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115-545: The formation, extending across the Fergana Valley and Fergana Range , is unique for Central Asia, as it represents one of the few known continental deposits and the Madygen Formation is renowned for the preservation of more than 20,000 fossil insects, making it one of the richest Triassic lagerstätten in the world. Other vertebrate fossils as fish, amphibians, reptiles and synapsids have been recovered from

230-734: A comprehensive overview of alien aquatic plants in 46 European countries found 96 alien aquatic species. The aliens were primarily native to North America, Asia, and South America. The most spread alien plant in Europe was Elodea canadensis (Found in 41 European countries) followed by Azolla filiculoides in 25 countries and Vallisneria spiralis in 22 countries. The countries with the most recorded alien aquatic plant species were France and Italy with 30 species followed by Germany with 27 species, and Belgium and Hungary with 26 species. The European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization has published recommendations to European nations advocating

345-589: A considerable degree with the local Turkic and Turkic-speaking population, so that at the time of Timur's reign the Barlas had become thoroughly Turkicized in terms of language and habits. Additionally, by adopting Islam, the Central Asian Turks and Mongols also adopted the Persian literary and high culture which had dominated Central Asia since the early days of Islamic influence. Persian literature

460-498: A few occurrences of continental Triassic beds in Central Asia. Isotope analyses of fish teeth confirm that the lakes and rivers represented by the formation were entirely freshwater and deep inland, about 600 km from the nearest coast. Though fossils can be found throughout the entire formation, the most extensive fossil deposits occur in the northern area, known as Dzaylyaucho (also spelled Dzhayloucho or Dzhailoucho), which

575-417: A food source. Examples include wild rice ( Zizania ), water caltrop ( Trapa natans ), Chinese water chestnut ( Eleocharis dulcis ), Indian lotus ( Nelumbo nucifera ), water spinach ( Ipomoea aquatica ), prickly waterlily ( Euryale ferox ), and watercress ( Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum ). A decline in a macrophyte community may indicate water quality problems and changes in the ecological status of

690-465: A gallop, the sculpture symbolizes peak speed and power, with its V-shaped leg arrangement echoing Greek symbols of speed and victory. Detailed anatomical features, such as visible ribs and dynamic muscle contractions, showcase a profound understanding of equine biomechanics. The lifelike depiction extends to aerodynamic adaptations like flat ears, a streamlined mane, and a fanned tail, enhancing balance and stability at high speeds. Decorative swirls symbolize

805-426: A good many camels are bred. Over 6,900 ha (17,000 acres) were planted with vines , and some 140,000 ha (350,000 acres) were under cotton . Nearly 400,000 ha (1,000,000 acres) were covered with forests. The government maintained a forestry farm at Marghelan , from which 120,000 to 200,000 young trees were distributed free every year amongst the inhabitants of the province. Silkworm breeding, formerly

920-566: A group of prominent local businessmen brought underlying tensions to a head in the region around Andijan and Qorasuv during the May 2005 unrest in Uzbekistan in which hundreds of protestors were killed by troops. There was violence again in 2010 in the Kyrgyz part of the valley, heated by ethnic tensions, worsening economic conditions due to the global economic crisis, and political conflict over

1035-503: A lack of pressure that terrestrial plants experience. Green algae are also known to have extremely thin cell walls due to their aquatic surroundings, and research has shown that green algae is the closest ancestor to living terrestrial and aquatic plants. Terrestrial plants have rigid cell walls meant for withstanding harsh weather, as well as keeping the plant upright as the plant resists gravity. Gravitropism, along with phototropism and hydrotropism, are traits believed to have evolved during

1150-575: A mayfly has been doubted. Apart from insects, the most common invertebrates found in the Madygen Formation are Almatium gusevi and Jeanrogerium sornayi , tadpole shrimp -like aquatic crustaceans in the order Kazacharthra . Undescribed ostracod and decapod fossils have also been found, though conchostracans are practically absent. The Madygen Formation is one of the only Triassic sites to preserve statoblasts of freshwater bryozoans ( Phylactolaemata ). Freshwater bivalves , gastropods , microconchid shells, and worm burrows are also found in

1265-472: A practice initiated by the Soviets, complemented by a diverse array of grains, fruits, and vegetables. Additionally, the region has a rich heritage in stock breeding, leatherwork, and a progressively expanding mining industry, including deposits of coal , iron , sulfur , gypsum , rock-salt , naphtha and some small known oil reserves. The word Fergana ( / f ɜːr ˈ ɡ ɑː n ə / fur-GAHN-ə )

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1380-428: A preliminary description by Vishniakova (1998). The † Titanoptera of the Madygen Formation are uncommon (about 200 specimens), with moderate diversity, though still higher than any other geological formation. They were described most extensively by Sharov (1968) and Gorochov (2003). One titanopteran of special note is Gigatitan vulgaris , one of the few insects from the formation known from more than wings. This species

1495-625: A prosperous industry, had decayed, despite the encouragement of a state farm at New Marghelan. Coal, iron, sulfur, gypsum , rock-salt , and naphtha are all known to exist, but only the last two have ever been extracted in significant quantities. In the late 19th century there were a few small oil-wells in Fergana, but these no longer function. In the Tsarist period the only industrial enterprises were some seventy or eighty factories engaged in cotton cleaning. Leather, saddlery, paper and cutlery were

1610-876: A relatively broad distribution in the Late Triassic as it is also found in the Sinemurian Badaowan Formation of China and Dzhil Formation of Kyrgyzstan, the Pliensbachian Makarova Formation of Russia and Sulyukta Formation of Tajikistan; the Toarcian Whitby Mudstone Formation of England, Posidonia Shale of Germany, and Cheremkhovo Formation of Russia, and the Early Jurassic Kushmurun Formation of Kazakhstan. Haglidae were also recorded in

1725-654: A revolt which was far more widespread than that of 1898, and which was not entirely suppressed by the time of the Russian Revolution . In 1924, the new boundaries separating the Uzbek SSR and Kyrgyz SSR cut off the eastern end of the Fergana Valley, as well as the slopes surrounding it. This was compounded in 1928 when the Tajik ASSR became a fully-fledged republic, and the area around Khujand

1840-632: A separate geographic zone. The valley owes its fertility to two rivers, the Naryn and the Kara Darya , which unite in the valley, near Namangan , to form the Syr Darya . Numerous other tributaries of these rivers exist in the valley including the Sokh River . The streams, and their numerous mountain effluents, not only supply water for irrigation, but also bring down vast quantities of sand, which

1955-429: A single undescribed species from the family † Psocidiidae . Dermaptera (earwigs) are also very rare and undescribed, represented by the family † Protodiplateidae . The extinct order † Glosselytrodea is only slightly more diverse, with rare fossils from the families † Jurinidae and † Polycytellidae . The only fossil Ephemeroptera (mayfly) reported from the formation is a Mesobaetis -like fragment, and its referral to

2070-453: A thick succession of lacustrine mudstones, followed by an alluvial package, on top of which lacustrine, fluvial, deltaic and alluvial layers were deposited. The hydrocarbon potential of samples of the Madygen Formation ranges from poor to excellent. The sediments containing more than 0.5% Total Organic Carbon (TOC) may be regarded as sources of gaseous hydrocarbons rather than of oil. The Hydrogen Index (HI) of outcrop samples reaches 100 and

2185-439: A wide and multicolored variety of siliciclastic rocks: mudstones , sandstones , conglomerates , fanglomerates, and rare coal layers. This diversity of sediment types reflects the a complex set of depositional environments through time and space, including alluvial fans , sandflats, swamps , back-swamp areas, and littoral to profundal lake zones. The fluvio-lacustrine deposits of the Madygen Formation belong to one of only

2300-546: A wingspan over 20 cm. Unusual small reptiles, Longisquama with long scales, and Sharovipteryx , which glided using a membrane stretched between their paws, were also found here. The climate of this valley is dry and continental, being mostly a cool arid climate ( Köppen BWk ) or a cool semi-arid climate ( BSk ) in less shielded areas. In March the temperature reaches 20 °C (68 °F), and then rapidly rises to 35 °C (95 °F) in June, July and August. During

2415-576: Is Babur , heir to Timur and famous conqueror and founder of the Mughal dynasty in Medieval India . Islamic proselytizers from the Fergana Valley such as al-Firghani الفرغاني, al-Andijani الأندجاني, al-Namangani النمنگاني, al-Khojandi الخوجندي spread Islam into parts of present-day Russia, China, and India. The Fergana valley was ruled by a series of Muslim states in the medieval period. For much of this period local and southwestern rulers divided

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2530-644: Is a 560 metres (1,840 ft) thick succession of predominantly siliciclastic rocks accumulated in a tectonically induced basin, covering parts of the Fergana Range and Fergana Valley of Kyrgyzstan with minor outcrops in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan . The Middle-Late Triassic layers rest on top of Paleozoic basement with local Permo-Triassic molasse sediments. They are likewise overlain by latest-Triassic to Early Jurassic sediments, some of which host their own arthropod faunas. The formation consists of

2645-520: Is characterized by block subsidence , originally to depths estimated at 6 to 7 kilometres (3.7 to 4.3 mi), largely filled with sediments that range in age as far back as the Permian-Triassic boundary . Some of the sediments are marine carbonates and clays . The faults are upthrusts and overthrusts. Anticlines associated with these faults form traps for petroleum and natural gas , which has been discovered in 52 small fields . In

2760-410: Is complete, the plant descends through the water column and the roots atrophy. In floating aquatic angiosperms, the leaves have evolved to only have stomata on the top surface to make use of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Gas exchange primarily occurs through the top surface of the leaf due to the position of the stomata, and the stomata are in a permanently open state. Due to their aquatic surroundings,

2875-1151: Is cotton, although the Daewoo plant in Andizhan sends cars all over Uzbekistan. Macrophyte Aquatic plants are vascular plants that have adapted to live in aquatic environments ( saltwater or freshwater ). They are also referred to as hydrophytes or macrophytes to distinguish them from algae and other microphytes ( phytoplanktons ). In lakes , rivers and wetlands , aquatic vegetations provide cover for aquatic animals such as fish , amphibians and aquatic insects , create substrate for benthic invertebrates , produce oxygen via photosynthesis , and serve as food for some herbivorous wildlife. Familiar examples of aquatic plants include waterlily , lotus , duckweeds , mosquito fern , floating heart , water milfoils , mare's tail , water lettuce and water hyacinth . Although seaweeds , which are large multicellular marine algae , have similar ecological functions to aquatic plants such as seagrass , they are not typically referred to as macrophytes as they lack

2990-512: Is deposited alongside their courses, more especially alongside the Syr Darya where it cuts its way through the Khujand - Ajar ridge and forms the valley. This expanse of quicksand , covering an area of 1,900 km (750 sq mi), under the influence of south-west winds, encroaches upon the agricultural districts. The central part of the geological depression that forms the valley

3105-502: Is dominated by brown and grey claystones and mudstones. The abundance of burrows and absence of darker sediments in this area indicate that it was a well-oxygenated lacustrine environment, such as a large oxbow lake . The environment represented by the Madygen Formation was positioned on the Cimmerian microcontinent , a slab of crust that collided with Laurasia during the Cimmerian orogeny in later Mesozoic times. This orogeny led to

3220-667: Is frequently saturated , and are therefore a common component of swamps and marshlands . One of the largest aquatic plants in the world is the Bolivian waterlily , which holds the Guinness World Record of having the largest undivided leaf at 3.2 m (10 ft 6 in) diameter; the smallest is the rootless duckweed , which is only 1 mm (0.039 in) across. Many small animals use aquatic plants such as duckweeds and lily pads for spawning or as protective shelters against predators both from above and below

3335-619: Is now northern India and Pakistan, driving east through Fergana. Kushan power also consolidated long-distance trade, linking Central Asia to both Han dynasty China and the Roman Empire in Europe. The Kushans ruled the area as part of their larger empire until the 3rd century AD, when the Zoroastrian Persian Sassanid Empire invaded Kushan territory from the southwest. Fergana remained under shifting local and Transoxian rulers thereafter. For periods in

3450-542: Is of Persian origin. The valley has been set foot on by various peoples. The Fergana Valley is an intermountain depression in Central Asia, between the mountain systems of the Tien Shan in the north and the Alay in the south. The valley is approximately 300 kilometres (190 mi) long and up to 70 kilometres (43 mi) wide, forming an area covering 22,000 square kilometres (8,500 sq mi). Its position makes it

3565-482: Is supported by the evidence that several of the earliest known fossil angiosperms were aquatic. Aquatic plants are phylogenetically well dispersed across the angiosperms , with at least 50 independent origins, although they comprise less than 2% of the angiosperm species. Archaefructus represents one of the oldest, most complete angiosperm fossils which is around 125 million years old. These plants require special adaptations for living submerged in water or floating at

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3680-937: The Han-Dayuan war , installing a king there. Later the Han set up the Protectorate of the Western Regions The Kushan Empire formed from the same Yuezhi who had conquered the Hellenistic Fergana. The Kushan spread out in the 1st century AD from the Yuezhi confederation in the territories of ancient Bactria on either side of the middle course of the Oxus River or Amu Darya in what is now northern Afghanistan, and southern Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The Kushan conquered most of what

3795-740: The Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian Kingdom . The Greek city of Alexandria on the Oxus was apparently burnt to the ground by the Yuezhi around 145 BC. Pushed by these twin forces, the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom reoriented itself around lands in what is now Afghanistan, while the new invaders were partially assimilated into the Hellenistic culture left in Fergana Valley. According to the Han dynasty Records of

3910-652: The Khanate of Kokand , Kokand was capital of a territory stretching over modern eastern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, southern Kazakhstan and all of Kyrgyzstan . Fergana was a province of Russian Turkestan , formed in 1876 out of the former khanate of Kokand . It was bounded by the provinces of Syr-darya in the North and Northwest, Samarkand in the West, and Zhetysu in the Northeast, by Chinese Turkestan ( Kashgaria ) in

4025-783: The Koldzat and Tologoi Formations of Kazakhstan, in the Carnian Cacheutá Formation of Argentina, the Carnian to Norian Molteno Formation of South Africa and Lesotho, and the Norian Mount Crosby Formation of Australia. Fergana Valley Fergana Valley is a valley in Central Asia , lying mostly in eastern Uzbekistan , extending into southern Kyrgyzstan and northern Tajikistan . Encompassing three former Soviet Republics ,

4140-660: The Mughal dynasty , tying the region to modern Afghanistan and South Asia. The Russian Empire conquered the valley at the end of the 19th century, and it became part of the Soviet Union in the 1920s. Its three Soviet republics gained independence in 1991. The area largely remains Muslim , populated by ethnic Uzbek , Tajik and Kyrgyz people , often intermixed and not matching modern borders. Historically there have also been substantial numbers of Russian , Kashgarian , Kipchak , Bukharan Jewish and Romani minorities. The economy centers around extensive cotton cultivation,

4255-478: The Naryn and the Kara Darya , which run from the east, joining near Namangan , forming the Syr Darya river . The valley's history stretches back over 2,300 years, when Alexander the Great founded Alexandria Eschate at its southwestern end. Chinese chroniclers date its towns to more than 2,100 years ago, as a path between Greek, Chinese, Bactrian and Parthian civilisations. It was home to Babur , founder of

4370-622: The Yuezhi from the east and the Sakas Scythians from the south. After 155 BC, the Yuezhi were pushed into Fergana by the alliance of the powerful Xiongnu and the neighboring Wusun from the north and east, invaded urban civilization of the Dayuan , eventually settling on the northern bank of the Oxus in the region of Transoxiana in modern-day Tajikistan and Uzbekistan , just north of

4485-535: The 19th century, a considerable trade carried on with Russia: raw cotton, raw silk , tobacco, hides, sheepskins, fruit and cotton and leather goods were exported, and manufactured wares, textiles, tea and sugar were imported and in part re-exported to Kashgaria and Bokhara. The total trade of Fergana reached an annual value of nearly £3.5 million in 1911. Nowadays it suffers from the same depression that affects all trade that either originates in or has to pass through Uzbekistan. The only significant international export

4600-726: The 4th and 5th centuries, the Sassanid Empire directly controlled Transoxiana and Fergana, led by the conquests of Shapur II and Khosrau I against the Kushans and the Hephthalite Empire . Sassanid rule of Fergana was interrupted by the Hepthalites , possibly Turkic. Hepthalite rule was ended by the Gokturks in mid of 6th century. The Turkic Khaganates ruled it until the first quarter of 8th century when it

4715-563: The Chinese as unusual in features, with a sophisticated urban civilization, similar to that of the Bactrians and Parthians : "The Son of Heaven on hearing all this reasoned thus: Fergana (Dayuan) and the possessions of Bactria and Parthia are large countries, full of rare things, with a population living in fixed abodes and given to occupations somewhat identical with those of the Chinese people, but with weak armies, and placing great value on

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4830-694: The East, and by Bukhara and Afghanistan in the South. Its southern limits, in the Pamirs , were fixed by an Anglo-Russian commission in 1885, from Zorkul (Victoria Lake) to the Chinese frontier; and Khignan , Roshan and Wakhan were assigned to Afghanistan in exchange for part of Darvaz (on the left bank of the Panj ), which was given to Bukhara . The area amounted to some 53,000 km (20,463 sq mi), of which 17,600 km (6,795 sq mi) are in

4945-587: The Grand Historian or Shiji , based on the travels of Zhang Qian and published around 126 BC, the region of Fergana is presented as the country of the Dayuan (Ta-Yuan), possibly descendants of Greeks colonists (Dayuan may be a transliteration of "Great Ionians"). The area was renowned for its Heavenly Horses , which the Chinese tried to obtain from the Dayuan with little success until they waged war against them in 104 BC. The Dayuan were identified by

5060-554: The Great founded the city of Alexandria Eschate "The Furthest", probably renaming Cyropolis. This was in the southwestern part of the Fergana Valley, on the southern bank of the river Syr Darya (ancient Jaxartes), at the location of the modern city of Khujand , in the state of Tajikistan . Supplemented by Alexander's veterans, it was later ruled by Seleucids before secession of Bactria. The Hellenistic settlements, such as Alexandria Eschate, serve as vibrant examples of cultural and artistic exchanges that occurred following Alexander

5175-458: The Great's conquests. Among the artifacts that highlight this fusion is the Ferghana horse sculpture from the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, dating back to around 4 to 1 BCE. The Ferghana horse sculpture, a ceremonial gilt bronze finial from the 4th-1st century BCE, exemplifies the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom's artistic synthesis of Greek and Scythian influences. Capturing a horse in the suspension phase of

5290-657: The Greco-Bactrian king Euthydemus extended his control to Sogdiana. There are indications that from Alexandria Eschate the Greco-Bactrians may have led expeditions as far as Kashgar and Ürümqi in Chinese Turkestan , leading to the first known contacts between China and the West around 220 BC. Several statuettes and representations of Greek soldiers have been found north of the Tian Shan , on

5405-523: The Madyen Formation are rare (about 100 specimens), with moderate diversity. They were described most extensively by Pritykina (1981). The Blattodea of the Madygen Formation are extremely abundant (a quarter of all insect fossils collected), and some preserve details of the entire body. Roaches in the families †Caloblattinidae and †Spiloblattinidae are particularly common and diverse, though most species remain undescribed. Some species were given

5520-560: The Madygen Formation (sometimes described as Eoblattida or Protorthoptera , among other names) are very common (about 1500 specimens) and diverse (over 50 species). They were described most extensively by Storozhenko (1998). The † Miomoptera of the Madygen Formation are somewhat common (about 500 specimens), most or all of which belong to a single valid species. The Plecoptera of the Madygen Formation are rare (about 80 specimens) and somewhat low in diversity. They were described most extensively by Sinitchenkova (1987). The Embioptera of

5635-651: The Madygen Formation are rare and very low in diversity. Some Madygen mesorthopterids show similarities to alexarasniids, which may suggest that †Mesorthopteridae is ancestral to the embiopteran lineage. The Hemiptera of the Madygen Formation are extremely abundant (a quarter of all insect fossils collected) and very diverse, though most remain undescribed. By far the most common are small cicadomorphs (kin of treehoppers, leafhoppers, and cicadas), though large butterfly-like cicadas also occur. Fulguroidea (planthoppers) and Stenorrhyncha (aphids, whiteflies, jumping plant lice) are present but uncommon. The only heteropteran in

5750-582: The Madygen Formation are very common (about 1600 specimens) and fairly diverse (over 40 species). They were described most extensively by Ponomarenko & Rasnitsyn (1974), and Novokshonov (1997, 2001). The Trichoptera of the Madygen Formation are rare (fewer than 60 specimens) and low in diversity. The Diptera of the Madygen Formation are rare and somewhat low in diversity. They were described most extensively by Shcherbakov et al. (1995). Some purported Madygen dipterans wings may belong to four-winged insects instead. Psocoptera (book lice) are represented by

5865-783: The Norian to Rhaetian Tologoi Formation of Kazakhstan. Permochoristidae are also known from the Carnian Potrerillos and Cacheuta Formations of Argentina, Huangshanjie Formation of China, the Norian Blackstone and Mount Crosby Formations of Australia; the Norian to Rhaetian Tologoi Formation of Kazakhstan, the Sinemurian Dzhil Formation of Kyrgyzstan and the Toarcian Posidonia Shale of Germany. Orthophlebia had

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5980-617: The Pamirs. Not all the inhabitants of the area were happy with this state of affairs. In 1898 Muhammed Ali Khalfa proclaimed a jihad against the Russians. However, after about 20 Russians had been killed, Khalfa was captured and executed. When the 1905 Revolution spread across the Russian Empire, some Jadids were active in the Fergana Valley. When the Tsarist regime extended the military draft to include Muslims , this led to

6095-458: The actinopterygian families Evenkiidae ( Oshia ), Palaeoniscidae ( Ferganiscus , Sixtelia ) and Megaperleidus and Alvinia . The actinopterygian Saurichthys and the dipnoan Asiatoceratodus are cosmopolitan taxa also recorded in the Madygen Formation. Two distinctive elasmobranch egg capsule types, i.e. Palaeoxyris , indicating a small Lissodus - or Lonchidion -like hybodont shark and an indeterminate capsule type, imply

6210-677: The area, along with most of central Asia as fiefs from the Golden Horde of the Mongol Empire. The Fergana became part of a larger Turco-Mongol empire. This Mongolian nomadic confederation known as Barlas , were remnants of the original Mongol army of Genghis Khan . After the Mongol conquest of Central Asia, the Barlas settled in Turkistan (which then became also known as Moghulistan - "Land of Mongols") and intermingled to

6325-413: The city by Abdallah, the governor of Khurasan. By the time of Ahmad's death in 864 or 865, he was the ruler of most of Transoxiana , Bukhara and Khwarazm . Samarkand and Fergana went to his son, Nasr I of Samanid , leading to a series of Samanid dynasty Muslim rulers of the valley. During demise of Samanids in 10th century, Fergana Valley was conquered by Karakhanids . Eastern part of Fergana later

6440-419: The disappearance of the Paleo-Tethys Ocean . The Madygen Formation was emplaced at warm temperate latitudes ( 34° to 40° north) in a rift basin surrounded by old, eroded mountains, the ancestral Tien Shan Mountains . The climate was likely humid and moist year-round, as drying features such as mudcracks and evaporite deposits are absent. The formation grades from bottom to top from alluvial to fluvial into

6555-507: The distribution of aquatic plants is the availability of water. However, other abiotic factors may also control their distribution including nutrient availability, availability of carbon dioxide and oxygen, water temperature, characteristics of the substrate, water transparency, water movement, and salinity. Some aquatic plants are able to thrive in brackish, saline, and salt water . Also biotic factors like grazing, competition for light, colonization by fungi, and allelopathy are influencing

6670-399: The diversity of Madygen titanopterans is also reduced to seven species spread out across two genera ( Mesotitan and Gigatitan ). The Orthoptera of the Madygen Formation are very common (about 1400 specimens) and very diverse (over 100 species). Most species belong to the suborder Ensifera (kin of crickets, katydids, and grigs), with only a few Caelifera (kin of grasshoppers). None of

6785-456: The doorstep to China, and are today on display in the Xinjiang museum at Urumqi (Boardman). Of the Greco-Bactrians, the Greek historian Strabo too writes that: they extended their empire even as far as the Seres (Chinese) and the Phryni . The Fergana area, called Dayuan by the Chinese, remained an integral part of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom until after the time of Demetrius I of Bactria (c. 120 BC), when confronted with invasions by

6900-487: The enigmatic diapsid Longisquama . Reptiles are the most abundant of the tetrapod paleofauna at Madygen, with three described genera. Possible xenacanth denticles, egg cases, as well as hybodont fossils have also been reported from the formation. The high amount of juvenile individuals found suggest the freshwater systems at the Madygen Formation served as a spawning grounds and nursery's for these prehistoric elasmobranchs . The following fish fossils were found in

7015-421: The establishment of independent republics, borders have been strongly enforced, though the impact of the new international borders was minor until 1998–2000. Uzbekistan regularly closes its borders with Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, strangling trade and causing immense difficulties for those who live in the region. People in the Tajikistan city of Khujand traveling to the Tajik capital of Dushanbe , unable to take

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7130-488: The families survive to the present, and most are endemic to the Triassic. Madygen orthopterans were described most extensively by Sharov (1968) and Gorochov (1986, 1987, 1994, 2005). The Phasmatodea of the Madygen Formation are somewhat common (about 350 specimens) and somewhat low in diversity. All of the families were endemic to the Triassic. They were described most extensively by Sharov (1968) and Gorochov (1994). The Grylloblattodea and other basal polyneopterans of

7245-435: The fertile abundance of Fergana, as well as the possibility of purchasing further high-quality silk manufactured in Margilan . The most famous export from the region were the 'blood-sweating' Heavenly Horses which captured the imagination of the Chinese during the Han dynasty, but in fact these were almost certainly bred on the Steppe, either west of Bukhara or north of Tashkent , and merely brought to Fergana for sale. In

7360-415: The five months following April precipitation is rare, but increases in frequency starting in October. Snow and frost, down to −20 °C (−4 °F), occurs in December and January. Fergana, on the route to Tarim Basin from the west, remained at the boundaries of a number of classical era empires. As early as 500 BC, the western sections of the Fergana Valley formed part of the Sogdiana region, which

7475-445: The formation is an extremely rare basal Nepomorpha similar to Ochteroidea (toad bugs and velvety shore bugs). The Neuroptera of the Madygen Formation are uncommon (around 200 specimens) but diverse in form. Only a few species have been formally described. The Coleoptera of the Madygen Formation are extremely abundant (a quarter of all insect fossils collected) and diverse (over 70 named species and many more undescribed). By far

7590-430: The formation too, as well as minor fossil flora. The lake sediments of the Lagerstätte provided fossil cartilaginous fishes and their egg capsules and unusual Triassic reptiles like Sharovipteryx and Longisquama . The wide diversity of insect fossils was first discovered in the 1960s and first described by Russian paleontologist Aleksandr Sharov , with a notable example being Gigatitan . The Madygen Formation

7705-441: The formation: The Madygen Formation is renowned for its insect fauna, with an estimated 25,000 specimens, 500 species, 100 families, and 20 orders found in the formation. Under some estimates, it has the most diverse insect assemblage of the entire Permian-Triassic interval. From EDNA (The Fossil Insect Database) , Shcherbakov (2008), and the Paleobiology Database , unless cited otherwise: The Odonata and other Odonatoptera of

7820-440: The horse's power and celestial nature, reflecting the cultural reverence for horses and the era's craftsmanship. Integrating elements of movement and triumph, this sculpture connects deeply to ancient narratives of success and achievement, offering insights into the historical and artistic context of its time. After 250 BC, the city probably remained in contact with the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom centered on Bactria , especially when

7935-479: The important functions performed by macrophyte is uptake of dissolved nutrients including nitrogen and phosphorus. Macrophytes are widely used in constructed wetlands around the world to remove excess N and P from polluted water. Beside direct nutrient uptake, macrophytes indirectly influence nutrient cycling , especially N cycling through influencing the denitrifying bacterial functional groups that are inhabiting on roots and shoots of macrophytes. Macrophytes promote

8050-518: The lakebed sediments. The plant fossils of the Madygen Formation were reviewed in detail by Dobruskina (1995). Among the oldest known root nodules have been found in the Madygen Formation, though the exact nature of the plant-microbe interaction responsible remains unknown. Ferns are rare and poorly-preserved, though certain horsetails ( Neocalamites ) and lycopods ( Ferganadendron , Mesenteriophyllum, Isoetites ) are more common. Pteridosperms are abundant and diverse, making up more than half of all

8165-647: The leaves can photosynthesize more efficiently in air and competition from submerged plants but often, the main aerial feature is the flower and the related reproductive process. The emergent habit permits pollination by wind or by flying insects . There are many species of emergent plants, among them, the reed ( Phragmites ), Cyperus papyrus , Typha species, flowering rush and wild rice species. Some species, such as purple loosestrife , may grow in water as emergent plants but they are capable of flourishing in fens or simply in damp ground. Submerged macrophytes completely grow under water with roots attached to

8280-429: The leaves on the plant that grew while above water, along with oxygen levels being higher in the portion of the plant grown underwater versus the sections that grew in their terrestrial environment. This is considered a form of phenotypic plasticity as the plant, once submerged, experiences changes in morphology better suited to their new aquatic environment. However, while some terrestrial plants may be able to adapt in

8395-430: The leaves' thickness, shape and density and are the main factor responsible for the greatly reduced rate of gaseous transport across the leaf/water boundary and therefore greatly inhibit transport of carbon dioxide. To overcome this limitation, many aquatic plants have evolved to metabolise bicarbonate ions as a source of carbon. Environmental variables affect the instantaneous photosynthetic rates of aquatic plants and

8510-539: The maximum recorded maturity (Ro) is 0.8. During the 1960s, Russian paleontologists recovered an unusually rich fossil content in the type strata of the Madygen Formation, including abundant macrophytes , more than 20,000 insect remains and unique small reptiles with well preserved soft tissue. Spirorbis -like polychaete worm tubes, crustaceans ( ostracods , kazacharthrans , conchostracans , malacostraca), freshwater Bivalves and gastropods are known from shallow to deeper lake environments. Non-aquatic insects are among

8625-515: The more direct route through Uzbekistan, have to cross a high mountain pass between the two cities instead, along a terrible road. Communications between the Kyrgyzstan cities of Bishkek and Osh pass through difficult mountainous country. Ethnic tensions also flared into riots in 1990 , most notably in the town of Uzgen , near Osh. There has been no further ethnic violence, and things appeared to have quieted down for several years. However,

8740-489: The most abundant beetles are archostematans , particularly †Schizophoridae and cupedid-grade beetles (†Triadocupedidae, Ommatidae). They were described most extensively by Ponomarkenko (1966, 1969, 1977). The Hymenoptera of the Madygen Formation are rare (about 60 specimens), but with moderate diversity. All the species belong to the sawfly family Xyelidae, which still survives to the present. They were described most extensively by Rasnitsyn (1964, 1969). The Mecoptera of

8855-695: The most common fossil remains of the Madygen Formation, with half a thousand or so species having been uncovered from these sediments. This makes the Madygen Formation one of the most prolific insect fossil sites In the world. These include representatives of both extinct and extant orders, including the Ephemeroptera , Odonata , Notoptera , Blattodea , Titanoptera , Ensifera , Caelifera , Rhynchota , Auchenorrhyncha , Stenorrhyncha , Coleoptera , Hymenoptera , Trichoptera and Diptera . Traces of insect larvae are preserved in near-shore lake deposits. Fish remains mostly represent endemic genera assigned to

8970-474: The occurrence of macrophytes. Aquatic plants have adapted to live in either freshwater or saltwater. Aquatic vascular plants have originated on multiple occasions in different plant families; they can be ferns or angiosperms (including both monocots and dicots ). The only angiosperms capable of growing completely submerged in seawater are the seagrasses . Examples are found in genera such as Thalassia and Zostera . An aquatic origin of angiosperms

9085-651: The ouster of Kyrgyz President Kurmanbek Bakiyev in April 2010. In June 2010, about 200 people have been reported to be killed during clashes in Osh and Jalal-Abad , and 2000 more were injured. Between 100,000 and 300,000 refugees, predominantly of Uzbek ethnic origin, attempted to flee to Uzbekistan, causing a major humanitarian crisis. The area has also been subject to informal radicalization. In Tsarist times, out of some 1,200,000 ha (3,000,000 acres) of cultivated land, about two thirds were under constant irrigation and

9200-412: The photosynthetic enzymes pigments. In water, light intensity rapidly decreases with depth. Respiration is also higher in the dark per the unit volume of the medium they live in. Fully submerged aquatic plants have little need for stiff or woody tissue as they are able to maintain their position in the water using buoyancy typically from gas filled lacunaa or turgid Aerenchyma cells. When removed from

9315-579: The plant fossils recovered from the formation. Though subordinate to pteridosperms in terms of abundance, other gymnosperms are still quite diverse, and some of them ( Glossophyllum , Podozamites , Taeniopteris ) are far from uncommon. Progonocimicidae found in the formation are also recorded in the Carnian Los Rastros Formation of Argentina, the Norian Blackstone and Mount Crosby Formations of Australia, and

9430-563: The plants are not at risk of losing water through the stomata and therefore face no risk of dehydration. For carbon fixation, some aquatic angiosperms are able to uptake CO 2 from bicarbonate in the water, a trait that does not exist in terrestrial plants. Angiosperms that use HCO 3 - can keep CO 2 levels satisfactory, even in basic environments with low carbon levels. Due to their environment, aquatic plants experience buoyancy which counteracts their weight. Because of this, their cell covering are far more flexible and soft, due to

9545-430: The presence of two different elasmobranch species which used the freshwater environments of the Madygen Formation as spawning grounds. Tetrapods (and stem-tetrapods) are known from the mostly larval urodelan ( Triassurus ), a small procynosuchid cynodont ( Madysaurus ), a chroniosuchid reptiliomorph ( Madygenerpeton ), an early drepanosaurid reptile ( Kyrgyzsaurus ), a gliding archosauromorph ( Sharovipteryx ) and

9660-672: The principal products of the domestic or cottage industries. This was not greatly added to in Soviet times, when industrialisation was concentrated in the cities of Samarkand and Bukhara . Historically the Fergana Valley was an important staging-post on the Silk Road for goods and people traveling from China to the Middle East and Europe. After crossing the passes from Kashgar in Xinjiang, traders would have found welcome relief in

9775-523: The region was known to the Greeks as Cyropolis , named after Cyrus the Great. The Sogdian Rock or Rock of Ariamazes, a fortress in Sogdiana, was captured in 327 BC by the forces of Alexander the Great ; after an extended campaign putting down Sogdian resistance and founding military outposts manned by his Greek veterans, Alexander united Sogdiana with Bactria into one satrapy . In 329 BC, Alexander

9890-528: The remaining third under partial irrigation. The soil was considered by the authors of the article in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition to be admirably cultivated, the principal crops having been cotton, wheat , rice , barley , maize , millet , lucerne , tobacco , vegetables and fruit. Gardening was conducted with a high degree of skill and success. Large numbers of horses, cattle and sheep were kept, and

10005-512: The rich produce of China" ( Book of the Later Han ). Agricultural activities of the Dayuan reported by Zhang Qian included cultivation of grain and grapes for wine-making. The area of Fergana was thus the theater of the first major interaction between an urbanized culture speaking Indo-European languages and the Chinese civilization, which led to the opening up the Silk Road from the 1st century BC onwards. The Han later captured Dayuan in

10120-514: The sedimentation of suspended solids by reducing the current velocities, impede erosion by stabilising soil surfaces. Macrophytes also provide spatial heterogeneity in otherwise unstructured water column. Habitat complexity provided by macrophytes tends to increase diversity and density of both fish and invertebrates. The additional site-specific macrophytes' value provides wildlife habitat and makes treatment systems of wastewater aesthetically satisfactory. Some aquatic plants are used by humans as

10235-426: The short-term to an aquatic habitat, it may not be possible to reproduce underwater, especially if the plant usually relies on terrestrial pollinators . Based on growth form, macrophytes can be characterised as: An emergent plant is one which grows in water but pierces the surface so that it is partially exposed to air. Collectively, such plants are emergent vegetation . This habit may have developed because

10350-525: The south of the valley, in the spurs of the Turkestan ridge, there is the Madygen fossil locality , in which more than 15 thousand fossils of Triassic plants ( Ginkgoales , cycads , ferns , Neocalamitaceae ) and animals ( insects , crustaceans , fishes , amphibians ) were discovered. The most numerous are insect fossils which include the large Gigatitan from the extinct order Titanoptera with

10465-492: The specialized root / rhizoid system of plants. Instead, seaweeds have holdfasts that only serve as anchors and have no absorptive functions . Aquatic plants require special adaptations for prolonged inundation in water, and for floating at the water surface. The most common adaptation is the presence of lightweight internal packing cells, aerenchyma , but floating leaves and finely dissected leaves are also common. Aquatic plants only thrive in water or in soil that

10580-607: The stem and root of Ludwigia adscendens , as well as those of the fruit, leaf and stem of Monochoria hastata were found to have lipoxygenase inhibitory activity. Hot water extract prepared from the leaf of Ludwigia adscendens exhibits alpha-glucosidase inhibitory activity more potent than that of acarbose . Macrophytes have an essential role in some forms of wastewater treatment, most commonly in small scale sewage treatment using constructed wetlands or in polishing lagoons for larger schemes. The introduction of non-native aquatic plants has resulted in numerous examples across

10695-616: The substrate (e.g. Myriophyllum spicatum ) or without any root system (e.g. Ceratophyllum demersum ). Helophytes are plants that grow partly submerged in marshes and regrow from buds below the water surface. Fringing stands of tall vegetation by water basins and rivers may include helophytes. Examples include stands of Equisetum fluviatile , Glyceria maxima , Hippuris vulgaris , Sagittaria , Carex , Schoenoplectus , Sparganium , Acorus , yellow flag ( Iris pseudacorus ), Typha and Phragmites australis . Floating-leaved macrophytes have root systems attached to

10810-769: The substrate or bottom of the body of water and with leaves that float on the water surface. Common floating leaved macrophytes are water lilies (family Nymphaeaceae ), pondweeds (family Potamogetonaceae ). Free-floating macrophytes are found suspended on water surface with their root not attached to the substrate, sediment , or bottom of the water body. They are easily blown by air and provide breeding ground for mosquitoes. Examples include Pistia spp. commonly called water lettuce, water cabbage or Nile cabbage. The many possible classifications of aquatic plants are based upon morphology. One example has six groups as follows: Macrophytes perform many ecosystem functions in aquatic ecosystems and provide services to human society. One of

10925-459: The surface of the water. Some still-water plants can alter their position in the water column at different seasons. One notable example is Water soldier which rests as a rootless rosette on the bottom of the water body but slowly floats to the surface in late Spring so that its inflorescence can emerge into the air. While it is ascending through the water column it produces roots and vegetative daughter plants by means of rhizomes . When flowering

11040-500: The surface. Although most aquatic angiosperms can reproduce by flowering and setting seeds, many have also evolved to have extensive asexual reproduction by means of rhizomes , turions , and fragments in general. Submerged aquatic plants have more restricted access to carbon as carbon dioxide compared to terrestrial plants. They may also experience reduced light levels. In aquatic plants diffuse boundary layers (DBLs) around submerged leaves and photosynthetic stems vary based on

11155-712: The throne. During the 8th century, Fergana was the location of fierce rivalry between Tang dynasty China and the expansion of Muslim power. The Umayyads waged several wars against the Sogdian and Turkic population. They were defeated by the Turgesh who came dominated the Ferghana Valley until their defeat by Tang in 750. At the same time, the Abbasids defeated the Umayyads and sent their forces to Central Asia. This

11270-443: The transition from an aquatic to terrestrial habitat. Terrestrial plants no longer had unlimited access to water and had to evolve to search for nutrients in their new surroundings as well as develop cells with new sensory functions, such as statocytes . Terrestrial plants may undergo physiological changes when submerged due to flooding. When submerged, new leaf growth has been found to have thinner leaves and thinner cell walls than

11385-598: The valley into a series of small states. From the 16th century, the Shaybanid dynasty of the Khanate of Bukhara ruled Fergana, replaced by the Janid dynasty of Bukhara in 1599. In 1709 Shaybanid emir Shahrukh of the Minglar Uzbeks declared independence from the Khanate of Bukhara , establishing a state in the eastern part of the Fergana Valley. He built a citadel to be his capital in the small town of Kokand . As

11500-405: The valley is a religiously conservative region which was particularly hard-hit by President Karimov 's secularization legislation in Uzbekistan, together with his decision to close the borders with Kyrgyzstan in 2003. This devastated the local economy by preventing the importation of cheap Chinese consumer goods. The deposition of Askar Akayev in Kyrgyzstan in April 2005, coupled with the arrest of

11615-403: The valley is ethnically diverse and relations among the countries are tense. Ethnic enclaves of Uzbeks in Kyrgyz sovereign territory, restricted right of movement, lack of agreement about border demarcation and disputes over access to family members and places of economic activity contribute to tension at the borders. Located in an arid region, the Fergana valley owes its fertility to two rivers,

11730-689: The water body. Such problems may be the result of excessive turbidity , herbicides , or salination . Conversely, overly high nutrient levels may create an overabundance of macrophytes, which may in turn interfere with lake processing . Macrophyte levels are easy to sample, do not require laboratory analysis, and are easily used for calculating simple abundance metrics. Phytochemical and pharmacological researches suggest that freshwater macrophytes, such as Centella asiatica , Nelumbo nucifera , Nasturtium officinale , Ipomoea aquatica and Ludwigia adscendens , are promising sources of anticancer and antioxidative natural products. Hot water extracts of

11845-564: The water flow, capture sediments and trap pollutants . Excess sediment will settle into the stream bed due to the reduced flow rates, and some aquatic plants also have symbiotic microbes capable of nitrogen fixation and breaking down the pollutants trapped and/or absorbed by the roots. Historically, aquatic plants have been less studied than terrestrial plants , and management of aquatic vegetation has become an increasingly interested field as means to reduce agricultural pollution of water bodies . The principal factor controlling

11960-437: The water surface. Aquatic plants are important primary producers and are the basis of food web for many aquatic fauna , especially wetland species. They compete with phytoplanktons for excess nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus , thus reducing the prevalence of eutrophication and harmful algal blooms , and have a significant effect on riparian soil chemistry as their leaves , stems and roots slow down

12075-618: The water, such plants are typically limp and lose turgor rapidly. Those living in rivers do, however, need sufficient structural xylem to avoid being damaged by fast flowing water and they also need strong mechanisms of attachment to avoid being uprooted by river flow. Many fully submerged plants have finely dissected leaves, probably to reduce drag in rivers and to provide a much increased surface area for interchange of minerals and gasses. Some species of plants such as Ranunculus aquatilis have two different leaf forms with finely dissected leaves that are fully submerged and entire leaves on

12190-419: The whole body of many ponds to the almost total exclusion of other plants and wildlife Other notable invasive plant species include floating pennywort , Curly leaved pondweed , the fern ally Water fern and Parrot's feather . Many of these invasive plants have been sold as oxygenating plants for aquaria or decorative plants for garden ponds and have then been disposed of into the environment. In 2012,

12305-416: The world of such plants becoming invasive and frequently dominating the environments into which they have been introduced. Such species include Water hyacinth which is invasive in many tropical and sub-tropical locations including much of the southern US, many Asian countries and Australia. New Zealand stonecrop is a highly invasive plant in temperate climates spreading from a marginal plant to encompassing

12420-412: Was a superficially mantis-like diurnal predator with a wingspan of approximately 40 centimetres (16 in). Like other large titanopterans, it was probably a poor flier which primarily used its wings to produce sounds or flashes of light for courtship of defensive purposes. Note: Béthoux (2007) considers †Titanoptera to simply be a suborder of orthopterans, rather than its own order. Under this system,

12535-675: Was instrumental in the assimilation of the Timurid elite to the Perso-Islamic courtly culture. Heir to one of these confederations, Timur , founder of the Timurid dynasty , added the valley to a newly consolidated empire in the late 14th century, ruling the area from Samarkand . Located on the Northern Silk Road , the Fergana played a significant part in the flowering of medieval Central Asian Islam. Its most famous son

12650-512: Was leading to the Battle of Talas in 751, which resulted in a victory for the Abbasids and the disengagement of China from Central Asia. Two antecedent battles in 715 and 717 had seen the Chinese prevail over Arab forces. A series of Arab, Persian, and later Turkic Muslim rulers reigned over the Fergana. The Samanid Empire , rising from the Arab Muslim conquest of Persia , pushed into what

12765-426: Was made a part of it. This blocked the valley's natural outlet and the routes to Samarkand and Bukhara, but none of these borders was of any great significance so long as Soviet rule lasted. The whole region was part of a single economy geared to cotton production on a massive scale, and the overarching political structures meant that crossing borders was not a problem. With the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 and

12880-634: Was ruled from further west and owed fealty to the Achaemenid Empire at the time of Darius the Great . The independent and warlike Sogdiana formed a border region insulating the Achaemenid Persians from the nomadic Scythians to the north and east. It was forcibly settled by exiled Greeks from the Anatolian coast, who had rebelled or otherwise given Persia trouble. Eventually, it had a significant Greek community. The capital of

12995-736: Was subjugated by the Tang dynasty The Kingdom of Ferghana was ruled by the Ikhshids , who submitted as vassal to the Chinese Tang between 659 and 790. It was attacked by the Tibetan Empire in 715. The Umayyad Caliphate in 715 deposed the ruler, and installed a new king Alutar on the throne. The Chinese sent 10,000 troops under Zhang Xiaosong to Ferghana. He defeated Alutar and the Arab occupation force at Namangan and reinstalled Ikhshid on

13110-504: Was then called Greater Khorasan , including Transoxiana and the Fergana Valley from the West. In 819, Ahmad ibn Asad —son of Asad ibn Saman —was granted authority over the city of Fergana by Caliph Al-Ma'mun 's governor of Khorasan , Ghassan ibn 'Abbad, as a reward for his support against the rebel Rafi' ibn Laith . Following the death of his brother Nuh , who ruled in Samarkand, Ahmad and another brother Yahya were given rule over

13225-511: Was under suzerenaity of Karakhitays . Karakhanid rule lasted till 1212, when Khwarezmshahs conquered the western part of the valley. Genghis Khan invaded Transoxiana and Fergana in 1219 during his conquest of Khwarazm . Before his death in 1227, he assigned the lands of Western Central Asia to his second son Chagatai , and this region became known as the Chagatai Khanate . But it was not long before Transoxian Turkic leaders ruled

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