the island became a base for the Australasian Antarctic Expedition under Sir Douglas Mawson . George Ainsworth operated a meteorological station between 1911 and 1913, followed by Harold Power from 1913 to 1914, and by Arthur Tulloch from 1914 until
2261-715: Is a liquor made by fermenting and then distilling sugarcane molasses or sugarcane juice . The distillate, a clear liquid, is often aged in barrels of oak . Rum originated in the Caribbean in the 17th century, but today it is produced in nearly every major sugar-producing region of the world, such as the Philippines , where Tanduay Distillers , the largest producer of rum worldwide, has its headquarters. Rums are produced in various grades. Light rums are commonly used in cocktails , whereas "golden" and "dark" rums were typically consumed straight or neat , iced (" on
2380-749: Is a region in the Southern Hemisphere , located immediately north of the Antarctic region. This translates roughly to a latitude of between 46° and 60° south of the Equator . The subantarctic region includes many islands in the southern parts of the Atlantic , Indian , and Pacific oceans, especially those situated north of the Antarctic Convergence . Subantarctic glaciers are, by definition, located on islands within
2499-763: Is a geographic zone, the Subantarctic Zone (SAZ). South of the SAZ is the Subantarctic Front (SAF). South of the SAF is another marine zone, called the Polar Frontal Zone (PFZ). The SAZ and the PFZ together form the subantarctic region. The southernmost boundary of the PFZ (and hence, the southern border of the subantarctic region) is the Antarctic Convergence, located approximately 200 kilometers south of
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#17327978164512618-523: Is also well documented. Many subantarctic glaciers are also in retreat. Mass balance is significantly negative on many glaciers on Kergeulen Island, Heard Island, South Georgia and Bouvet Island. Heard Island is a heavily glacierized, subantarctic volcanic island located in the Southern Ocean , roughly 4000 kilometers southwest of Australia . 80% of the island is covered in ice, with glaciers descending from 2400 meters to sea level . Due to
2737-418: Is based on traditional styles that vary between locations and distillers. Sugarcane is traditionally collected by sugarcane machete cutters who cut the cane near to the ground, where the largest concentration of sugars is found, before lopping off the green tips. A good cutter can cut three tons of cane per day on average, but this is a small fraction of what a machine can cut, therefore mechanised harvesting
2856-498: Is characterized by tundra, permafrost , and volcanoes . These islands are situated close to or south of the Antarctic Convergence, but north of 60° S latitude (the continental limit according to the Antarctic Treaty). Therefore, although some are located south of the Antarctic Convergence, they should still be considered as subantarctic islands by virtue of their location north of 60° S. At between 60° – 69° south of
2975-772: Is debatable whether these islands should be considered as such because their climate and geography differs significantly from other subantarctic islands. At between 52° – 57° south of the Equator, the Campbell Island Group , Heard Island and McDonald Islands , Bouvet Island , the South Georgia Group , Macquarie Island , and the South Sandwich Islands are also located in the Furious Fifties. The geography of these islands
3094-486: Is estimated to have decreased by roughly 29% between 1947 and 2004. This degree of loss of glacier mass is consistent with the measured increase in temperature of +0.9 °C over that time span. The coastal ice cliffs of Brown Glacier and Stephenson Glacier, which in 1954 were over 50 feet (15 m) high, had disappeared by 1963 when the glaciers terminated as much as 100 yards (91 m) inland. Baudissin Glacier on
3213-829: Is located where the Australian Plate meets the Pacific Plate . The island lies close to the edge of the submerged continent of Zealandia , but is not regarded as a part of it, because the Macquarie Ridge is oceanic crust rather than continental crust . It is the only place on Earth where rocks from the Earth's mantle (6 km, 3.7 mi below the ocean floor ) are being actively exposed above sea-level. These unique exposures include excellent examples of pillow basalts without any hint of continental crust contamination and other extrusive rocks . It also
3332-457: Is now utilized. Sugarcane comprises around 63% to 73% water, 12% to 16% soluble sugar, 2% to 3% non-sugars, and 11% to 16% fiber. To extract the water and sugar juice, the harvested cane is cleaned, sliced into small lengths, and milled (pressed). Most rum is produced from molasses, which is made from sugarcane. A rum's quality is dependent on the quality and variety of the sugar cane that was used to create it. The sugar cane's quality depends on
3451-600: Is produced in Central America and northern South America. In West Africa, and particularly in Liberia, 'cane juice' (also known as Liberian rum or simply CJ within Liberia itself ) is a cheap, strong spirit distilled from sugarcane, which can be as strong as 43% ABV (86 proof). A refined cane spirit has also been produced in South Africa since the 1950s, simply known as cane or "spook". Within Europe, in
3570-422: Is referred to by the name screech , while some low-grade West Indies rums are called tafia . Many historians now believe that rum-making found its way to the Caribbean islands along with sugarcane and its cultivation methods from Brazil. The traditional history of modern-style rum tells of its invention in the Caribbean, in the 17th century, by slaves on sugarcane plantations, who discovered that molasses ,
3689-579: Is spoken, the word ron is used. A ron añejo ("aged rum") is a premium spirit. Rhum is the term that typically distinguishes rum made from fresh sugar cane juice from rum made from molasses in French-speaking locales like Martinique. A rhum vieux ("old rum") is an aged French rum that meets several other requirements. Some of the many other names for rum are Nelson 's blood, kill-devil, demon water, pirate's drink, navy neater, and Barbados water. A version of rum from Newfoundland
Macquarie Island - Misplaced Pages Continue
3808-519: Is still inhabited by several invasive bird species, such as the Domestic mallard and European starling. The self-introduction of Domestic Mallards from New Zealand has become a threat to the Pacific black duck population on Macquarie Island through introgressive hybridisation . Problems listening to the files? See Misplaced Pages media help . Subantarctic The subantarctic zone
3927-626: Is that portion of the global ocean circulation that is driven by global density gradients created by surface heat and evaporation . Several distinct water masses converge in the immediate vicinity of the APF or Antarctic Convergence (in particular the Subantarctic Surface Water (Subantarctic Mode Water or SAMW), Antarctic Surface Water , and the Antarctic Intermediate Water ). This convergence creates
4046-430: Is the only oceanic environment with an exposed ophiolite sequence. Due to these unique geological exposures, it was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997. Macquarie Island's climate is moderated by the sea, and all months have an average temperature above freezing; although snow is common between June and October, and may even occur in summer. Due to its cold summers, the island has a Tundra climate ( ET ) under
4165-475: Is used in modern Britain to specify spirits bottled at 57% ABV. In 1866 the Navy fixed the issued strength at 95.5 proof (defined as "4.5 under-Proof", equal to 54.6% ABV). While the ration was originally given neat or mixed with lime juice, the practice of watering down the rum began around 1740. To help minimize the effect of the alcohol on his sailors, Admiral Edward Vernon had the rum ration watered, producing
4284-737: The Antarctic Polar Front (APF). The subantarctic Front, found between 48°S and 58°S in the Indian and Pacific Ocean and between 42°S and 48°S in the Atlantic Ocean, defines the northern boundary of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (or ACC). The ACC is the most important ocean current in the Southern Ocean , and the only current that flows completely around the Earth. Flowing eastward through
4403-556: The Australian government responded to widespread backlash by announcing funding to upgrade ageing infrastructure and continue existing operations. In 2018, the Australian Antarctic Division published a map showing the island's buildings with confirmed or suspected asbestos contamination, which included at least half the structures there. In April 2024, Permanent Daylight-Saving Time on Macquarie Island
4522-700: The Balleny Islands . Near Macquarie Island are two small groups of minor islands: the Judge and Clerk Islets ( 54°21′S 159°01′E / 54.350°S 159.017°E / -54.350; 159.017 ( Judge and Clerk Islets ) ), 14 km (9 mi) to the north, 0.2 km (49 acres) in area, and the Bishop and Clerk Islets ( 55°03′S 158°46′E / 55.050°S 158.767°E / -55.050; 158.767 ( Bishop and Clerk Islets ) ), 34 km (21 mi) to
4641-471: The Battle of Trafalgar , Nelson's body was preserved in a cask of rum to allow transportation back to England. Upon arrival, however, the cask was opened and found to be empty of rum. The [pickled] body was removed and, upon inspection, it was discovered that the sailors had drilled a hole in the bottom of the cask and drunk all the rum, hence the term "Nelson's blood" being used to describe rum. It also serves as
4760-581: The Faroe Islands ). Annually, there is an average of 289.4 cloudy days and just 3.5 clear days. There are 316.7 precipitation days annually, including 55.7 snowy days (being equal to Charlotte Pass on this metric). This is a considerably lower figure than at Heard Island due to its longitude, which receives 96.8 snowy days at only 53 degrees south. The flora has taxonomic affinities with other subantarctic islands, especially those south of New Zealand. Plants rarely grow over 1 m in height, though
4879-660: The General Court of Connecticut ordered the confiscations of "whatsoever Barbados liquors, commonly called rum, kill the devil and the like". A short time later in May 1657, the General Court of Massachusetts also decided to make illegal the sale of strong liquor "whether knowne by the name of rumme, strong water, wine, brandy, etc". In current usage, the name used for a rum is often based on its place of origin. For rums from places mostly in Latin America where Spanish
Macquarie Island - Misplaced Pages Continue
4998-864: The Kerguelen Islands , the Antipodes Islands , and the Auckland Islands . The geography of these islands is characterized by tundra, with some trees on the Snares Islands and the Auckland Islands. These islands are all located near the Antarctic Convergence (with the Kerguelen Islands south of the Convergence) and are properly considered to be subantarctic islands. At between 51° – 56° south of
5117-570: The Köppen climate classification . Average daily maximum temperatures range from 4.9 °C (40.8 °F ) in July to 8.8 °C (47.8 °F) in January. Precipitation occurs fairly evenly throughout the year and averages 1,002.1 mm (39.45 in) annually. Macquarie Island is one of the cloudiest places on Earth with an annual average of only 862 hours of sunshine (similar to Tórshavn in
5236-505: The Royal Australian Navy and Australian Border Force are tasked with deploying Cape or Armidale -class patrol boats to carry out civil maritime security operations in the region as may be required. In part to carry out this mission, as of 2023, the Navy's Armidale -class boats are in the process of being replaced by larger Arafura -class offshore patrol vessels . Frederick Hasselborough , an Australian, discovered
5355-710: The cushion plant Azorella macquariensis , the grass Puccinellia macquariensis , and two orchids – Nematoceras dienemum and Nematoceras sulcatum . Mammals found on the island include subantarctic fur seals , Antarctic fur seals , New Zealand fur seals and southern elephant seals – over 80,000 individuals of this species. Diversities and distributions of cetaceans are less known; southern right whales and orcas are more common followed by other migratory baleen and toothed whales, especially sperm and beaked whales , which prefer deep waters. So-called "upland seals" once found on Antipodes Islands and Macquarie Island have been claimed by some researchers as
5474-433: The penal colony, established in 1788, faced severe food shortages, compounded by poor conditions for growing crops and the shortage of livestock. Eventually, it was realized that it might be cheaper for India , instead of Britain, to supply the settlement of Sydney . By 1817, two out of every three ships which left Sydney went to Java or India, and cargoes from Bengal fed and equipped the colony. Casks of Bengal Rum (which
5593-492: The 18th century, ever increasing demands for sugar, molasses, rum, and slaves led to a feedback loop that intensified the triangular trade. When France banned the production of rum in their New World possessions to end the domestic competition with brandy, New England distillers were then able to undercut producers in the British West Indies by buying cut-rate molasses from French sugar plantations. The outcry from
5712-530: The British changed the daily ration of liquor given to seamen from French brandy to rum. Navy rum was originally a blend mixed from rums produced in the West Indies . It was initially supplied at a strength of 100 degrees (UK) proof, 57% alcohol by volume (ABV), as that was the only strength that could be tested (by the gunpowder test ) before the invention of the hydrometer . The term "Navy strength"
5831-551: The British government had not consented to any transfer. On 20 April 1891, regulations issued by the Tasmanian Commissioner of Fisheries for the protection of seals on Macquarie Island came into effect. This was possible under existing Tasmanian legislation, namely the Fisheries Act 1889. By 26 October 1891, these regulations were amended to expire on 20 July 1894, and to no longer include the forfeiture of
5950-544: The British rum industry led to the Molasses Act of 1733, which levied a prohibitive tax on molasses imported into the Thirteen Colonies from foreign countries or colonies. Rum at this time accounted for approximately 80% of New England's exports, and paying the duty would have put the distilleries out of business: as a result, both compliance with and enforcement of the act were minimal. Strict enforcement of
6069-550: The Brown Glacier, in an effort to determine whether glacial retreat is rapid or punctuated. Using a portable echo sounder , the team took measurements of the volume of the glacier. Monitoring of climatic conditions continued, with an emphasis on the impact of Foehn winds on glacier mass balance. Based on the findings of that expedition, the rate of loss of glacier ice on Heard Island appears to be accelerating. Between 2000 and 2003, repeat GPS surface surveys revealed that
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#17327978164516188-663: The Colony's jurisdiction but claiming they got the seal skins from Macquarie Island. On the recommendation of Fysh, the Tasmanian Legislative Council passed a motion on 24 July 1890 requesting the "necessary steps be taken" for Macquarie Island to be transferred to New Zealand. Fysh was in no hurry to complete this process, and the request was only officially transmitted to the Tasmanian Legislative Assembly on 28 August 1890. When
6307-497: The Czech Republic and Slovakia, a similar spirit made from sugar beet is known as Tuzemak . In Germany, a cheap substitute for genuine dark rum is called Rum-Verschnitt (literally: blended or "cut" rum). This drink is made of genuine dark rum (often high-ester rum from Jamaica), rectified spirit , and water. Very often, caramel coloring is used, too. The relative amount of genuine rum it contains can be quite low since
6426-546: The Equator, in the region often referred to as the Shrieking Sixties , the South Orkney Islands , South Shetland Islands , Balleny Islands , Scott Island , and Peter I Island are all properly considered to be Antarctic islands for the following three reasons: In light of the above considerations, the following should be considered to be subantarctic islands : This is a list of glaciers in
6545-663: The Equator, the Falkland Islands , Isla de los Estados , Ildefonso Islands , Diego Ramírez Islands , and other islands associated with Tierra del Fuego and Cape Horn , lie north of the Antarctic Convergence in the region often referred to as the Furious Fifties . Unlike other subantarctic islands, these islands have trees , temperate grasslands (mostly tussac grass ), and even arable land . They also lack tundra and permanent snow and ice at their lowest elevations. Despite their more southerly location, it
6664-736: The Fifth French Antarctic Expedition on their return trip from Adélie Land where any landing was made impossible due to extensive pack ice that year. The island had status as a biosphere reserve under the Man and the Biosphere Programme from 1977 until its withdrawal from the program in 2011. On 5 December 1997, Macquarie Island was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List as a site of major geoconservation significance, being
6783-949: The Governor of Tasmania. In 1890, the Colony of New Zealand wrote to Lord Onslow (the Governor of New Zealand ), Philip Fysh (the Premier of Tasmania ), and the Lord Knutsford (the Secretary of State for the Colonies ) regarding the island, initially requesting permission to annex the island, then requesting its transfer from the Colony of Tasmania , as this would close a loophole in New Zealand's closed sealing season when vessels were poaching on sub-Antarctic islands under
6902-462: The King as commander-in-chief, as occurred on 29 June 2010, when previous monarch Queen Elizabeth II gave the order to the Royal Canadian Navy as part of the celebration of their 100th anniversary. Rum became an important trade good in the early period of the colony of New South Wales . The value of rum was based upon the lack of coinage among the population of the colony, and due to the drink's ability to allow its consumer to temporarily forget about
7021-412: The Leakage." Ensign Johnstone had no trouble selling this diluted rum. The popularity of rum continued after the American Revolution; George Washington insisting on a barrel of Barbados rum at his 1789 inauguration. Rum started to play an important role in the political system; candidates attempted to influence the outcome of an election through their generosity with rum. The people would attend
7140-495: The Legislative Assembly considered the matter on 2 September 1890, the virtue of transferring a dependent island was questioned, and (after several points of order and jokes from members) the assembly deferred consideration until the following day (effectively denying the transfer). By October 1890, it was certain that Tasmania would not condone the transfer of the island to New Zealand. Sir Harry Atkinson ( Premier of New Zealand ) expressed his regrets that Tasmania had decided against
7259-471: The Molasses Act's successor, the Sugar Act , in 1764 may have helped cause the American Revolution . In the slave trade, rum was also used as a medium of exchange . For example, the slave Venture Smith (whose history was later published) had been purchased in Africa, for four gallons of rum plus a piece of calico . In "The Doctor's Secret Journal", an account of the happenings at Fort Michilimackinac in northern Michigan from 1769 to 1772 by Daniel Morison,
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#17327978164517378-645: The SAMW will decrease in density and salinity. The resulting reductions in the subduction and transport capacity of SAMW and AAIW water masses could potentially decrease the absorption and storage of CO 2 in the Southern Ocean. The Antarctic realm and Antarctic Floristic Kingdom include most of the subantarctic islands native biota , with many endemic genera and species of flora and fauna . The physical landscape and biota communities of Heard Island and McDonald Islands are constantly changing due to volcanism , strong winds and waves, and climate change . Volcanic activity has been observed in this area since
7497-400: The United States defines rum, rum liqueur, and flavored rum. In Australia, rum is divided into dark or red rum (underproof known as UP, overproof known as OP, and triple distilled) and white rum. Despite these differences in standards and nomenclature, the following divisions are provided to help show the wide variety of rums produced. Within the Caribbean, each island or production area has
7616-452: The basis for the term tapping the admiral being used to describe surreptitiously sucking liquor from a cask through a straw. The details of the story are disputed, as many historians claim the cask contained French brandy , whilst others claim instead the term originated from a toast to Admiral Nelson. Variations of the story, involving different notable corpses, have been in circulation for many years. The official record states merely that
7735-405: The body was placed in "refined spirits" and does not go into further detail. The Royal New Zealand Navy was the last naval force to give sailors a free daily tot of rum. The Royal Canadian Navy still gives a rum ration on special occasions; the rum is usually provided out of the commanding officer's fund and is 150 proof (75%). The order to "splice the mainbrace" (i.e. take rum) can be given by
7854-642: The colony until the arrival of Governor Lachlan Macquarie in 1810. In India, rum was not traditionally produced as the production processes used to make jaggery from sugarcane do not produce molasses as a by-product. Rum was not produced in India commercially until the introduction of cane sugar production processes which did. The production of spirits along with the core commodity of sugar allowed for these plantations to have high economic returns. Production expanded rapidly to meet both domestic and export markets (however exports to Great Britain were restricted by protectionist policies). Rum production continued after
7973-467: The crew of the schooner Bencleugh was shipwrecked on the island for four months; folklore says they came to believe there was hidden treasure on the island. The ship's owner, John Sen Inches Thomson , wrote a book on his sea travels, including his time on the island. The book, written in 1912, was entitled Voyages and Wanderings In Far-off Seas and Lands . Macquarie Island was made a constituent part of Tasmania on 17 June 1880 through Letters Patent for
8092-516: The early 1950s, Jacka Glacier had receded only slightly from its position in the late 1920s, but by 1997 it had receded about 700 m back from the coastline. Possible causes of glacier recession on Heard Island include: The Australian Antarctic Division conducted an expedition to Heard Island during the austral summer of 2003–04. A small team of scientists spent two months on the island, conducting studies on avian and terrestrial biology and glaciology. Glaciologists conducted further research on
8211-404: The early 1980s when myxomatosis was introduced. Rabbit numbers then grew again to over 100,000 by 2006. Rats and mice feeding on young chicks, and rabbits nibbling on the grass layer, has led to soil erosion and cliff collapses, destroying seabird nests. Large portions of the Macquarie Island bluffs are eroding as a result. In September 2006 a large landslip at Lusitania Bay, on the eastern side of
8330-418: The end of the colonial era. Today, most spirits produced in India labeled as whisky, vodka, and gin are made with a neutral rum derived base. Old Monk is the primary brand of dark rum consumed in contemporary India. Commercial rum production was introduced into Taiwan along with commercial sugar production during the Japanese colonial period . Rum production continued under the Republic of China, however, it
8449-437: The exchange alcohol of choice in the triangle trade . Canoemen and guards on the African side of the trade, who had previously been paid in brandy, were now paid in rum. After the development of rum in the Caribbean, the drink's popularity spread to Colonial North America . To support the demand for the drink, the first rum distillery in the Thirteen Colonies was set up in 1664 on Staten Island . Boston, Massachusetts , had
8568-577: The feral cat eradication program has allowed the rabbit population to increase, damaging the Macquarie Island ecosystem by altering significant areas of island vegetation. However, in a comment published in the same journal other scientists argued that a number of factors (primarily a reduction in the use of the Myxoma virus ) were almost certainly involved and the absence of cats may have been relatively minor among them. The original authors examined
8687-673: The fermentation process. While some rum producers allow wild yeasts to perform the fermentation, most use specific strains of yeast to help provide a consistent taste and predictable fermentation time. Dunder , the yeast-rich foam from previous fermentations, is the traditional yeast source in Jamaica . "The yeast employed will determine the final taste and aroma profile," says Jamaican master blender Joy Spence . Distillers that make lighter rums, such as Bacardi , prefer to use faster-working yeasts. The use of slower-working yeasts causes more esters to accumulate during fermentation, allowing for
8806-498: The hustings to see which candidate appeared more generous. The candidate was expected to drink with the people to show he was independent and truly a republican. Eventually, the restrictions on sugar imports from the British West Indies , combined with the development of American whiskeys , led to a decline in the drink's popularity in North America. Rum's association with piracy began with English privateers ' trading in
8925-492: The ice formations above 5,000 feet (1,500 m) on the southwestern slopes of Big Ben , possibly as a result of volcanic activity . By 1963, major recession was obvious below 2,000 feet (610 m) on almost all glaciers, and minor recession was evident as high as 5,000 feet (1,500 m). Retreat of glacier fronts across Heard Island is evident when comparing aerial photographs taken in December 1947 with those taken on
9044-586: The introduction of rabbits; suggesting that cats were not controlling rabbit populations before the introduction of the myxoma virus. On 4 June 2007, a media release by Malcolm Turnbull , Federal Minister for Australia's Environment and Water Resources Board, announced that the Australian and Tasmanian Governments had reached an agreement to jointly fund the eradication of rodent pests, including rabbits, to protect Macquarie Island's World Heritage values. The plan, estimated to cost $ 24 million Australian dollars ,
9163-541: The island by sealers to breed for food. This caused huge damage to the local wildlife, including the extinction of the Macquarie Island rail ( Gallirallus macquariensis ), the Macquarie parakeet ( Cyanoramphus erythrotis ), and an as-yet-undescribed species of teal. By the 1970s, 130,000 rabbits were causing tremendous damage to vegetation. The feral cats introduced to the island had a devastating effect on
9282-483: The island, partially destroyed an important penguin breeding colony. Tasmania Parks and Wildlife Service attributed the landslip to a combination of heavy spring rains and severe erosion caused by rabbits. Research by Australian Antarctic Division scientists, published in the 13 January 2009 issue of the British Ecological Society 's Journal of Applied Ecology , suggested that the success of
9401-544: The island. In April 2012 the hunting teams reported the extermination of 13 rabbits that had survived the 2011 baiting; the last five were found in November 2011, including a lactating doe and four kittens. No fresh rabbit signs were found up to July 2013. On 8 April 2014, Macquarie Island was officially declared pest-free, after seven years of conservation efforts. This achievement was the largest successful island pest-eradication program attempted to that date. In May 2024, it
9520-480: The issue in a later reply and concluded that the effect of the Myxoma virus use was small and reaffirmed their original position. The original authors did not, however, explain how rabbit numbers were greater in previous periods such as the 1970s before the myxoma virus was introduced and when cats were not being controlled, nor how rabbits had built up to such high numbers when cats were present for some 60 years prior to
9639-401: The isthmus and its existing station. Such a tsunami would likely affect other parts of the coastline and field huts located close to the shore. According to several papers, an earthquake capable of causing a tsunami of that significance is a high risk. In September 2016, the Australian Antarctic Division said it would close its research station on the island in 2017. However, shortly afterwards,
9758-554: The lack of creature comforts available in the new colony. The value of rum was such that convict settlers could be induced to work the lands owned by officers of the New South Wales Corps. Due to rum's popularity among the settlers, the colony gained a reputation for drunkenness, though their alcohol consumption was less than levels commonly consumed in England at the time. Australia was so far away from Britain that
9877-546: The legal minimum is only 5%. In Austria , a similar rum called Inländerrum or domestic rum is available. However, Austrian Inländerrum is always a spiced rum, such as the brand Stroh ; German Rum-Verschnitt , in contrast, is never spiced or flavored. The grades and variations used to describe rum depend on the location where rum was produced. Despite these variations, the following terms are frequently used to describe various types of rum: Unlike some other spirits, rum has no defined production methods. Instead, rum production
9996-752: The mid-1980s, with fresh lava flows on the southwest flanks of Heard Island. Satellite imagery shows that McDonald Island increased in size from about 1 to 2.5 square kilometers between 1994 and 2004, as a result of volcanic activity. In addition to new land being produced by volcanism, global warming of the climate is causing the retreat of glaciers on the islands ( see section below ). These combined processes produce new ice-free terrestrial and freshwater ecoregions , such as moraines and lagoons , which are now available for colonization by plants and animals. Heard Island has vast colonies of penguins and petrels , and large harems of land-based marine predators such as elephant seals and fur seals . Due to
10115-655: The municipality was merged with other municipalities to form Huon Valley Council . The island is home to the entire royal penguin population during their annual nesting season. Ecologically, the island is part of the Antipodes Subantarctic Islands tundra ecoregion . Since 1948, the Australian Antarctic Division (AAD) has maintained a permanent base, the Macquarie Island Station , on the isthmus at
10234-479: The native seabird population, with an estimated annual loss of 60,000 seabirds. From 1985, efforts were undertaken to remove the cats. In June 2000, the last of the nearly 2,500 cats were culled in an effort to save the seabirds. Seabird populations responded rapidly, but rats and rabbits population increased after the cats were culled, and continued to cause widespread environmental damage. The rabbits rapidly multiplied before numbers were reduced to about 10,000 in
10353-467: The north coast has lost at least 100 vertical feet (30 vertical m), and Vahsel Glacier on the west coast has lost at least 200 vertical feet (61 vertical m). Winston Glacier , which retreated approximately one mile (1.6 km) between 1947 and 1963, appears to be a very sensitive indicator of glacier change on the island. The young moraines flanking Winston Lagoon show that Winston Glacier has lost at least 300 vertical feet (91 vertical m) of ice within
10472-673: The northern end of the island at the foot of Wireless Hill . The population of the base, constituting the island's only human inhabitants, usually varies from 20 to 40 people over the year. A heliport is located nearby. Through "Operation Southern Discovery", elements of the Australian Defence Force also provide annual support for the Australian Antarctic Division and the Australian Antarctic Program (AAP) in regional scientific, environmental and economic activities. As part of "Operation Resolute",
10591-442: The only place on Earth where rocks from the Earth's mantle are being actively exposed above sea-level. On 23 December 2004, an earthquake measuring 8.1 on the moment magnitude scale rocked the island but caused no significant damage. Geoscience Australia issued a Tsunami Inundation Advice for Macquarie Island Station. The paper indicated that a tsunami caused by a local earthquake could occur with no warning, and could inundate
10710-507: The point of extinction. Sealers' relics include iron try pots , casks, hut ruins, graves and inscriptions. During that time, 144 vessel visits are recorded, 12 of which ended in shipwreck. The conditions on the island and the surrounding seas were considered so harsh that a plan to use it as a penal settlement was rejected. Richard Siddins and his crew were shipwrecked in Hasselborough Bay on 11 June 1812. Joseph Underwood sent
10829-744: The present Treaty shall apply to the area south of 60° South latitude ". Therefore, Antarctica is defined from a political standpoint as all land and ice shelves south of 60°S latitude. At between about 46° – 50° south of the Equator, in the region often referred to as the Roaring Forties , are the Crozet Islands , the Prince Edward Islands , Wager Island , the Bounty Islands , the Snares Islands ,
10948-467: The rate of loss of ice in both the ablation zone and the accumulation zone of Brown Glacier was more than double average rate measured from 1947 to 2003. The increase in the rate of ice loss suggests that the glaciers of Heard Island are reacting to ongoing climate change, rather than approaching dynamic equilibrium . The retreat of Heard Island's glaciers is expected to continue for the foreseeable future. Download coordinates as: Rum Rum
11067-609: The rocks "), or used for cooking, but are now commonly consumed with mixers. Premium rums are made to be consumed either straight or iced. Rum plays a part in the culture of most islands of the West Indies as well as the Maritime provinces and Newfoundland , in Canada. It has associations with the Royal Navy (where it was mixed with water or beer to make grog ) and piracy (where it was consumed as bumbo ). Rum has served as
11186-507: The same year, Captain Smith described in more detail what is presumably the same wreck and incorrectly speculated that it belonged to French explorer Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse : "several pieces of wreck of a large vessel on this Island, apparently very old and high up in the grass, probably the remains of the ship of the unfortunate De la Perouse". Between 1810 and 1919, seals and then penguins were hunted for their oil almost to
11305-410: The ship Elizabeth and Mary to the island to rescue the remaining crew. The Russian explorer Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen explored the area for Alexander I of Russia in 1820, and produced the first map of Macquarie Island. Bellingshausen landed on the island on 28 November 1820, defined its geographical position and traded his rum and food for the island's fauna with the sealers. In 1877,
11424-402: The soil type and climate that it was grown in. Within the Caribbean, much of this molasses is from Brazil. A notable exception is the French-speaking islands, where sugarcane juice is the preferred base ingredient. In Brazil itself, the distilled alcoholic drink derived from cane juice is distinguished from rum and called cachaça . Yeast and water are added to the base ingredient to start
11543-567: The south, 0.6 km (150 acres) in area. Like Macquarie Island, both groups are part of the state of Tasmania . The Bishop and Clerk Islets mark the southernmost point of Australia (excluding the Australian Antarctic Territory ). In the 19th century a phantom island named " Emerald Island " was believed to lie south of Macquarie Island. Macquarie Island is an exposed portion of the Macquarie Ridge and
11662-971: The southern hemisphere. With respect to glaciers of the Andes mountains in South America , abundant evidence has been collected from ongoing research at Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia , Quelccaya Ice Cap and Qori Kalis Glacier in Peru , Zongo , Chacaltaya and Charquini glaciers in Bolivia , the Aconcagua River Basin in the central Chilean Andes , and the Northern Patagonian and Southern Patagonian ice fields . Retreat of glaciers in New Zealand and Antarctica
11781-507: The southern portions of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans, the ACC links these three otherwise separate oceanic basins . Extending from the sea surface to depths of 2000–4000 meters, and with a width of as great as 2000 kilometers, the ACC transports more water than any other ocean current. The ACC carries up to 150 Sverdrups (150 million cubic meters per second), equivalent to 150 times
11900-481: The spirit. The differences in definitions include issues such as spirit proof , minimum ageing, and even naming standards. Mexico requires rum be aged a minimum of eight months; the Dominican Republic, Panama and Venezuela require two years. Naming standards also vary. Argentina defines rums as white, gold, light, and extra light. Grenada and Barbados use the terms white, overproof, and matured, while
12019-698: The station was shut down in 1915. In 1933, the authorities declared the island a wildlife sanctuary under the Tasmanian Animals and Birds Protection Act 1928 and, in 1972, it was made a State Reserve under the Tasmanian National Parks and Wildlife Act 1970 . On 25 May 1948, the Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions (ANARE) established its expedition headquarters on Macquarie Island. In March 1949, they were visited by
12138-439: The steep topography of Heard Island, most of its glaciers are relatively thin (averaging only about 55 meters in depth). The presence of glaciers on Heard Island provides an excellent opportunity to measure the rate of glacial retreat as an indicator of climate change. Available records show no apparent change in glacier mass balance between 1874 and 1929. Between 1949 and 1954, marked changes were observed to have occurred in
12257-538: The subantarctic . This list includes one snow field ( Murray Snowfield ). Snow fields are not glaciers in the strict sense of the word, but they are commonly found at the accumulation zone or head of a glacier. For the purposes of this list, Antarctica is defined as any latitude further south than 60° (the continental limit according to the Antarctic Treaty). Together, the Subantarctic Mode Water (SAMW) and Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) act as
12376-529: The subantarctic region. All glaciers located on the continent of Antarctica are by definition considered to be Antarctic glaciers . The subantarctic region comprises two geographic zones and three distinct fronts . The northernmost boundary of the subantarctic region is the rather ill-defined Subtropical Front (STF), also referred to as the Subtropical Convergence. To the south of the STF
12495-487: The total area of Heard Island's glaciers decreased by 11%, from 288 km (roughly 79% of the total area of Heard Island) to only 257 km . A visit to the island in the spring of 2000 found that the Stephenson , Brown and Baudissin glaciers, among others, had retreated even further. The terminus of Brown Glacier has retreated approximately 1.1 kilometres since 1950. The total ice-covered area of Brown Glacier
12614-459: The transfer, with Fysh noting that all of New Zealand's stated objectives could be achieved under existing Tasmanian legislation and through inter-colonial agreements. In mid October 1890, The Southland Times was reporting that an explanation was forthcoming from Wellington. On 23 October 1890, Fysh formally advised New Zealand of the colonial legislature's refusal to transfer the island, and on 20 November 1890 Knutsford formally advised Onslow that
12733-498: The tussock-forming grass Poa foliosa can grow up to 2 m tall in sheltered areas. There are over 45 vascular plant species and more than 90 moss species, as well as many liverworts and lichens . Woody plants are absent. The island has five principal vegetation formations: grassland , herbfield , fen , bog and feldmark . Bog communities include 'featherbed', a deep and spongy peat bog vegetated by grasses and low herbs, with patches of free water. Endemic flora include
12852-450: The uninhabited island on 11 July 1810, while looking for new sealing grounds. He claimed Macquarie Island for Britain and annexed it to the colony of New South Wales in 1810. The island was named for Colonel Lachlan Macquarie , Governor of New South Wales from 1810 to 1821. Hasselborough reported a wreck "of ancient design", which has given rise to speculation that the island may have been visited before by Polynesians or others. In
12971-415: The valuable commodity. Some of the privateers became pirates and buccaneers, with a continuing fondness for rum; the association between the two was only strengthened by literary works such as Robert Louis Stevenson 's Treasure Island . The association of rum with the Royal Navy began in 1655 when a Royal Navy fleet captured the island of Jamaica . With the availability of domestically produced rum,
13090-510: The very high numbers of seabirds and marine mammals on Heard Island, the area is considered a "biological hot spot". The marine environment surrounding the islands features diverse and distinctive benthic habitats that support a range of species including corals , sponges , barnacles and echinoderms . This marine environment also serves as a nursery area for a range of fishes, including some species of commercial interest. Glaciers are currently retreating at significant rates throughout
13209-442: The volume of water flowing in all the world's rivers. The ACC and the global thermohaline circulation strongly influence regional and global climate as well as underwater biodiversity . Another factor that contributes to the climate of the subantarctic region, though to a much lesser extent than the thermohaline circulation, is the formation of Antarctic Bottom Water (ABW) by halothermal dynamics . The halothermal circulation
13328-457: Was a slang word for "uproar" or "tumult"; a noisy uncontrollable exuberance, though the origin of those words and the nature of the relationship are unclear. Both words surfaced in English about the same time as rum did (1651 for "rumbullion", and before 1654 "rum"). There have been various other theories: Regardless of the original source, the name was already in common use by 1654, when
13447-662: Was abolished by the Huon Valley Council and was changed to Summer DST. Previously, Macquarie Island was the only place on earth to observe permanent Daylight-Saving Time. Permanent Daylight-Saving on Macquarie Island was intended for stationed personal on Macquarie Island Station , until a permanent human population was granted. Macquarie Island is about 34 km (21 mi) long and 5 km (3 mi) wide, with an area of 128 km (49 sq mi). The island consists of plateaus at north and south ends, each of 150–200 m (490–660 ft) elevation, joined by
13566-417: Was affected by the onset of European visits in 1810. The island's fur seals , elephant seals and penguins were killed for fur and blubber. Rats and mice that were inadvertently introduced from the ships prospered due to lack of predators. Cats were subsequently introduced deliberately to keep them from eating human food stores. In about 1870, rabbits and a species of New Zealand rail ( wekas ) were left on
13685-540: Was based on mass baiting the island similar to an eradication program on Campbell Island , New Zealand , to be followed with teams of dogs trained by Steve Austin over a maximum seven-year period. The baiting was expected to inadvertently affect kelp gulls, but greater-than-expected bird deaths caused the program to be suspended. Other species killed by the baits include giant petrels , black ducks and skuas . In February 2012, The Australian newspaper reported that rabbits, rats and mice had been nearly eradicated from
13804-547: Was intimately involved in the only military takeover of an Australian government, known as the Rum Rebellion . When William Bligh became governor of the colony, he attempted to remedy the perceived problem of drunkenness by outlawing the use of rum as a medium of exchange. In response to Bligh's attempt to regulate the use of rum, in 1808, the New South Wales Corps marched with fixed bayonets to Government House and placed Bligh under arrest. The mutineers continued to control
13923-472: Was neglected by Taiwan Tobacco and Liquor Corporation which held the national liquor monopoly. The industry diversified after privatization and the de-monopolization of the Taiwanese alcoholic beverage industry. Dividing rum into meaningful groupings is complicated because no single standard exists for what constitutes rum. Instead, rum is defined by the varying rules and laws of the nations producing
14042-442: Was reported that the island had remained free of pests for 10 years, with vegetation flourishing. However, ongoing monitoring, along with measures such as the use of biosecurity dogs to check cargo with the island as its destination are necessary, as there are new threats such as climate change and avian influenza . Ongoing monitoring programs are funded by the federal government. Despite being declared pest-free, Macquarie Island
14161-601: Was reputed to be stronger than Jamaican Rum, and not so sweet) were brought back in the depths of nearly every ship from India. The cargoes were floated ashore clandestinely before the ships docked, by the Royal Marines regiment which controlled the sales. It was against the direct orders of the governors, who had ordered the searching of every docking ship. British merchants in India grew wealthy by sending ships to Sydney "laden half with rice and half with bad spirits". Rum
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